After studying chapter 5, the bachelor should:

know

• theories and technologies of training, education and spiritual development of the individual, accompanying subjects pedagogical process;
• methods of psychological and pedagogical study of students;
• ways of interaction of the teacher with various subjects of the pedagogical process;
• ways of professional self-knowledge and self-development;

be able to

• design the educational process using modern technologies corresponding to general and specific patterns and features age development personality;
• create a pedagogically appropriate and psychologically safe educational environment;
• use modern educational resources in the educational process;

own

• ways to prevent deviant behavior and offenses;
• ways of interaction with other subjects of the educational process;
• ways of design and innovation activities in education;
• ways to improve professional knowledge and skills.

Fundamentals of Educational Psychology

From educational psychology to educational psychology. Psychological foundations of the subjectivity of education. Psychology research activities as the basis for the development of the subjectivity of education. Development of giftedness in education.

From educational psychology to the psychology of education

Active development of the psychology of education at the beginning of the XXI century. as a special direction psychological science and practice can be considered as a new stage in the development of the basic problems of psychological and pedagogical knowledge, the foundations of which were laid at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. in the context of educational psychology.

The beginning of the formation of educational psychology as a separate area of ​​psychological knowledge and practice in our country is largely associated with the name Petr Fedorovich Kapterev(1849–1922) ("Pedagogical psychology", 1883; 1914). The term itself has been introduced into scientific circulation in our country since 1874, when the journal "People's School" begins to publish chapters from the forthcoming book by P. F. Kapterev "Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators" (A separate supplement to the journal was published in 1876.) This work, already by its title, shows the general direction of the emerging branch of knowledge: the promotion of educational practices in their pedagogical activity arming them with psychological knowledge.

The main accents in their works Π. F. Kapterev focused on the psychological foundations of the educational process. At the same time, he considered the educational process as "an expression of the internal self-activity of the human body", as "the development of abilities". At the same time, the natural, social and personal components of the process of human education were touched upon. Although the main works of this period were based on descriptive method, they gave a deep analysis of the psychological potentials of the existing cultural means of development (game, fairy tale, etc.).

S. L. Rubinshtein in 1922 published an article "Principles of creative amateur activity. On the philosophical foundations modern pedagogy", which in many ways can be considered as the beginning of the formation of a theoretical direction in the psychology of education, based on the activity basis of understanding the nature of personality development as a process of becoming a subjectivity.

This article contains the basic idea, the potential of which, perhaps, began to be actively developed only in last years within the framework of the psychology of education - "the creator himself is created in creativity." "By the same act of creative amateur activity, creating both him and himself, a personality is created and determined, only by being included in its embracing whole" . At the same time, it is noted that "complete individuality does not mean isolated singularity" .

In the 1920s. actively developed pedology - as a special area of ​​psychological and pedagogical science and practice, associated with the names of Π. P. Blonsky, M. Ya. Basov, L. S. Vygotsky.

Pedology(from the Greek παιδός - child and λόγος - knowledge) - a direction in science that aimed to combine the approaches of various sciences (medicine, biology, psychology, pedagogy) to the development of the child. The term has now retained only a historical meaning. Most of the productive scientific results of pedological research were included in age psychology, childhood psychology and educational psychology.

In 1926, L. S. Vygotsky's book "Pedagogical Psychology" was published, which largely determined the further line of development of educational psychology. This fundamental work began with a discussion of the problem of the psychology of reaction and behavior, the most important laws of higher nervous activity of a person, i.e. the role of biological (natural) factors of development. The paper discusses the psychological nature and pedagogical possibilities for the development of emotions and feelings, attention, memory, imagination, and thinking. The significance of the social situation of development in the formation of a person is determined. A large number of questions are raised that have now become separate areas of psychology: the psychology of giftedness and creativity, differential psychology (the problem of temperament and character), the problem of the development of higher mental functions (a tool and a sign in mental development), personality psychology (the problem of its study). The key issue of the book was the problem of the relationship between learning and development, the proposed solution of which, given by L. S. Vygotsky, largely determines the psychological basis for building effective pedagogical interaction in the educational process. Not only domestic psychologists and teachers now rely on this approach, but it is fully accepted by almost the entire world psychological science and pedagogical practice.

Second half of the 20th century full of in-depth research in the field of educational psychology. These studies revealed the developing potential of communication (M. I. Lisina), gaming activity (D. B. Elkonin), motivation and will (L. I. Bozhovich), learning activities(V.V. Davydov) and others. If we analyze the works of leading domestic psychologists of this period, which have become classic for the psychology of education, then we can safely say that the semantic dominant in most of them is the problem of becoming an active, active personality. The prerequisites, conditions and internal position were discussed as determinants of the formation of not only a social unit, but rather a unique personality (V. S. Mukhina).

As a matter of fact, in domestic psychology the main vector of development psychological research for almost 150 years, in one way or another, he was in many ways in line with educational psychology. However, with the development of psychological science in general, as well as in connection with the active development of psychological practice in recent decades, the directions, problems and methods of research assigned to the specialty "Pedagogical psychology" have been greatly reduced when compared with the original circle. scientific problems, developed in the works of Π. F. Kapterev, L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein.

In recent decades, works on educational psychology have dealt mainly with the subject of the psychological foundations of learning (N. F. Talyzina), as well as the formation of the subject of learning as a result of specially organized pedagogical influences (I. A. Zimnyaya). In some cases (but for a long time not in all) the problems of the psychology of education and the psychology of pedagogical influence are also touched upon. Most contemporary works questions on educational psychology social psychology education, as well as questions about the internal resources of personality development, although to a certain extent they are key in the actual psychological component of psychological and pedagogical problems.

In this regard, it is no coincidence that such a direction of psychological science and practice as "psychology of education ", which has its own specifics, but is inextricably linked with educational psychology.

Psychology of education can be considered as direction fundamental research patterns of development and functioning of society and personality, the relationship of natural, social, cultural and individual in the development of the human in a person, mechanisms, means and ways of transforming development into self-development. The psychology of education reveals significant issues of the cultural development of a person in ontogeny, psychological mechanisms and processes of development of higher mental functions, cognitive abilities, personal potentials and abilities.

Psychology of education can be understood as an actively developing branch of applied psychology. The psychology of education allows, based on an understanding of the patterns mental development and personal development of a person, to build adequate social conditions of educational systems with the aim of effective socialization of a person through introducing him to spiritual wealth culture and bringing to the active position of the subject of creative activity.

Psychology of education in the applied aspect:

• - accompanies the socio-psychological positions of the teacher and the student in a situation of their interaction in the process of training and education;
• - sets the psychological foundations for creating effective conditions for development cognitive processes students, allows you to most effectively and productively build the educational process;
• - provides psychological support for the individual educational trajectory of each student, taking into account his age potentials, personal characteristics and the social situation of development;
• - contributes to the mental, physical, spiritual development of a person and the educational community;
• - sets guidelines and criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of educational conditions for the development of cognitive processes, personal potentials, and abilities of students.

In the socio-organizational aspect of the psychology of education became an applied industry, institutionalized in the form psychological service in education. In the scientific aspect, the psychological service in education sets the methodological and theoretical foundations for the development of programs, methods, means and methods for applying psychological knowledge in specific educational conditions. In the applied aspect, the psychological service in education implements the psychological support of the entire process of education and upbringing, including the analysis and psychological foundations of didactic and teaching materials. In a practical aspect, the psychological service in education carries out the direct work of psychologists in educational institutions different type and special centers for the purpose of psychological support for students, teachers, social community of educational institutions.

The semantic dominant of the development of the psychology of education, laid back at the beginning of the 20th century, it is possible to determine the assistance the formation of the subjective position of a person on the basis of understanding the patterns of mental development of the individual.

At the same time, we can consider education itself in several aspects:

• 1. Education as one of the fundamentally important functions of society, ensuring the reproduction and development of the society itself and systems of activity, addressed to each individual for the purpose of its development and socialization. The process of education is realized through the transmission of culture and social norms in changing historical situations, on the basis of new material. social relations continuously replacing each other by generations of people. In its functional respect, education is distributed throughout the entire system of human relations.
• 2. Education as an organized process is carried out by special social institutions, established in the system of institutions and social associations. For some social institutions, education is the main content of activity, defining goals, values, subculture and self-determination of people (school of all levels, teaching profession). For other social institutions, the meaning of their existence is not limited to the implementation of the function of education, but without it they are unthinkable (family, state, church). In viable and dynamic societies, all structures, institutions and social actors are involved in the implementation of the function of education in one form or another.
• 3. Education as a process of development of a person's mental and personal potentials, his socialization, the formation of his subjectivity in relation to the world, others, activities, himself. Education can be understood as the process and result of the assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of universal and special abilities, the formation of a worldview and the appropriation of certain forms of life activity.

In the process of education, there is a transfer from generation to generation of the spiritual wealth that mankind has developed, the assimilation of the results of socio-historical knowledge reflected in the sciences of nature, society, technology and art, as well as the mastery of skills, abilities, and abilities in activity. The primary basis of education at the personal level is the appropriation of action experience through imitation and imitation (K. Lorenz, R. Chauvin, etc.), independent research activity (I. P. Pavlov, A. N. Poddyakov, etc.), as well as appropriation of the mode of action through internalization sign systems(according to L. S. Vygotsky). The main way of obtaining education in modern social conditions is training and education in various educational institutions. Self-education, cultural and educational work, participation in socially significant activities also play a significant role in the assimilation of knowledge, mental and moral development of a person.

Thus, we can consider education at three different levels:

• 1) sociocultural - as a function of self-reproduction and development of society and culture;
• 2) institutional - as a specially organized process of purposeful influence on the process of development and socialization of a person, carried out by special social institutions that have developed into a system of institutions and social associations;
• 3) personal - as a process of development of a person's mental and personal potentials, the formation of his subjectivity in relation to the world, others, activities, himself.

At the same time, education, both at the institutional and personal levels, always takes place in specific historical socio-cultural realities. Since these realities are becoming more and more dynamic, changes are naturally required both in the process and conditions of education.

• Kapterev A. F. Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators. St. Petersburg: Printing house of A. M. Kotomin, 1976.
• Rubinstein S. L. Principles of creative amateur performance. On the philosophical foundations of modern pedagogy // S. L. Rubinshtein. Selected philosophical and psychological works. Fundamentals of ontology, logic and psychology. Moscow: Nauka, 1997, pp. 433–438.
• There.
• Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. Moscow: ACT; Astrel; Keeper, 2008.

Definition 1

Pedagogical psychology is an applied branch of psychology, which arose due to the demands of theoretical pedagogy and educational practice.

Definition 2

mass education- the achievement of civilization, and at the same time the condition for the development of mankind.

In the human psyche, those aspects that are associated with educational process. This process occupies one of the main places in the life of a modern person, so there is no need to argue the importance of the practical application of educational psychology. Training and education need psychological support.

The subject of educational psychology

The subject of pedagogical psychology is the phenomena, the laws of their development associated with the learning process, as well as the mechanisms of the psyche of the subjects of education. The subjects of the educational process are pupils, students, listeners and teachers, teachers. Pedagogical psychology is engaged in a purposeful study of the structure and dynamics of the psychological image in the process of education and upbringing.

Remark 1

Educational psychology has many tasks determined by the characteristics of the educational process.

Definition 3

Education- this is the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person in the learning process.

An educated person in life is a literate, well-read, erudite person. If we talk about education in a broad sense, then the process and result of education is the creation of a person, his formation as a person. That is, it is fundamental qualitative change, retooling the psyche and personality. The promotion of personality development, its self-realization and self-change is called education. Therefore, the level of education is not determined by the number of years that are intended for training. Distinguish education: primary, secondary, secondary special, higher. These gradations are conditional. The end result is education. This is something more than certificates, diplomas and certificates. The acquired knowledge changes the consciousness of a person, his attitude to the world only in conjunction with the process of education. Human education is not only education, but also the construction of an image of one's own personality, the assimilation of patterns of social and professional behavior. The educational process must certainly be educational and comprehensive.

It seems that this statement is obvious. But in the history of Russian education, the ideas of withdrawing education from the educational process have recently been heard. Training and education cannot be applied separately; they are inextricably linked, however, like consciousness and thinking, like the psyche and personality. In order for training and education to be effective, special social conditions and pedagogical efforts are required, a state educational system and professional training of teachers are needed.

Tasks of educational psychology

These are five main tasks that intersect, depend on each other, that is, are not only psychological:

• a comprehensive study of the student's psyche;
• psychological justification and selection educational material;
• development of methods of training and education and their psychological testing;
• the study of the psyche professional activity teacher;
• participation in the development of theoretical issues in the field of pedagogical knowledge.

Definition 4

Comprehensive study of the student's psyche is an organized, purposeful study. It is carried out in order to optimize and individualize the educational process, which in turn contributes to the formation of competent psychological support in the course of training and education.

Here it is necessary to solve many problems of a particular nature and a general psychological plan in order to answer the question about the main subject of the process: who is learning?

To identify the psychological characteristics of the personality of each student, it is necessary to use all the parameters psychological structure personalities: needs, self-awareness, abilities, temperament, character, features of mental processes and states, mental experience of the individual.

Psychological substantiation and selection of educational material to be mastered. The solution of this problem gives an answer to the question: what to teach? The issues of the content side, the volume of educational material, the choice of compulsory, selective, elective disciplines are considered. There are no unambiguous answers to many questions, everything depends on culture, traditions, educational policy. The school prepares a person not only for the future work activity, but also for the whole life. During a person's life, changes may occur, for example, he will be forced to change his profession.

Remark 2

Therefore, education should be sufficiently broad and comprehensive. It is impossible to teach everyone and everything, but it is necessary to promote the development of the individual in the process of education and training.

The third task answers the question: how to teach? Developed and tested pedagogical methods, technologies of training and education.

The study of the psyche and professional activity of a teacher answers the question: who teaches? In this part, both social and psychological problems are raised. Can anyone become a teacher? What are the professionally significant qualities of a teacher? What should be his socio-psychological and material status? How to improve the skills of a teacher and ensure his self-realization?

The fifth task is the initial, theoretically significant one. Participation in the development of theoretical and practical issues, where the goals of public education, training and education are considered. Here, scientists are looking for an answer to the question: why teach? Without a clearly formulated goal, a controlled educational process cannot exist, and forecasting, verification and evaluation of results are also impossible. The goal is to determine what kind of person the society plans to create in the course of the educational process. The question of why to teach goes far beyond the boundaries of psychological science. But without the participation of psychology, it is hardly possible to correctly answer this question. It is necessary to take into account the human factor and the implementation of the ideology of "human relations" in education.

To solve these and many other problems of education, the following directions have been developed:

• psychology of learning;
• psychology of education;
• psychology of work and the personality of the teacher.

The first two sections of educational psychology are devoted to the psyche of the subject being taught. Currently, the psychology of learning is more developed. There are scientific schools, concepts. Particularly important is the formation and interpretation of the theoretical categories and concepts of the section. Methods, psychological and pedagogical constructions, pedagogical techniques are derived from the foundations of the scientific and conceptual apparatus. Although many modern authors pass them off as psychological and pedagogical innovations. Unfortunately, the human personality and its psychological characteristics are often lost behind schemes and designs.

Pedagogical psychology, an interdisciplinary science. Any task of pedagogical psychology is multidisciplinary and complex. The educational process is studied by philosophy, medicine, sociology, etc. All aspects of the educational process go to the person, the subject of education. Not all positions of domestic scientific psychology are indisputable. Questions cause early profiling of training, simplification and reduction school programs, the presence of two steps higher education, widespread testing. We will attribute these phenomena to the transitional stage of the Russian educational system and its modernization. In general, domestic psychologists believe that education should be reasonable, verified, superfluous, ahead of today's society and today's student. Its main goal is to work for the future, to be developing and educating.

Interdisciplinary nature of educational psychology

Educational psychology is necessarily located in another section of applied psychology: legal, sports, medical, or includes sections of modern psychology.

Definition 5

Child psychology is inextricably linked with pedagogical. A child is a qualitatively different person, according to J. Piaget, therefore, it is necessary to train and educate him in a special way at different stages of growing up. It is impossible to build an educational process without taking into account age characteristics.

Development and learning are in complex interaction and are an urgent problem modern education. The fact is that learning and development take place at this stage in new social conditions. The subjects of the educational process have become qualitatively different. All this requires systematic research in the psychological and interdisciplinary areas and direct access to mass educational practice in schools and universities.

Education exists in society, so the presence of socio-psychological issues in educational psychology is necessary. Public, state and personal tasks of the subjects of education may not only not coincide, but also be in conflict. For example, society does not need so many lawyers, economists and bank employees. Objectively, there are not enough representatives of engineering and working professions. It is necessary to coordinate desires and needs, this is the task of state structures. However, in order to optimally solve this problem, the work of psychologists is needed.

Remark 3

The teacher works not only with the student as an individual, but also with a small social group, parents, colleagues. All influences of society on the educational process must be planned, taken into account, measured, coordinated.

One of the main ones is the connection between pedagogical psychology and pedagogy. They have common goals and methods, identical scientific objects, the scientific community - the Russian Academy of Education, common historical roots. The organization of the psychological and pedagogical process was carried out by K.D. Ushinsky, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.S. Makarenko. There are examples of systematic and eclectic combination of these two directions, there are models for the construction of modern psychodidactics. Scientific and practical psychological and pedagogical directions are being worked out.

The future teacher begins his studies at the university according to the psychological and pedagogical triad: psychology - pedagogy - private teaching methods. Such a bunch subjects is a feature of professional and pedagogical education in Russia. This triad provides psychological and pedagogical literacy and culture of students, future teachers. The subject of the teacher's professional work includes not only knowledge of the discipline, but also interaction with the student. The professionalism of the teacher lies in the knowledge of the subject being taught and in the assimilation of pedagogical theories and techniques. The real psychological and pedagogical education of a teacher can only be complex and holistic.

Remark 4

It must be said that the triad has a number of unresolved issues, methodological inconsistencies and shortcomings. There is no proper methodological, conceptual and operational continuity in the mass teaching of these disciplines. There are meaningful repetitions, inconsistencies in interpretations, especially psychological phenomena.

The psychological and pedagogical triad cannot always be realized as a single cycle of disciplines. Modern psychology and pedagogy are in a complex, often opposing relationship, which is acceptable in academic science. With regard to educational practice, this provision is not desirable. School teacher should not be a professional psychologist, but psychological preparedness and education should not be reduced to a minimum. A school psychologist does not have to be a teacher, but for the effectiveness and usefulness of psychological work, he must be familiar with pedagogical theories and the daily realities of the educational process.

If you notice a mistake in the text, please highlight it and press Ctrl+Enter

1. Pedagogical psychology as a science. Subject, tasks and structure of pedagogical psychology. The place of educational psychology in the system of human sciences.

Pedagogical psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, abilities, skills, explores individual differences in these processes, the patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers the relationship between the teacher and the student, the relationship between students .
AT structure educational psychology can be divided into areas:
-psychology of educational activity (as a unity of educational and pedagogical activity);
- psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student);
-psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer);
-psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
Thus, subject pedagogical psychology are facts, mechanisms and patterns of development of sociocultural experience by a person, patterns of intellectual and personal development the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process.
tasks are the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.
Pedagogy explores the following issues:
-study of the essence and patterns of development and formation of personality and their impact on education;
-determination of the goals of education;
- development of the content of education;
-research and development of methods of education.
There are many different classifications of sciences, in most of them educational psychology occupies an intermediate position between several categories. This is due to a wide range of issues that psychology deals with and the methods that are used in this case. In some classifications, in addition to the humanities and natural sciences, social sciences (sociology, political science) are also distinguished - a significant part of modern psychology can be attributed to this group. Soviet psychologist B.G. Ananiev pointed to the place of psychology as the core of the system of human sciences.

2. Modern interpretations of educational psychology (I. S. Yakimanskaya, A. P. Lobanov, N. F. Vishnyakova , Ya. L. Kolominsky). Problems and methodological principles of pedagogical psychology.
I.S. Yakimanskaya believes that the subject of educational psychology as an academic discipline should be not so much the analysis of the products of the student's activity, i.e. its end result (although it important aspect teachings), how much is the process of achieving (obtaining) the product - knowledge, i.e. ways of mastering knowledge, which by their nature are individual, and therefore variable. They do not obey the law of "large numbers", they need not so much quantitative as qualitative analysis (description). Significant emphasis in modern educational psychology should be placed on the study of learning as an individual cognitive activity (in contrast to learning as a specially organized, socially significant activity).
The ratio of training and development in this context acquires a different content. Development, obeying the law of internalization, is ensured not by the transformation of learning into learning, but by the use of the internal reserves of each child to organize (implement) his teaching. With this understanding, learning becomes not a goal, but a means of development. It does this, of course, important role, but on the condition that it activates (stimulates, directs) the personal potential of each student; provides an educational trajectory for his individual development.
The educational standard (mandatory for everyone) is provided with a variable didactic material that allows the student to show individual selectivity to the content, type, type and form of the knowledge being given in order to effectively assimilate it.
The teaching methodology should provide the student with the freedom to choose how to work out the program material, and not just introduce them to the logical techniques developed in the system of scientific knowledge.
Pedagogical psychology is thus called upon to develop the theoretical foundations of psychodidactics). This presupposes knowledge not only of the scientific field, but also of the peculiarities of its organization; representation of its empirical material, the nature of its classification, generalization.
Thus, in her opinion, educational psychology studies, designs, organizes complex educational processes that, on the one hand, ensure the socialization of the individual through training, and on the other hand, contribute to its formation as an individual in the dynamics of age development.
A.P. Lobanov clarifies the principles on which educational psychology should be built:
1. The principle of the unity of consciousness (psyche) and activity - the psyche is formed and manifested in activity
2. The principle of development (genetic conditioning) - every studied mental phenomenon is considered as the result of a certain development, in its specific history
3. The principle of determinism - the conditionality of psychological processes by external and internal factors
4. The principle of objectivity - the researcher does not influence the results obtained.
Noteworthy are studies devoted to the formation of the teacher's personality, the most important component of which is pedagogical communication. Data from a number of studies conducted by A.A. Bodalev, Ya.L. Kolominsky, S.V. Kondratieva, N.V. Kuzmina, A.A. Leontiev, V.S. Merlin, A.V. Mudrik and others, convince how important the issues of improving pedagogical skills, optimizing pedagogical communication, developing an individual style of activity and communication of a teacher.
Among the various factors of the success of pedagogical activity, an important role belongs to the properties of the teacher's personality. Considering a teacher as a professional, it is necessary to place special emphasis on the fact that his personal characteristics will be a working tool in his activities. Ya.L.Kolominsky highlights such system components as constitutional factors, organizational and communicative qualities, motivational structure, emotional and characterological basis, as well as the style of pedagogical communication.
The problems of pedagogical psychology are analyzed on the basis of a personal-activity approach in the general context of the main trends in the development of modern education. According to this approach,
a) in the center of the educational process is the student himself, the formation of his personality by means of this particular academic subject,
b) the educational process implies the organization and management of the educational activities of students, aimed at their comprehensive development and mastery of subject knowledge.
In accordance with the personal-activity approach to learning, a number of problems arise that today form the foundation of educational psychology. Of these, the key ones are:

the interaction of the teacher and students as an educational cooperation of equal partners, aimed at solving educational and cognitive problems;
psychological characteristics of the teacher and students as subjects of educational activities and pedagogical communication;
psychological features of the educational activity itself;
psychological mechanisms and patterns of assimilation, etc.

3. The history of the formation and development of educational psychology.

The development of pedagogical psychology is an uneven process in which 3 stages are conditionally distinguished:
First stage- since the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. – can be called general didactic. The contribution of educators - thinkers to the development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the range of the problems that they considered: the relationship of development, training and education; the creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development, the role of the teacher's personality, the organization of training, and many others. In works Ya.A.Komensky(“Great Didactics”, “Laws of a Well-Organized School”, “Mother's School”) contained ideas about the relationship between learning and development of a child and a student, about the influence of a teacher's characteristics on the effectiveness of the learning process, etc. Kapterev wrote that his didactics "lacks psychology", that Comenius exaggerates the importance of methods. I. Pestalozzi- paid great attention to the atmosphere in the classroom, showed how the personality of the teacher affects the development of the child, proved that learning activities depend on the activity, on the creativity of the child himself. A. Diesterweg considers the educational process as a unity of the student - the subject being taught, the teacher, the subject being studied and the learning conditions. Self-improvement, taking into account the characteristics of the student and the energy of the teacher's actions are the key and basis for educative education. I. Herbart showed the inextricable link between education and upbringing, introduced the concept of "educational education", described the stages of development of the child's cognitive interest. Herbart's didactics is characterized by one-sided intellectualism, i.e. I saw the basis of learning in the development of memory, thinking, attention. Herbart is considered the founder of "authoritarian pedagogy", he made the greatest contribution to the development of pedagogy. The work K. D. Ushinsky“Man as an object of education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology. Ushinsky showed that the formation of a person takes place holistically, all cognitive processes (memory, thinking, speech) are interconnected, interdependent. In the 19th century, a situation arose when in many countries there was a need to create a science at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology and independently of each other. The very concept of "pedagogical psychology" entered into scientific circulation with the appearance in 1877 of the book Kapterev "Pedagogical psychology". Book E. Thorndike of the same name was published only a quarter of a century later (in 1903). However, the priority remained with our pedagogical psychology.
Second phase lasted from the end of the 19th century. until the middle of the 20th century. During this period, ped. Ps-gia began to take shape in an independent industry, focusing on and using the results of psychic, psychophysical experimental studies. Of particular importance is the development of test ps-gy, psychodiagnostics. During this period, a number of laboratories at schools were formed in Europe. So, in France, A. Binet founded an experimental children's laboratory at one of the schools in Paris. The laboratory studied the physical and mental abilities of the child, as well as methods of teaching academic disciplines. This stage is characterized by the form of a special PS. - ped-th direction - pedology, which comprehensively determined the characteristics of the child's behavior in order to diagnose its development.
The basis for selection third stage Development of educational psychology is the creation of the theoretical foundations of educational psychology. So, in 1954, B. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning.
At present, educational psychology is an interdisciplinary independent branch of knowledge based on knowledge of general, developmental, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy.

4. The emergence and development of educational psychology in the Republic of Belarus. The current state of educational psychology in Belarus.

L. A. Kandybovich highlights 1960–1990 as an independent period in the history of psychology in Belarus. In the history of Belarusian psychology, the most fruitful period of development dates back to the 1970s-1980s. Social and educational psychology initially developed as interdisciplinary branches of scientific knowledge, as a result of the differentiation and integration of the human sciences.
By the end of the study period, about half of all practicing psychologists in the republic were certified specialists. Seven of them were PhDs. Along with traditional research, new research that was relevant for that time began to be approved: labor education of schoolchildren of all ages, training and education of students of higher education, problems of productive mental activity, issues of psychological service and its organization. Most psychological research was dictated by the ongoing reform and restructuring of the middle and high school.
It was those years that were marked by the holding of scientific-theoretical and scientific-practical conferences in the republic, in which leading specialists from other regions of the country took part.
A significant part of psychologists was concentrated in pedagogical institutes and universities, which to a certain extent predetermined the priority role of psychological and pedagogical research. However, psychology was also represented in a number of scientific institutions of the republic. The Academy of Sciences of the BSSR studied the personal characteristics of specialists in design activities in CAD conditions, including the use of tools and methods for automating this activity in their work. The Institute of Philosophy and Law studied the socio-psychological mechanisms of the involvement of the individual in the ideological process, production and social activities ( V.I. Sekun). The Institute of Linguistics continued to develop applied issues of psychology and psycholinguistics, processing sensory information ( G.V. Losik).
The problems of higher education were studied at the Belarusian State University: the work “Psychological foundations for the effectiveness of students' educational activities” was completed by a group of employees (R.I. Vodeiko, L.A. Gurinovich, I.A. Kulak, A.M. Kukharchik, S.P. .Tsuranova) a number of serious studies have been carried out (communication in an academic group as a factor influencing the success of this activity; providing various information saturation of the learning process; ways to influence students' confidence; the specifics of the professional orientation of teaching; optimization of reading skills and abilities, etc. The result of the study is D .M. Kuchinsky about the essence of internal dialogue in thinking, about the relationship between external and internal dialogues among communication partners was the publication of a monograph.
The psychological foundations of the effectiveness of learning at school were studied by Mozyr psychologists (I.Ya. Kaplunovich, T.A. Pushkina).
The specialty 19.00.05 - social psychology was introduced by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Republic of Belarus in 1996, until that time the defense of dissertation research was carried out only in the specialty 19.00.07 - pedagogical psychology.
Formation and development of social psychology in Belarus from 1960 to 1991 represents a holistic period and is characterized by the direction of research in the field of social pedagogical psychology (SPP), which corresponds to theoretical analysis. On the contrary, a preliminary thematic analysis of dissertation research carried out in the period from 1991 to 2007. allows us to state that while maintaining the main directions of integration and differentiation of pedagogical and social psychology (SSS, SPP, SSP, SPP), dissertations in the field of educational social psychology (SSP) dominate in quantitative terms at this time (table).
As can be seen from the table, from 1960 to 1991. studies carried out within the framework of social pedagogical psychology prevail (19 dissertations), in the period from 1992 to the present, the focus has shifted to the study of educational social psychology (22 works). At the same time, one can state an undoubted increase in the interest of the Belarusian scientific community in the study of the problems of social psychology proper (from 5 to 14 papers).
Table - Historical periods of integration and differentiation of social and educational psychology in Belarus

Theoretical and methodological factors in the development of educational psychology in Belarus during the period under study (1960–1991) determined the specifics of the subject of psychology as a science, the direction of intersectoral integration and interdisciplinary differentiation of social and educational psychology, as well as central and peripheral theories that make up the structure of socio-psychological research .
At the philosophical level, the main determinants of scientific knowledge are internal and external factors. At the general scientific level, external and internal factors are commonly understood as internal (intra-scientific) and external (external in relation to science) aspects of a scientist's research activity. At the private scientific level, the manager's scientific program acts as an internal factor as a subjective and objective reflection of the subject of a particular field of science. As an external factor - the scientific community as a carrier of scientific knowledge and ideas adopted in related scientific areas and influencing the implementation of dissertation research. In general, the development of social psychology in Belarus is conditioned by the interaction of internal and external theoretical and methodological factors.
The specificity of the development of Belarusian psychology is the transition from intersectoral differentiation of science to its interdisciplinary integration, which led to the substantiation of the possibility of such sections of social psychology as social pedagogical psychology and pedagogical social psychology. The direction of integration and differentiation of social and pedagogical psychology according to the criterion of the object, subject and contingent corresponds to the study of socio-psychological phenomena in the pedagogical contingent.
The methodological foundations of dissertation research by Belarusian authors reflect in a concentrated form the totality of scientific ideas, the methodology of scientific leaders and the scientific community as a whole. The index of methodological contingency specifies the nature of the relationship between internal and external theoretical and methodological factors in the development of social psychology in Belarus in the period from 1960 to 1991.
The current situation in the development of social psychology in Belarus (from 1991 to the present) is characterized by the expansion of problem areas of socio-psychological research, as well as the self-determination of psychologists in scientific priorities in new historical conditions.
In general, from 1956 to 2007. Belarusian authors defended 277 dissertations. Of these, in the period from 1960 to 1991. - 109 (39%). Social and psychological issues are presented in 36 (33%) dissertations.

5. Classification of methods of pedagogical psychology. Correlation of methodology, methods and methods of research.

Depending on the level of scientific knowledge - theoretical or empirical - methods are defined as theoretical or empirical. Observation- the main and most distributed in the ped. psycho. empirical method of purposeful study of h-ka. The observed does not know that he is yavl. object of observation, cat.m.b. continuous or selective - with fixation of the entire course of the lesson or the behavior of one or several teachers. Based on observation m.b. given an expert assessment. The results of the observation are entered into special protocols, where the name of the observer, date, time and purpose are noted. Flowing data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing. Self-monitoring is a method of observing oneself with oneself on the basis of reflective thinking. This method underlies self-reports. He har-Xia enough subjective-Tew, ispol-Xia as an additional th. Conversation-empirical method of obtaining information about a h-ke in communication with him, as a result of his answers
Purposeful questions. The leader of the conversation does not report its purpose to the one who is being studied. The answers are fixed by tape recording or in cursive writing. Interview-specific form of conversation. It can be used to obtain information not only about the interviewee himself, but also about other people and events. Questionnaires - empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions and corresponding to the main task of the study. When compiling the questionnaire, he learns: 1) the content of the questions, 2) their form - open / closed (the answer is “yes” / “no”), 3) their wording (clarity, without prompting the answer) ,4) the number and order of the next questions. Time for questionnaires is no more than 30-40 minutes. The anekt-tion can be oral, letters, individual, group. The experiment is the center of empirical method of scientific research in ped.psych. Differences between laboratory and natural. The most effective and widespread in present. time-shaping experiment (studying changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values ​​at the level of psychological and personal development under targeted training and education).
Analysis of products of activity is a method of studying a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of material and ideal (tests, music) products of his activity. Analysis of presentations, essays, summaries, etc. This method presupposes a specific goal, hypothesis and methods for analyzing each specific product (text, figure, etc.). All listed methods yavl. max. available and used in the ped-oh ps-ii.
At the same time, the testing method became widespread. The test, if it is well designed, should show what the subject knows and can do, and not what he is like against the background of others representing the same population.
Various types of tests are grouped into 12 groups:
1) tests of methods (intellectual function, knowledge, methods, etc.),
2) U&N tests (visual-motor coordination, passing the maze),
3) perception tests,
4) questionnaires (questionnaire survey about behavior, health status, etc.),
5) opinions (identifying attitudes towards other people, norms, etc.),
6) aesthetic tests (revealing preferences for paintings, drawings, etc.),
7) projective tests (formalized personal tests),
8) situational tests (studying the performance of a task in different situations individually, in a group, in a competition, etc.),
9) games, in a cat. most fully manifested people,
10) physiological tests (ekg, kgr, etc.),
11) physical (anthropometric),
12) random observations, i.e. the study of how the test is conducted (recording the test, conclusions, etc.).
Most often, achievement tests are used (they determine the effectiveness of programs and learning processes). They cover all learning programs for integral image systems. It is they who give the final assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of training, what the individual can do to this day. time.
Sociometry is an empirical method for studying intragroup interpersonal relationships. This method, which uses answers to questions about the preferred choice of group members, allows you to determine its cohesion, the leader of the group, etc. It is used to form and regroup academic teams, determine intragroups th interaction.
Methodology (from the Greek methodos - the path of research, logos - science) - a system of principles and methods for organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. Methodology - the doctrine of the scientific method in general and the methods of individual sciences. It is a culture of scientific inquiry.
Methods (from the Greek methodos - the path of research or knowledge) are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information; these are the paths of knowledge through which the subject of any science is known.
The method of psychology is concretized in research methods. A technique is a concrete embodiment of a method as a developed way of organizing the interaction between a subject and an object of research based on a specific material and a specific procedure. The technique meets the specific goals and objectives of the study, contains descriptions of the object and the procedure for studying, the method of fixing and processing the data obtained. Based on a particular method, many methods can be created.
The effectiveness of any research is determined by the relationship of methodology, principles, methods and methods of research (Scheme 1).
Scheme 1 Interrelation of methodology, methods and methods of research

6. Observation as a method of pedagogical psychology. observation errors. Observation schemes of Flanders and Bales.

In educational psychology, the same methods are used as in other branches of psychological science. The main methods are observation and experiment.
Observation is one of the methods of data collection through direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study. A specific feature of this method is that when using it, the researcher does not influence the subject of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to him, but waits for their natural manifestation.
The main characteristics of the observation method are purposefulness, regularity.
Observation is implemented using a special technique that contains a description of the entire observation procedure. Its main points are as follows:
a) the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties of the object that will be recorded.
In principle, two types of goals can be distinguished. In exploratory research, the goal is to obtain as much information as possible about the object of interest. In other cases, observation is very selective.
c) a way of fixing the received information.
The observer himself is a particular problem: his presence can change the behavior of the person he is interested in. This problem is solved in two ways: the observer must become a familiar member of the collective where he intends to observe. Another way is to observe while remaining invisible to the object of observation. This path has limitations, primarily moral ones.
The method of observation is used not only in research, but also in practical activities, including teaching. The teacher observes the behavior of children, how they perform various tasks in the class, and uses the information received to improve their work both with the class as a whole and with individual students. However, even in this case it is not easy to draw a correct conclusion about certain features of the child's inner life.
Various complex observation systems can be used (Flanders' system of analysis of categories of interaction, according to which speech interactions, conversation taking place in the classroom are analyzed; Bales' 12-categorical system of observation of verbal and non-verbal communications).
Deviations between data that correspond to reality and data obtained by observations are called observational errors. These errors can be divided into methodological and registration. The first are due to the use of incorrect methods of observation, while the others are due to inaccurate recording of data. Methodological are, first of all, representative errors that arise when, based on the observation of individual phenomena or features extracted from the general complex, conclusions are drawn about the general complex as a whole. Here, the error indicates that the number of objects of observation extracted from the total complex was calculated incorrectly or individual elements were unsuccessfully selected. Registration errors depend primarily on the personality of the observer. A psychologist or teacher who studies the pedagogical process must be extremely observant, have a good memory and have a certain amount of experience. It should be borne in mind that for pedagogical observation it is not enough just to describe pedagogical phenomena, they must be interpreted to some extent. It is essential not only whether the student answers correctly, but also how he behaves when answering..). Registration errors stem mainly from the subjective attitude of the observer to a particular phenomenon.
7. Psychological and pedagogical experiment as a method of pedagogical psychology. Features of natural science and formative experiment.

The experiment occupies a central place in psychological research. It differs from observation in that the experimenter acts on the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to take two groups of trainees who are approximately the same in terms of their initial level of development and other characteristics.
There are two types of experiment: laboratory and natural. The main difference between them is that in a laboratory experiment, the subject knows that something is being tested with him, that he is passing some kind of test. In a natural experiment, the subjects do not know this, since the experiment is carried out in the conditions familiar to them, they are not informed about it.
The above experiment can be organized both as a laboratory experiment and as a natural one. In the case of a natural experiment, students of the first two parallel classes during the period of teaching them to write can be taken as subjects.
A laboratory experiment can be carried out with the subjects, but already outside the scope of class work, and it can be carried out both in the form individual as well as in the form of a collective experiment.
Each of these types of experiment has its advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage of a natural experiment is that the subjects are unaware of the changes introduced into their activities. However, with this type of experiment, it is difficult to fix the features of children's activity that are of interest to the experimenter.
In a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, there are great opportunities for collecting and accurately recording data if it is carried out in a laboratory specially equipped for this. But the student's awareness of himself as a test subject can influence the course of his activity.
Any type of experiment includes the following steps:
1. Goal setting: concretization of the hypothesis in a specific problem.
2. Planning the course of the experiment.
3. Conducting an experiment: collecting data.
4. Analysis of the obtained experimental data.
5. Conclusions that allow us to draw experimental data.
Both laboratory and natural experiments are divided into stating and forming.
Ascertaining experiment It is used in those cases when it is necessary to establish the actual state of already existing phenomena. For example, to explore the ideas of six-year-old children about living and non-living things. Another type of problem solved with the help of this method is related to the elucidation of the role of various conditions in the course of existing processes. So, it was found that the significance of the problem being solved for the subject affects his visual acuity.
In the field of educational psychology, it is especially important formative experiment. As it was pointed out, pedagogical psychology is called upon to study the patterns of learning. The main way for this is to trace the assimilation of new knowledge and actions when various conditions are introduced into the process of their formation, i.e. use a formative experiment. The researcher must know the objective composition of the activity that he is going to form. The main methods that are used to highlight the objective composition of activities are divided into two types.
1. Theoretical modeling of this activity with subsequent experimental verification.
2. To identify the objective composition of the activity, the method of studying this activity in people who are good at it, and in people who make mistakes when performing it, is also used.

8. Comparative analysis of observation and experiment. Advantages and disadvantages of methods of observation and experiment.

Experiment is a Latin word, similar in meaning to the words "test, experience, proof." Experiment is always connected with observation, even in historical terms it can be considered as a development of the method of observation. However, unlike observation in an experiment, a person is not content with just contemplating phenomena, he actively intervenes in their course, leading them to such an “artificial” state, when their properties are easier to study than the natural state. The researcher, not content with simply observing phenomena, consciously and actively intervenes in their natural course and achieves this either by directly influencing the process under study, or by changing the actual conditions for the course of this process. Complementing the process of live observation with active influence makes experiment a productive method of empirical research. The famous American philosopher and sociologist G. Wales noted on this occasion that, unlike simple observation, the experiment, "penetrating deeper and deeper under the outer shell, provides a basis for studying the developing and interconnected essence of nature."
In comparison with observation, the experiment has a different advantage, it lies in the fact that the object studied through the experiment is selected connections, relationships, aspects that are of interest to the observer: it eliminates side factors that complicate the process, the main attention can be directed to the phenomenon or property of interest to the researcher. This also provides an opportunity to obtain more reliable knowledge about the object.
In comparison with observation, the experiment has a number of other advantages: it provides an opportunity to accurately determine the conditions for the occurrence of a phenomenon, change it, study the properties of an object under certain extreme conditions, create an analogue and model of natural processes, increasing the speed of processes, penetrate deeper into their essence, on the basis of a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the phenomena being studied, to expand the area of ​​their influence and, finally, to discover the internal causes of phenomena.
Along with the advantages of a laboratory experiment, it also has
certain disadvantages. The most significant disadvantage of this method is
its some artificiality, which under certain conditions can
lead to disruption of the natural course of mental processes, and
hence leading to incorrect conclusions. This lack of laboratory
experiment to a certain extent is eliminated in the organization.
Natural experiment combines the positive aspects of the method
observation and laboratory experiment. Saved here
the naturalness of the observation conditions and the accuracy of the experiment is introduced.
A natural experiment is designed in such a way that the subjects are unaware of
that they are subjected to psychological research
ensures the naturalness of their behavior. For correct and successful
conducting a natural experiment, it is necessary to observe all those
requirements for a laboratory experiment. AT
according to the task of the study, the experimenter selects such
conditions that provide the most vivid manifestation of the
aspects of mental activity.

9. Auxiliary methods of psychological and pedagogical research: questioning, analysis of products of creative activity, conversation, testing,biographical method , sociometry, mathematical methods.

Other research methods. In addition to observation and experiment, pedagogical psychology also uses such methods as the method of conversation, the method of studying the products of activity, questioning, etc.
Conversation- a method of obtaining new information through free communication with a person. In a conversation, roles are distributed symmetrically. The conversation is often used in pedagogical practice.
Interview- a special form of conversation in which one of the partners is the leader and the other is the follower, and questions are asked one-sidedly. A variant is a standardized interview containing a strictly defined set of questions that must be asked, but, however, can be diluted with others that have the purpose of masking. Interview option - training exam.
Questionnaire- Obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions. The questionnaires differ in a) the content of the questions, b) their form - open and closed, c) the wording of the questions, d) the number and order of the questions.
Questioning is oral and written, individual and group. In working with children, the questionnaire method is usually used from the age of ten, and until then the answers can be recorded by the interviewer.
Sociometry studies the position (status) of a person in a group and can be used as an expert assessment on the grounds identified as a sociometric criterion (for example, a sociometric index can be used to judge how a person is considered altruistic, friendly, responsible, etc. by his colleagues in group). Variant of sociometry in preschool age is the well-known technique "Two houses". Sociometry is often used in the study of adolescent groups and their dynamics.
Analysis of products of activity (creativity)- mediated study of psychological reality through deobjectification (restoration of activity according to its result). This method is very often used in developmental psychology in various forms and variants, depending on what kind of productive activity the subject has formed. In psychological and pedagogical research, the method takes the form of various types of knowledge control (essays, dictations, tests), which allow you to reproduce the dynamics of a person's educational activity.
Testing- a short, standardized test designed to establish inter-individual, intra-individual or inter-group differences. Testing is more often used in psychodiagnostics than in scientific research (to establish the intellectual abilities of a person or his professional inclinations). The use of tests must comply with the Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Depending on the reality being studied, the tests can be conditionally combined into the following groups (the classification is empirical in nature, the classes intersect):
1. Ability tests; 2. Tests of skills and abilities; 3. Perception tests; 4. Opinions (interests, social attitudes); 5. Aesthetic tests; 6. Projective tests; 7. Situational tests (performance of tasks in different conditions); 8. Game tests.
There are standardized criteria-oriented test batteries designed to solve specific practical problems (for example, to diagnose psychological readiness for school, school skills, neuropsychological characteristics of children).

10. The essence of concepts: learning, teaching, learning. Their differences and relationships.

There are several concepts related to the acquisition by a person of life experience in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. It is learning, learning, learning.
Most general concept is an learning. Intuitively, each of us imagines what learning is. Learning denotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are.
A.K. Markova considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;
learning is interpreted from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;
the teaching is presented as the student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).
N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by her only as an activity of a teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as an activity of a student included in the educational process (Talyzina N.F., 1998; abstract). Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "teaching", "learning" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/education/teaching is the process of acquisition by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is “learning”. Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.

11. Understanding the mechanisms of learning in associative psychology
The idea of ​​association as a possible mechanism for the formation of mental phenomena was first expressed J. Lockcom (1632-1704), although the very concept of association, its types, features was introduced by Aristotle. The merit of a clear exposition of the basic principle of the future school, according to which everything is explained by primary sensations and the association of representations or ideas evoked by them, belongs to D. Gartley (1747). D. Hartley proceeded from the materialistic idea that an external influence causes a response action of the nervous tissue, in which large and small vibrations arise. According to D. Hartley, “once having arisen, small vibrations are stored and accumulated, forming an “organ” that mediates subsequent reactions to new external influences. Through this, the organism... becomes a learning system with a history to match. The basis of learning is memory. It is for Hartley a common fundamental property of nervous organization.
The reasons for the formation of associations of representations or ideas were further considered. J. St. Millem , who argued that “our ideas (representations) are born and exist in the order in which the sensations existed, from which they are a copy. The main law is the association of ideas, and there seem to be two reasons for the association: the liveliness of the associated sensations and the frequent repetition of the association. Analysis of the main laws of formation of associations (associations by similarity, associations by contiguity (coincidence in place or time), causal associations, etc.) and secondary laws of their formation, which include “the duration of initial impressions, their liveliness, frequency, delay in time”, led researchers to the conclusion that these laws are nothing more than a “list of conditions for better memorization” (M.S. Rogovin). Respectively memorization was determined by the operation of the laws of association.
Experimental data G. Ebbinghaus simultaneously characterized a person's ability to both memorize and memorize material, which subsequently allowed researchers to closely bring together two concepts - "memory" and "learning" (as the acquisition and preservation of a skill or system of skills). In the future, in the works of behaviorists, a complete merging of these concepts occurs. AT late XIX in. E. Thorndike, prominent representative experimental comparative psychology, one of the fundamental theories of learning of that time was put forward - the theory of trial and error. Its essence lies in the fact that the animal (E. Thorndike conducted experiments on cats), as a result of repeated trial and error, accidentally finds one of its reactions that corresponds to the stimulus - stimulus. This coincidence generates satisfaction, which reinforces the given response and associates it with the stimulus. If a similar stimulus is repeated, the reaction will also be repeated. This is the first and basic law of E. Thorndike - law of effect. Second law - law of exercise- lies in the fact that the response to a stimulus is determined by the number of repetitions, the strength and duration of the stimulus. According to the third law of learning - the law of readiness the reaction of the animal depends on its readiness for this action. As E. Thorndike stated, "only a hungry cat will look for food." Developing his theory, E. Thorndike subsequently identified several more learning factors, of which the factor of “identical elements” plays a special role. In the subsequent development of learning theory, this factor correlates with the principle of skill transfer. So, E. Thorndike believed that such a transfer is carried out only if there are identical elements in different situations. Further research by E. Thorndike led to some change in the second law, especially in relation to the description of human learning. E. Thorndike introduced the concept of knowledge of the results as another pattern of learning, because, according to him, "practice without knowledge of the results, no matter how long it is, is useless." At the same time, knowledge of the results is considered by E. Thorndike as an accompanying moment of the operation of the law of effect, which strengthens the strength of the connection formed between the stimulus and the reaction. The works of E. Thorndike, associative in essence and behavioristic in method and approach, had a significant impact on the theoretical understanding of the educational process.

12. Behavioral approach to the problem of learning. Theory of social learning.
According to the general position of behaviorism, behavior is best understood in terms of external causes rather than mental processes, so the focus of these writings has been on external stimuli and responses.
Behavioral approach to learning contained other key provisions. According to one of them, simple associations of the classical or operant type are the "bricks" from which all learning is built. So, behaviorists believed that such a complex thing as mastering speech, in fact, is the memorization of many associations. According to another position, regardless of what exactly is being learned and who is learning by heart - be it a rat learning to navigate a maze, or a child mastering the operation of division by a column - the same basic laws of learning apply everywhere.
One of the largest followers of I.P. Pavlova was an American psychologist John Watson (1878-1958). Watson applied the concept of conditioned reflexes to learning theory and formulated the basic principles of behavioral psychology. According to Watson, human behavior can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R), where the stimuli are environmental influences. He argued that psychology, as a science of behavior, should be concerned with the prediction and control of human actions, and not with the analysis of his consciousness.
The psychology of behavior was further developed in the works of the American psychologist Barres Skinner Personality, from the point of view of learning, is the experience that a person has acquired during his life. This is an accumulated set of learned behaviors. The teaching-behavioral direction deals with open (accessible to direct observation) actions of a person, as derivatives of his life experience.
Skinner's work most convincingly proves that environmental influences determine our behavior. Unlike other psychologists, Skinner argued that almost entirely behavior is directly conditioned by the possibility of reinforcement from the environment. In his opinion, in order to explain behavior (and thus implicitly understand personality), we need only analyze the functional relationship between visible action and visible consequences. Skinner's work provided the foundation for a behavioral science unparalleled in the history of psychology. He is considered by many to be one of the most revered psychologists of our time.
Skinner's radical behaviorism clearly differs from social learning theories. Although approaches Albert Bandura and Julian Rotter reflect some of the core tenets of the teaching-behavioral movement, they offer a broader view of behavior that emphasizes the interconnection of factors within and outside people. Social Learning Theory - cognitive theory personalities of the second half of the 20th century, developed by the American personologist Rotter. According to T. s. n., social behavior personality can be explored and described using the concepts of behavioral potential, expectation, reinforcement, reinforcement value, psychological situation, locus of control. Behavioral potential refers to the likelihood of behavior occurring in situations with reinforcement; it is understood that each person has a certain potential and a set of actions of behavioral reactions that have been formed during life. Waiting in T. with. n. refers to the subjective likelihood that a certain reinforcement will be observed in behavior in similar situations. Stable expectation, generalized on the basis of past experience, explains the stability and integrity of the personality. In T. s. n. A distinction is made between expectations that are specific to one situation (specific expectations) and expectations that are most general or applicable to a number of situations (generalized expectations), reflecting the experience of different situations.
13. Interpretation of the concept of "learning" in foreign and domestic psychology. Theory of learning in cognitive and humanistic psychology.

Learning refers to the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system.(from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default. The concept of development, or evolution, is impossible without the assumption that all these processes occur as a result of a change in the behavior of living beings. And at present, the only scientific concept that fully embraces these changes is the concept of learning. Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more efficiently. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning. So, survival basically depends on the ability to learn.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "teaching". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
The founder of the theory of learning E. Thorndike considered consciousness as a system of connections that unites ideas by association. The higher the intelligence, the greater the number of connections it can establish. Thorndike proposed the law of exercise and the law of effect as the two fundamental laws of learning. According to the first, the more often an action is repeated, the deeper it is imprinted in the mind. The law of effect states that connections in consciousness are established more successfully if the response to a stimulus is accompanied by a reward. Thorndike used the term “belonging” to describe meaningful associations: connections are more easily established when objects seem to belong to each other, i.e. interdependent. Learning is facilitated if the material being learned is meaningful. Thorndike also formulated the concept of "effect spread" - the willingness to learn information from areas adjacent to those areas that are already familiar. Thorndike experimentally studied the propagation of the effect to determine whether learning one subject affects the learning of another - for example, whether knowledge of the ancient Greek classics helps in the preparation of future engineers. It turned out that positive transfer is observed only in cases where areas of knowledge are in contact. Learning one type of activity can even prevent the mastery of another (“proactive inhibition”), and newly mastered material can sometimes destroy something already learned (“retroactive inhibition”). These two types of inhibition are the subject of the theory of interference in memorization. Forgetting some material is associated not only with the passage of time, but also with the influence of other activities.
Famous representative, humanistic psychology C. Rogers emphasizing that freedom is the realization that a person can live on his own, "here and now", according to his own choice. It is the courage that makes a person able to enter into the uncertainty of the unknown, which he chooses for himself. It is the understanding of meaning within oneself. According to Rogers, a person who expresses his thoughts deeply and boldly acquires his own uniqueness, responsibly "chooses himself." He may have the happiness of choosing among a hundred external alternatives, or the misfortune of having none. But in all cases, his freedom nonetheless exists.
traditions B. Skinner were continued S. Bijou and D. Baer, also using the concepts of behavior and reinforcement. Behavior can be reactive (responsive) or operant. Stimuli can be physical, chemical, organismal or social. They can evoke reciprocal behavior or enhance operant behavior. Instead of individual stimuli, whole complexes often act. Special attention is given to differentiation stimuli, which are attitudinal and perform the function of intermediate variables that change the influence of the main stimulus.
The distinction between reciprocal and operant behavior is of particular importance for developmental psychology. Operant behavior creates stimuli, which, in turn, significantly influence the response behavior. In this case, 3 groups of influences are possible:

environment (incentives);
an individual (organism) with its formed habits;
changing influences of the individual on the influencing environment.

Trying to explain what is the cause of the changes that occur to a person throughout his life, S. Bijou and D. Baer essentially introduce the concept of interaction. Despite the wide range of variables that determine the learning process, they note the homogeneity of the course of development for different individuals. It is, in their opinion, the result of:

identical biological boundary conditions;
the relative homogeneity of the social environment;
difficulties in mastering different forms of behavior;
prerequisite relationships (for example, walking precedes running).

14. Teaching reactive forms of behavior. Learning as a result of operant conditioning. Cognitive learning.

It is customary to distinguish three groups of ways (mechanisms) of learning according to the degree of participation of the organism as a whole in them: 1) reactive behavior; 2) operant behavior (or learning from operant conditioning) and 3) cognitive learning.
Reactive behavior is manifested in the fact that the body reacts passively, but at the same time neural circuits are transformed and new memory traces are formed. Among the varieties of reactive behavior, there are: a) addiction; b) sensitization; c) imprinting; and d) conditioned reflexes. Habituation (or habituation) consists in the fact that the body, as a result of changes at the level of receptors or the reticular formation, “learns” to ignore some kind of repeated or permanent stimulus, “making sure” that it does not have much significance for the activity that this moment carried out. Sensitization is the opposite process. The repetition of a stimulus leads to a stronger activation of the organism, which becomes more and more sensitive to the given stimulus. Imprinting (imprinting) is a hereditarily programmed and irreversible formation of a certain specific form of response, for example, the attachment of newborn animals to the first moving object that comes into their field of vision in the first hours of life.
Artifical stable functional connections (ASFS) are the fixation in long-term memory of the connection between pharmacological and physical (photostimulation) effects after a single combination of them.
Operant behavior, or learning as a result of operant conditioning, is the consolidation of those actions, the consequences of which for the organism are desirable, and the rejection of actions that lead to undesirable consequences. There are three varieties of this type of learning: a) trial and error; b) the formation of automated responses and c) imitation. Learning by trial and error lies in the fact that, sorting out ways to achieve the goal (overcoming obstacles), a person refuses inefficient ones and eventually finds a solution to the problem. Formation of automated reactions is the creation of very complex behavioral reactions in stages. Each stage is reinforced (positive and negative reinforcement, extinction, differentiation, generalization).
Cognitive learning is evolutionarily the latest and most effective type of learning. In full, such learning is inherent only in humans, although we can identify some of its evolutionary predecessors or individual elements in higher animals. There are the following forms of cognitive learning: a) latent learning; b) teaching complex psychomotor skills; c) insight; and d) learning by reasoning. Latent learning is the analytical processing of incoming information, as well as the information already available (stored) in memory, and on this basis the choice of an adequate response. Teaching complex psychomotor skills that a person masters in a large volume throughout his life, depending on individual characteristics organization of psychomotor activity, lifestyle, profession, etc., passes through the stage of cognitive strategy (choosing a program), associative (checking and improving this program) and autonomous stages, when the psychomotor skill passes to the level of automatism with a weakening or complete absence of consciousness control . Insight (from the English insight - insight, penetration; in French an identical term - intuition) lies in the fact that the information "scattered" in the memory, as it were, is combined and used in a new integration. Learning by reasoning is learning through the thought process. The foundation for thinking is perceptual learning (image recognition) and conceptual learning (abstraction and generalization).

15. Essence of teaching. Interdisciplinary approach to learning (I. Lingart).

The problem of teaching is interdisciplinary; Accordingly, it can be viewed from different perspectives. I. Lingart identifies nine aspects (positions) of consideration
From the standpoint of philosophy (in epistemological terms), teaching is a specific form of knowledge. In teaching, contradictions arise and are resolved between the objective and the subjective, form and content, and so on.
From the standpoint of the axiology of ethics, teaching is seen as a process of value formation and self-determination, internalization of social norms, rules, and values.
From a biological point of view, learning is an adaptive process, where heredity, environment, adaptation, regulation are considered.
From the position of physiology, the teaching is considered in terms of neurohumoral mechanisms, the development conditioned reflexes, patterns of higher nervous activity, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain.
From the standpoint of psychology, teaching is viewed as an activity of the subject, as an activity, as a factor in mental development.
From a pedagogical point of view, teaching is viewed in the context of "an upbringing and educational system, where upbringing and training are a system of purposeful, desirable conditions from the point of view of the needs of society, which should ensure the effective transfer of social experience."
From a cybernetic point of view, learning can be considered as an information process in a learning system characterized by control through direct and feedback channels, the development and change of strategies, programs and algorithms.
16. Psychological theories of learning.

In domestic psychology, there are several approaches to the analysis of learning problems. One of these theoretical approaches is to consider learning as the assimilation of knowledge by students and the formation of methods of mental activity in them (N.A. Menchinskaya, E.N. Kabanova-Meller, D.N. Bogoyavlensky, etc.). It is based on the position according to which the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren is determined by external circumstances (primarily, the program and teaching methods) and at the same time is the result of the activity of the student himself.
The central point of learning is the assimilation of knowledge presented in the form of scientific concepts. Such assimilation is not reduced to a simple copying in the minds of students of the concepts introduced by the teacher. The concept given from the outside is formed to the extent that it is the result of the student's mental activity, the mental operations carried out by him (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction). In the assimilation of concepts, successive stages arise: the movement from incomplete knowledge to complete. This movement, depending on the content of concepts, can be of a different nature. In many cases it goes from the particular, concrete to the general, abstract. But there is another variant of assimilation: from the undifferentiated general to the particular, the concrete, and through the concrete to the truly abstract.
The assimilation of knowledge is closely related to their application in various educational and practical situations. The application of acquired knowledge depends on the relationship between theoretical and practical, abstract and concrete thinking. They correlate differently at different stages of learning, which makes it necessary to use the processes of interiorization and exteriorization (transition from external action from solving mental problems to action in the mental plane and vice versa).
In the process of learning, not only knowledge is acquired, but also those mental operations are improved, with the help of which students acquire and apply knowledge, the formation of methods of mental activity occurs, including both the mastery of operations and the emergence of motives, the need to use these operations as ways of activity.
The formulation and fairly wide use of mental activity techniques leads to the formation of certain qualities of the mind in students: activity and independence, productivity, flexibility, etc.
Teaching is a developing process, including the transition from elementary situations, where it is carried out on the basis of imitation of a model with minimal activity of the student himself, to the highest levels, based on the "self-management" of the student, who independently obtains new knowledge or applies previously acquired knowledge to solve new problems. .
Another approach to the problems of learning is contained in the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts, developed by P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina and their staff. In this theory, learning is viewed as the assimilation of certain types and methods of cognitive activity, which include a given system of knowledge and further ensure their application within predetermined limits. Knowledge, skills and abilities do not exist in isolation from each other, the quality of knowledge is always determined by the content and characteristics of the activity in which they are included.
The unit acquired in the process of learning cognitive activity is a mental action, and the task of controlling learning is, first of all, the task of forming mental actions with certain, predetermined properties. The possibility of such management is provided by the knowledge and use of the laws by which the formation of new actions takes place, the identification and consideration of the conditions affecting their quality.
Such laws and conditions were the subject of research by the authors of the theory of stage-by-stage formation. They found that the initial form in which a new mental action with given properties can be constructed by students is its external, material (or materialized) form, when the action is carried out with real objects (or their substitutes - models, diagrams, drawings, etc.). etc.). The process of assimilation of an action includes the initial mastery of its external form and subsequent internalization - a gradual transition to execution on an internal, mental plane, during which the action not only turns into a mental one, but also acquires a number of new properties (generalization, brevity, automation, reasonableness, consciousness) .

17. Essence, structure and features of the learning process.

The learning process is a system of sequential learning actions of the teacher to achieve a cognitive result and the corresponding sequential change in mental development student.
Training performs the function of education, upbringing and the function of personality development. Since the process is movement, progress, the question arises about its driving forces. M.A. Danilov concluded that the main driving force behind the learning process is contradictions. Contradictions are external and internal. The first are those that arise outside the personality, although they relate to its development: between the needs of society to prepare the young generation for life and the current level of this preparation. Internal contradictions characterize the level of readiness of the student himself to perform compulsory educational tasks.
The structure of the educational process is made up of the goal, the teacher, the student, the content of education (I.Ya. Lerner, B.T. Likhachev they are called elements). The goal is a social order, i.e. a certain amount and corresponding quality of knowledge that a student must master. A student is a person interested in learning, shows his activity. In this sense, both he and the teacher strive for cooperation. Content in the learning process has several functions. Firstly, it is the subject of educational activity, in which scientific terms, concepts and other information are concentrated. Secondly, for the teacher and for the students it is an object of learning activity. The teacher “processes” it and transmits (transmits) it to students so that they learn it. For a student, this is also an object that needs to be processed, assimilated and appropriated as an element of social culture. Thirdly, for the teacher, the content is also a means of teaching, educating and developing students. Through the content of education, it affects the minds, moral and other cultures. This is the structure of the educational process. Their interaction is the process.
etc.................

7. Contribution by A.V. Zaporozhets and his scientific school in the development of educational psychology.

8. Characteristics of non-experimental methods of educational psychology.

9. Experiment in educational psychology. Schemes of the organization of the forming experiment.

10. Characteristics of specific methods of educational psychology (counseling, correction).

11. Characteristics of the basic concepts of learning theory: learning, learning, learning activities.

12. The essence of learning. Socio-psychological conditions for effective learning.

13. Types and mechanisms of learning.

14. Psychological foundations of conscious assimilation. absorption components.

15. Modern concepts of education, their characteristics.

1. Associative-reflex theory of learning.

16. Essence of educational activity. Characteristics of the external and internal structure of educational activities.

17. Motivation for learning activities. Factors leading to progress and regression of educational motives.

18. The concept of learning, the requirements for its diagnosis.

19. Types of underachieving students. The nature of psychological and pedagogical assistance depending on the type of poor progress.

20. Psychology of pedagogical assessment. Criteria for the effectiveness of pedagogical assessments.

21. Features and types of pedagogical assessment depending on the age of students.

22. Differentiation and individualization of education.

23. Learning in infancy.

24. The main areas of learning for young children.

25. Psychological foundations of sensory education of preschool children.

26. The concept of leading activities. Play as a leading activity of a preschooler.

27. The role of children's experimentation in the learning of preschoolers.

28. Teaching and learning in preschool age. Formation of the prerequisites for educational activities.

29. Psychological foundations of modern humanistically oriented educational programs of preschool education (“Praleska”, etc.)

30. Psychological readiness for school. The role of the teacher-psychologist in optimizing the learning process in a preschool institution and preparing its education for schooling.

31. The concept of the psychology of education.

32. Basic psychological patterns of personality formation.

33. Characteristics of the mechanisms of personality formation.

34. Formation of self-esteem and self-concept of a child in preschool age.

35. Psychological bases for the formation of the motivational-need sphere of the child.

36. Psychological health of children, conditions determining it. Ways of maintaining and strengthening psychological health in a preschool institution.

37. The influence of the teacher on the development of children's creativity.

38. Psychological aspects of raising children in boarding schools.

39. Communication and its role in the educational process in preschool age.

40. Accounting for individual typological characteristics of children in the educational process of a preschool institution.

41. Psychological aspects of sex education. Accounting for gender differences in the educational process in a preschool institution.

42. Character formation in preschool and primary school age.

43. Education of students with deviant behavior.

44. Psychological problems of education of gifted and talented children. Basic principles of working with such children.

45. Age sensitivity and its consideration in the educational process.

46. ​​Psychological foundations of self-education in adolescence and youth.

47. Psychology of the teacher's personality.

48. The main professional functions of a preschool teacher.

49. Types of teacher's attitude towards children, their influence on the pupils.

50. Pedagogical abilities, their development among preschool education specialists.

51. Professional - pedagogical skills and ways to improve them.

52. The specifics of pedagogical activity, its structure and functions.

53. Individual style of pedagogical activity and its manifestations among preschool education specialists.

54. The concept of pedagogical communication, the criteria for its effectiveness.

55. Pedagogical reflection, its manifestation in the pedagogical interaction of preschool education specialists.

56. Interaction of the teacher with the parents of pupils, ways of its optimization.

57. Conflicts in pedagogical interaction. Ways and means of their resolution.

58. Self-education and self-education in the system of continuous education of a teacher.

59. Professional health of the teacher. The main ways of its preservation and strengthening.

60. Socio-psychological climate in the teaching staff, its impact on the productivity of the teacher and job satisfaction.

61. The role of the head of a preschool institution in improving the efficiency of the work of members of the teaching staff.

37. Formation of character and problems of adolescence.

50. Professional psychological health of a teacher.

51. Pedagogical orientation and its structure.

52. Pedagogical interaction. Its functions and structure.

1. Subject, tasks and actual problems educational psychology.

Pedagogical psychology- This is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. It is closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

The subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of education and upbringing, both from the side of the student, the educated person, and from the side of the one who organizes this training and upbringing, i.e. from the side of the teacher.

The purpose of educational psychology- to coordinate the pedagogical process and the process of individual development of the student and thereby ensure the inclusion of the student in the pedagogical process.

Based on this, main main task pedagogical psychology is the identification, study and description of the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in different conditions of educational activities and the educational process.

The most important and urgent tasks of pedagogical psychology are as follows:

Disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

Determination of the mechanisms and patterns of learning by the student of socio-cultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation in the individual mind of the student and use in various situations;

Determining the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.);

Determination of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

The study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity;

Determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific, theoretical thinking;

Main practice-oriented tasks pedagogical psychology - the study of the main psychological patterns of the formation of a single pedagogical process and management, the identification of psychological reserves for its improvement, a reasonable combination of individual and collective forms of education and upbringing, the creation of such a psychological climate in an educational institution that would support the psychological health of all subjects of interaction (students, teachers, parents).

The general task of educational psychology is the identification, study and description of the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities, the educational process.

2 . The structure of educational psychology. Communication of educational psychology with other sciences.

The structure of educational psychology consists of 3 sections: psychology of learning;

psychology of education; teacher psychology.

1. Subject learning psychology- development of cognitive activity in the conditions of systematic training. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed.

The psychology of learning explores, first of all, the process of acquiring knowledge and skills adequate to them. Its task is to reveal the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for a successful course.

2. Subject educational psychology- personal development in the context of purposeful organization of the activities of the child, the children's team. The psychology of education studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of a worldview, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

3. Subject teacher psychology- psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity.

Upbringing and education, to one degree or another, is the subject of

research in various sciences: philosophy, sociology, history, pedagogy and

psychology. Philosophy considers the issues of education from the point of view

the formation of actually human traits in a person; sociological

aspects of education cover the structure and content of activities

various social groups and institutions that carry out educational and

teaching functions, being part of the education system; historical

problems of education cover the formation and transformation of educational

educational institutions; goals, content and methods of teaching and

education in different historical periods. But, of course, most of all

Pedagogy and psychology are connected with the problems of education and upbringing.

"

Few sciences, both in the past and today, are subject to such widespread public condemnation and accusations of pseudoscience as pedagogy and psychology. This is despite the fact that interest in these disciplines is steadily increasing. The need to solve psychological and pedagogical problems becomes urgent and largely determines the future of mankind.

Tangible changes in the landscape, human living conditions, development information technologies and exact sciences, on the one hand, and fragmentary knowledge of human nature, on the other. Let's try to figure out: how objective are the accusations of uselessness for modern people to psychology and pedagogy.

What is psychology?

The word "psychology" itself consists of two Greek words- "soul" and "knowledge". As a science, psychology arose relatively recently - at the end of the 19th century, until that moment it was part of philosophy.

“Psychology is both a very old and still very young science - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and yet it is still all in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is calculated only for decades, but its main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy has existed. Years pilot study preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other,” wrote Russian psychologist S.L. Rubinstein in 1940.

Since its inception, psychology has been studying the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development of mental processes, and also explores mental states and mental properties person.

The subject of psychology from antiquity to the beginning of the 18th century was the soul, then the content of the subject of psychological science depended on its direction.

Thus, the English empirical associationist psychology of D. Hartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer studied the phenomena of consciousness, Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, considered the direct experience of the subject to be the subject of psychology. Functionalists studied adaptability (William James), psychophysiology as the origin of mental activities (Ivan Sechenov), behaviorism - behavior (John Watson), psychoanalysis - the unconscious (Sigmund Freud), Gestalt psychology - information processing processes and the results of these processes (Max Wertheimer), humanistic psychology - personal experience human (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May), the system-activity approach in psychology (L. Vygotsky, P. Galperin, D. Elkonin, V. Davydov) calls the subject of psychology that is currently relevant in Russian pedagogy activity.

Psychologists use general scientific methods, for example, experiment, observation, questioning, questioning, as well as the actual psychological methods for conducting research, analyzing the data obtained, drawing conclusions.

Modern psychology

Today it is a multi-colored kaleidoscope of various psychological directions, psychological techniques, theories and is divided into different branches: general, age, children's, social, pedagogical, history of psychology, personality theory, etc.

A practicing psychologist independently makes a choice on the basis of which method he will work - psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy, cognitive psychology, behavioral approach, Synton method, neurolinguistic programming, etc.

Often a psychologist is forced to make some kind of compilation of several psychological techniques in order to get a visible result of his activity. It should be noted that domestic psychologists are in a more difficult position than Western ones, since the 1936 decree "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" eliminated pedology, which practically froze the development of psychological science in our country for several decades.

Only in 1966 were faculties of psychology created at the main universities of the country - Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the Department of Psychiatry and medical psychology at RUDN. However, the pressure from the ideology of Marxism-Leninism on psychology remains for a long period. Achievements, like the fallacies of Western psychology, became widespread in our country in the mid-1980s.

Meanwhile, despite the steady growth and accumulation of knowledge, research in various branches of psychology as a whole, the feeling of a crisis in psychology intensifies in society, since none of the areas of psychology fully and accurately explains the nature of a person, the reasons for his behavior. All this gives reason to doubt the scientific nature of psychology.

Between science and pseudoscience

Psychology is closely connected with natural science, ethnography, sociology, cultural theory, art history, mathematics, logic, and linguistics. Yes, it is so interconnected that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the actual psychology.

In addition, psychological methods are poorly described and studied. The patterns identified by psychologists are not always the same. Many psychological theories are not confirmed in practice. Psychologists work to solve problems, and they should help to avoid them.

This prompts psychologists to look for effective recipes for working with people, for example, in astrology, esotericism, which allows, for example, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. V. Yurevich to conclude: “Psychology occupies an intermediate position between science and parascience ".

A few words about pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated from Greek, means "child-rearing", since in Ancient Greece a teacher was a slave who was assigned to a student.

The need for the emergence of a science that studies the laws of upbringing and education of a person arose as society accumulated knowledge and the need to understand the methods of successful transmission of social experience from generation to generation.

If psychology studies a person, his psyche, then pedagogy is a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with the development of an individual.

How to raise a child, reveal his talents, educate, instill social norms, contribute to the formation of personality? What changes occur in the human psyche under the influence of training and education?

Pedagogy is called upon to answer these questions in order to provide an opportunity to foresee and manage the educational process, to understand how to properly develop a personality.

However, by and large, today pedagogical science is not much different from everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, as it consists of disparate facts, theories that have little evidence in practice. more and more reminiscent of quackery in medicine.

social pedagogy

Social pedagogy is a branch of pedagogy that studies how social environment affects the formation of personality and how best to organize socialization. It is designed to help solve psychological and pedagogical problems in practice, in modern realities. Social pedagogy explores only the field of education carried out by society and the state.

A.V. Mudrik in the textbook "Social pedagogy" writes: "Social pedagogy is a branch of knowledge, having studied which you can learn, firstly, about what will inevitably happen or can happen in the life of a person of a particular age in certain circumstances. Secondly, how can favorable conditions be created for human development, to prevent "failures" in the process of his socialization. And thirdly, how can one reduce the effect of the influence of those unfavorable circumstances in which a person finds himself, the effect of that undesirable thing that happens in the process of socialization of a person.

Social pedagogy and psychology are very close. To check the psychological readiness of a child for school is psychology, but to prepare him for school is already pedagogy.

Thus, it is assumed that the psychologist should only state, explain, recommend, but really influence the behavior of a person, his psyche, this is already the task of the teacher. From this it becomes clear the emergence of psychological and pedagogical faculties and the specialty of a teacher-psychologist.

At the same time, every year there is a growing need not only to provide direct psychological assistance to people, but also to prevent problems and prevent them.

However, again, instead of effective methods, we see general recipes worn to holes:

if you want to solve a problem, know yourself (including your past lives); do not stop in your development - continuing education waiting for you; don't be a victim - be the author of your life; do not be a consequence - become the cause of everything that happens around you; value life, take care of your health; first love children, and then educate them; your thoughts are your life...

Meaningful invocations. Well, for some reason they don't work. Thinking doesn't change. A lump of social contradictions is growing, hatred, anger, aggressiveness, a decline in morality, and the number of people who do not feel the joy of life is increasing.

Formulas similar to spells - "should", "must", "should" - dissolve in the vacuum of psychological illiteracy, hanging in the air of topical questions about human nature.

System-Vector Psychology

And if you were told that a long-awaited breakthrough had occurred in psychology, would you believe it? No. And rightly so. Because all the provisions of real psychological science do not need to be taken on faith, as well as create special conditions in order to see how it works. Her theory is inseparable from practice. She is life itself.

So, latest achievement in the world of psychology is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan, which for the first time allows you to accurately differentiate people according to their innate inclinations and reveals the meaning of socialization (introducing a person to culture).

All people are initially born with - vectors that determine the way a person thinks, his life values, desires. Properties are given by nature, but their implementation and development are not predetermined. It depends on the landscape, the society in which a person falls.

Nobody is born a criminal or a genius. Yes, initially each child is different from the other, but how his innate abilities (and they always exist) will be realized and developed is a question for parents, teachers, and society.

System-vector psychology defines: anal, skin, muscle, urethral (lower vectors), oral, olfactory, sound, visual (upper vectors). Each modern person has several vectors, since the landscape is changing, and sometimes contradictory properties are needed to adapt to it.

Accordingly, the more dramatic changes occur in people's living conditions, the more multi-vectored (others are already in starting opportunities than their own parents) children are born.

Today we are clearly seeing children of the "information formation", unlike previous generations. The gap between them and us is enormous. Sharply on the agenda is the question of how to understand a child, how to help him discover his abilities to the fullest and become happy.

Basics of child psychology

Up to a year is simple. He is born with the given basic properties, which he will have to develop before the end of the puberty period (approximately 12-15 years). Then you can only correct all those conditions that "come from childhood."

The main thing that parents of a baby up to a year need to concentrate on is maintaining his life. In this period, the baby eats a lot, grows rapidly and takes the first steps in the knowledge of the world around him. His character is clearly visible, and this must be reckoned with.

For example, a baby who quickly adapts to changes easily endures trips, eats calmly on the road, but an anal toddler, endowed with a rigid psyche, hard tolerating changes, will worry, show anxiety, for him a new environment is stress (even when you change clothes) . By understanding the vector set of their child, parents will be able to provide him with a sense of security necessary for his full development.

The psychology of a child at the age of 2 changes - he begins to walk, the zone of mastering the world expands, in addition, the baby constantly replenishes his vocabulary, shows an active interest in his own body. Individuality, differences from other children appear more and more clearly. So, the skin baby is active in games, loves new games, toys, and the anal baby sits quietly and draws, looks at books for a long time, and shows conservatism in games.

At the age of three, a child often changes unexpectedly - an obedient daughter becomes a stubborn stubborn, "unwanted", does everything in defiance of her parents. The crisis of three years known in psychology is the birth of the "I" of the child, when he begins to separate himself from the world around him, to realize his desires and needs.

This is the first step towards independence. For many parents, the crisis of a child's three years is a test of their parental aptitude. Will they be able to agree, will they learn how to effectively cope with the baby's tantrums, direct the child's energy in the right direction?

A systematic approach greatly simplifies the life of parents: after the training, they understand what kind of baby is in front of them and what he really wants. freedom must be given, neither prohibitions, nor praise, nor punishment will affect him. It is important to praise the anal peanut for real deeds, adequately limit the skin peanut, build a clear system of prohibitions and rewards.

At the age of three, the most urgent need for children is communication with peers. For the successful socialization of the child, the development of the necessary communication skills in him, it is worth sending him to kindergarten.

It is there, in the children's team, a kind of model of a primitive flock, that he will pass the ranking, find his place in society, the team.

A 4-5-year-old child continues to actively explore the world, begins to ask more and more questions. Some children have obsessive fears - they are afraid of the dark, afraid to be alone. From the point of view of Yuri Burlan's System-Vector Psychology, the state of fear is a manifestation of a visual vector, and until a certain time, the fact that a child is afraid to sleep alone at night is quite normal, this is the archetype of the visual vector, which will develop from fear into love. underlies visual phobias.

It is important for parents to understand what and why is happening to the child in order to adequately respond to his archetypal behavior. For example, it is dangerous for the psyche to drive the viewer into great fear, to fixate him on this state by reading scary tales where fictional characters eat each other. It is extremely harmful to beat a skinner with a belt for what seems to us to be petty theft, but in his perception he simply took what he needed to hide, make a reserve for a "rainy day", or punish him for swearing.

We subconsciously feel how painful it is to punish the baby: we close the spectator in the closet, we beat the mouthpiece, we shout at the soundman, we beat the leather worker, we don’t let him out of the house, we drive the anal man ... And then all these sins of parental upbringing remain anchors in the psyche of adults .

In the psychology of a child of 6-7 years old, the concept of sexuality arises. During this period, children go through primary puberty, so there are very frequent cases when children of this age become victims of pedophiles.

Most kids go, starts new stage in their social life - with new guidelines, authorities, demands. Parents are faced with the question of how best to help their child adapt to school. Without systemic knowledge, parents and educators act at random. Well, if the properties of parents and children coincide, then they understand each other through themselves. And if not? In this case, the child is faced with double stress, the sources of which are the school and misunderstanding of the parents.

In the psychology of a child at the age of 8, as in child psychology at the age of 9, the development of upper vectors, intellectual abilities, is relevant.

In general, by the puberty period, the child must already go through the ranking according to the animal type, where the strong defeat the weak, where relationships are sorted out through fights, and learn to gain authority in the team in a socially acceptable form, determine their niche in society.

Thus, the knowledge accumulated by pedagogy and psychology, social pedagogy, works selectively, from case to case, since they do not distinguish one person from another, do not possess effective methodology work with a person.

Such a technique is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan. This is the microscope through which anyone who looks sees the differences (vectors, their level of development and implementation) of people and is unlikely to teach the "fish" to fly, and this is the basis of any methods of education and training, the foundation for solving urgent social problems through changing the consciousness of a particular member of society to a collective consciousness.

Proofreader: Zifa Akhatova

The article was written based on the materials of the training " System-Vector Psychology»