Austria-Hungary (German Österreich-Ungarn, officially since November 14, 1868 - German Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone (Kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat and lands of the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen), unofficial full name - German Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy), Hungarian Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia, Czech Rakousko-Uhersko) is a dual monarchy and a multinational state in Central Europe that existed in 1867-1918. The third largest state in Europe of its time, after the British and Russian empires, and the first of those wholly located in Europe.

Military map of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1882-1883. (1:200,000) - 958mb

Map Description:

Military maps of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary

Year of issue: late 19th, early 20th century
Publisher: geographical department of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff
Format: jpg scans 220dpi
Scale: 1:200,000

Description:
265 sheets
Coverage of maps from Strassburg to Kyiv

Story

Austria-Hungary appeared in 1867 as a result of a bilateral agreement that reformed the Austrian Empire (which, in turn, was created in 1804). In foreign policy, Austria-Hungary was part of the Three Emperors Alliance with Germany and Russia, then the Triple alliance with Germany and Italy. In 1914, as part of the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and later also Bulgaria), she joined the First world war.
The assassination of the Archduke by Gavrila Princip (Mlada Bosna) in Sarajevo served as a pretext for Austria-Hungary to unleash a war against Serbia, which inevitably led to a conflict with Russian Empire, which concluded a defensive alliance with the latter.

Borders

In the north, Austria-Hungary bordered Saxony, Prussia and Russia, in the east - with Romania and Russia, in the south - with Romania, Serbia, Turkey, Montenegro and Italy and was washed by the Adriatic Sea, and in the west - with Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Bavaria. (Since 1871 Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria - as part of German Empire).

Administrative division

Politically, Austria-Hungary was divided into two parts - the Austrian Empire (see details Austrian lands within Austria-Hungary), ruled with the help of the Reichsrat, and the Kingdom of Hungary, which included historical lands the Hungarian crown and subordinate to the Hungarian parliament and government. Unofficially, these two parts were called Cisleithania and Transleithania, respectively. Annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, Bosnia and Herzegovina was not included in either Cisleithania or Transleithania and was governed by special authorities.

Collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918

Simultaneously with the defeat in the war, Austria-Hungary collapsed (November 1918): Austria (as part of the German-speaking lands) proclaimed itself a republic, in Hungary the king from the Habsburg dynasty was deposed, and the Czech lands and Slovakia formed a new independent state - Czechoslovakia. Slovenian, Croatian and Bosnian lands became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (from 1929 - Yugoslavia). Krakow land and territories with a predominantly Ukrainian population (known as part of Austria-Hungary as Galicia) went to another new state - Poland. Trieste, the southern part of Tyrol, and somewhat later Fiume (Rijeka) were annexed by Italy. Transylvania and Bukovina became part of Romania

Agreement of 1867 and the establishment of a dualistic monarchy

Numerous non-Austrian territories were under the scepter of the Habsburgs. The age-old policy of assimilation of enslaved peoples was not crowned with success, and the peoples inhabiting the empire were increasingly imbued with the spirit of national self-consciousness.
Such a process was actively going on in Bohemia (Czech Republic). The actual loss of independence of the Czech kingdom was the result of the failure of the anti-Habsburg uprising, which culminated in the defeat in 1620 at Belaya Gora. Under Maria Theresa, the Czech possessions of the Habsburgs in 1749 completely lost their administrative independence. German culture and language were planted in the cities. But already in the first half of the XIX century. in Czech cities, a movement for national revival begins. In the late 60s - early 70s. 19th century the process of formation of the Czech nation is completed. And although the ideas of Austro-Slavism dominated among the Czech intelligentsia, the very political reality nourished nationalist sentiments.
A number of provinces were partially, and Krajna was completely populated by Slovenes. They were considered the most Germanized Slavic ethnos, but even here national self-consciousness grew. In 1868, at one of the rallies, the call aroused universal approval: “All of us, Slovenes, do not want to be either Styrians, or Carinthians, or Primorians, we want to be only Slovenes united in a single Slovenia.”
Cieszyn Silesia and Western Galicia, which fell under the rule of the Habsburgs, made up less than 10% of the ethnically Polish lands, but by 1870 almost 25% of the Poles inhabiting the entire Polish national territory lived in them. The Poles had a pronounced desire to restore national-state independence. Only in Eastern Galicia did the socially and nationally oppressed Ukrainian peasantry gravitate toward other Little Russian regions, but even here the ruling class was Polish or Polonized, which determined the guidelines for political development.
Even more acute were the national-ethnic processes in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was part of the Habsburg Monarchy. Revolution of 1848-1849 consolidated the Hungarian nation, which was facilitated by a number of factors: the presence of a powerful noble class; continuous state-political tradition of the Kingdom of Hungary, preserved despite the loss in the 16th century. independence and Ottoman rule in the 16th-17th centuries; the presence of political institutions in the form of a state assembly and a developed committee system; the administrative and political unity of the kingdom, which included in its composition the entire mass of the Magyar population; finally, a sharp difference between the Magyar language and the language of its neighbors.
The formation of the Croatian nation took place in conditions of administrative and political fragmentation: Croatia and Slavonia were part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and the so-called Croatian-Slavonian military border was under the control of the Ministry of War. In addition, Croatia in 1868 received some autonomous rights that the rest of the Yugoslav regions of the empire did not have. The conflict with the ruling Magyar core of the kingdom was fueled first by the ideas of Illyrianism (the creation of the Illyrian kingdom under the rule of the Habsburgs as part of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia), and then Yugoslavism, that is, the unification of the South Slavic peoples (Croats, Slovenes, Serbs) into a single state entity.
Serbs inhabited the southern part of the Kingdom of Hungary - Vojvodina, lived in Croatia, Slavonia, on the territory of the Croatian-Slavic military border, in Dalmatia. They gravitated toward Serbia, which, with the acquisition of autonomy, became the center of attraction and the core of Serbian statehood.
Since the early Middle Ages, Slovakia has been part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Magyarization of its ruling class, although it slowed down, could not stop the trend towards the formation of a special Slovak identity.
The Romanians of Transylvania, which was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, did not stop friction with the Magyar authorities. The realization of their ethnic community with the population of the Romanian principalities, and then the independent Romanian state, caused, especially during the First World War, the desire to reunite with Romania.
The most difficult ethnic problem arose before the indigenous people of Austria themselves. The centuries-old desire of the Germans of Austria for hegemony in the German lands did not allow them to recognize themselves as a separate national entity from the Germans in Germany. They were also united by a common language and culture. But the collapse of the idea of ​​uniting the German lands under the leadership of Austria as a result of the defeat in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 and the subsequent formation of the North German Confederation, and then the German Empire, required a revision of the existing national-political priorities. The Austrian Germans were faced with the necessity of accepting as inevitable the path of independent national development. But this reorientation was painful and difficult, because, according to a contemporary, the entire German-speaking part of the empire "thought and felt like Germans and perceived the state division as unnatural, as a result of the Prussian power policy." The process of self-identification of Austrian Germans as Austrians took almost a century. Austria had to go through many dramatic events, so that already after the Second World War, in October 1946, the Austrian Chancellor L. Figl could clearly fix the new sense of national identity of the Austrians: “Centuries have passed over Austria. From the mixing of the ancient Celtic population with the Bavarians and Franks, under the shadow of the stoi-linguistic conglomeration of the Roman legions, just like later under the shadow of the conquering invasions of the Asian peoples - the Magyars, the Huns and others, including the invading Turks, finally, strongly mixing with the young Slavic blood , with Magyar and Romanesque elements, here a people arose from below, which represents something of its own in Europe, but not the second German state and not the second German people, but the new Austrian people".
In order to overcome the growing social and national-political contradictions, it was necessary to modernize the empire and carry out radical reforms. In 1867, Austria and Hungary signed an agreement. The Austrian Empire was transformed into a dualistic (dual) monarchy - Austria-Hungary. Legislative framework of the new state was a set of laws, the so-called December constitution, adopted on December 21, 1867. In accordance with it, both parts of the empire were united on the basis of a personal union - the emperor of Austria was the king of Hungary, therefore Emperor Franz Joseph and Empress Elisabeth were crowned in Budapest as the Hungarian king and queen. Common to the entire state were only the ministries of foreign affairs, military and finance. Each of the two countries had its own parliament, government, national army, and had practically equal rights and duties. The parliaments in Vienna and Budapest elected delegations of 60 representatives to consider general imperial issues. The monarch was endowed with extensive rights: in relation to both states, to appoint and dismiss heads of governments, to give consent to the appointment of ministers, to approve laws adopted by parliaments, to convene and dissolve parliaments, to issue emergency decrees. The emperor led foreign policy and the armed forces. The constitution provided for the equality of subjects of all parts of the empire before the law, guaranteed the basic civil rights- freedom of speech, assembly, religion, declared the inviolability of private property and housing, the secrecy of correspondence. Austria-Hungary acquired the status of a constitutional monarchy.
The introduction of a dualistic system of government provided for the consolidation of the leading role for the Austrians in the lands subject to Austria, and for the Magyars - in Hungary. The territories of Austrian and Hungarian competence, separated by the Leyta River, constituted Cisleithania and Transleithania.
The composition of Cisleithania included: Austria proper; Moravia with a predominantly German population (capital Brno); Czech Republic (then known as Bohemia); Silesia (the most important center is Cieszyn) and Western Galicia ( main city- Krakow), inhabited mainly by Poles; Eastern Galicia (center - Lviv) and Bukovyna (center - Chernivtsi) with predominantly Ukrainians; Krajna, Istria, Hertz and Trieste, which together constituted Slovenia with the center in Ljubljana; stretching along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, Dalmatia, inhabited by the Slavs and Italians. The Germans in Cisleithania made up only a third of the population.
The composition of Transyaitania included: Hungary; Romanian in terms of population Transylvania; Slavic provinces - Transcarpathia (the most important city - Uzhgorod), Slovakia (center - Bratislava), Croatia and Slavonia (center - Zagreb), Serbian Vojvodina and Banat (Temesvar); Adriatic PortFiume. The Magyars in Transleithania numbered less than half.
Austro-Hungarian dualism removed a significant part of the contradictions between Austria and Hungary, but the removal from power on the principles of autonomy of the Romanians of Transylvania, the Italians of the Tyrol and Primorye, the Slavic peoples aggravated the confrontation between them and the privileged Austrian and Hungarian elites. After the conclusion of the agreement of 1867, Emperor Franz Joseph and his governments could not solve the Slavic problem, on the contrary, they made it even more complicated in connection with the Bosnian question. In accordance with the decision of the Berlin Congress, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, but Turkey retained formal sovereignty over them. When the Young Turk revolution took place in 1908, a situation arose in which Austria-Hungary could lose control over the actually occupied lands. In order to prevent this, on October 5, 1908, Franz Joseph annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Turkey, not having the support of the great powers, signed an agreement with Austria-Hungary in February 1909, under which it recognized the annexation and accepted as payment for the renunciation of sovereignty over these areas 2.5 million pounds. Art.
The accession of new provinces intensified interethnic contradictions in the empire. According to the 1910 census, out of almost 52 million people, about 30 million were Slavs, Romanians, and Italians; There were 12 million Germans and almost 10 million Magyars. Ethnically heterogeneous parts of the state, not connected with the Habsburgs and among themselves by a community of interests and goals, irresistibly embarked on the path of national revival. The Czechs unsuccessfully sought equal status with Austria and Hungary, i.е. the transformation of dualism into trialism in the form of a federation of Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic. The separatist movement in South Tyrol with a predominantly Italian population was distinguished by a strong intensity. Croats and Romanians demanded recognition of cultural identity and political equality. Clashes with the Austrian and Hungarian authorities were complicated by ethnic conflicts between Germans and Czechs in Bohemia, Croats and Italians in Dalmatia, Serbs and Croats in the southern regions of Hungary and Austria, Polish landowners and Ukrainian peasants in Eastern Galicia. Hopes for the acquisition of autonomy within the framework of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy were not destined to come true. The national movements of the peoples with no rights came into irreconcilable contradiction with the policy of the empire and gave rise to irremediable conflicts that gradually undermined the Habsburg monarchy and, in the final analysis, destroyed it.

Socio-political and economic development of Austria-Hungary in the 19th - 20th centuries

The internal political vector of the Habsburg Empire on the second sexual development of the fault of the 19th - early 20th centuries. They determined the loss of Lombardy and Venice as a result of the defeat in the Austro-Italian-French war of 1859 and the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, the collapse of the Austrian plans for the Great German path of unification of Germany as a result of the loss of Prussia in the same war of 1866, and finally, the transformation in 1867 the empire into the dualistic Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. These events decisively changed the range of domestic political problems of Austria-Hungary. The monarchy threw off the burden of German affairs, yielding to Prussia the concerns associated with them, freed itself from the need for constant confrontation with the national liberation movement in the Italian provinces, and simplified the national situation in the empire itself in connection with the granting of a certain independence to Hungary. All this freed forces for the modernization of the political field of the empire itself.
Interethnic conflicts between Germans and Czechs in Bohemia, Poles and Rusyns in Galicia, Croats and Italians in Dalmatia, Serbs and Croats in the southern regions of Hungary and Austria prompted the monarchy to find ways to overcome them. The severity of national contradictions dictated the need for reforms. They steadily moved the country towards the gradual establishment of bourgeois-democratic institutions. The Austrian government of Prince Adolf Auersperg, the first after the formation of a dual monarchy, passed in 1868 the anti-Catholic "May Laws" on marriage and inter-confessional relations. In 1870, the concordat of 1855 was canceled, according to which Catholic Church was endowed with autonomy, Catholicism was recognized as the state religion, and civil marriage between Catholics was prohibited. In 1868 and 1869 adopted laws on public education, who established an interfaith state compulsory eight-year school, although they retained the teaching of religion. The development of school education led to a rapid reduction in illiteracy. In 1872, the Jury Court was introduced, and in 1875, the Supreme Administrative Court in Vienna.
In the 1880s reformed labor legislation: established a maximum working day for adults and adolescents, introduced mandatory Sunday rest, social insurance for sickness and accidents, and created a system of labor inspectors.
In 1873, the government of Auersperg, in order to limit the role of local diets (landtags) 1, carried out a reform, according to which the Reichsrat was elected not by the diets, but directly by voters. The latter were divided into four curia with different norms of representation. One deputy was elected: by the curia of the chambers of commerce - every 24 major industrialists and financiers; according to the curia of large landowners - every 53 landlords; in the citywide curia, every 4,000 voters; in the curia of rural communities - every 12,000 voters. The new electoral system, having established a high property qualification, included only 6% of the population in the elections. The electoral reform ensured the hegemony of the landed aristocracy and the big bourgeoisie, and also guaranteed the predominance of Austrian Germans in the Reichsrat: there were 220 of them against a little over 130 deputies of other nationalities. In 1882, the government of Edouard Taaffe reduced the property requirement for those eligible to vote from 10 to 5 florins of annual tax, which significantly increased the number of voters at the expense of artisans, small merchants and peasants. The cabinet of Kazimir Badenya, who came to power in 1895, in another attempt to eliminate the internal political crisis, established the fifth, the so-called general curia. It included all men over the age of 24, who elected one deputy from almost 70 thousand voters - the electorate increased from 1.7 to 5 million people. In line with the democratization of the political system of Austria, the electoral reform of 1907 took place. It provided for universal equal, direct and secret voting for men. The number of mandates was determined not according to population, but according to nationalities, taking into account their tax burden. Therefore, the Germans, who made up 35% of the population, but paid 63% of taxes, received 43% of the mandates.
During the last third of the 19th - early 20th century. The economy of the Habsburg Monarchy gradually overcame its former, predominantly agrarian character, as a result of which the empire moved into the category of industrial-agrarian countries. In 1913, among the 20 leading industrial powers of the world, Austria-Hungary ranked 10th in terms of industrial output per capita. This progress was largely the result of the agreement of 1867 and the establishment of liberal-constitutional orders in the empire, which favored the capitalist development of the economy, especially industry. In the interests of the bourgeoisie, the laws restricting the free sale of land were abolished. The state exempted railway companies from taxes and guaranteed them a 5% return on invested capital, which gave impetus to railway construction and, consequently, the development of heavy industry. Foreign banks were given the right to open branches in Vienna.
During this period, large enterprises arose. The Skoda company in the Czech Republic became one of the main suppliers of weapons not only for Austria-Hungary, but also for many European states. In the 1870s began the formation of monopolistic industrial associations. Thus, the production of iron and steel in Cisleithania was concentrated by 6 largest associations, which concentrated 90% of iron production and 92% of steel smelting. Investment in industry has increased sharply. Only in 1910 and 1911. 10 times more capital was invested in joint-stock companies than industry, trade and handicraft production combined received in the previous 80 years. The number of joint-stock companies in Cisleithania by 1910 exceeded 580. At the same time, a high degree of concentration of production and the presence of monopolies were combined with a large number of small enterprises.
A characteristic feature of the economic development of Cisleithania was its unevenness. A significant part of the industry was concentrated in the Austrian lands proper, as well as in Bohemia and Moravia. The number of workers employed in the industry of the Czech lands in 1910 amounted to 56% of the industrial proletariat of Cisleitania. At the same time, in Galicia, for example, in 1910, 82% of the population was employed in agriculture and only 5.7% in industry. The manufacturing industry of the Slovenian lands (Kraina, Istria) was in its infancy. Dalmatia by general level economic development lagged behind even Krajina.
Despite the high rates of economic development, the absolute size of production in the empire was small. At the turn of the century, Austria ranked only 7th in iron smelting. Under these conditions, favorable opportunities were created for the penetration of foreign capital into the country: English, French, Belgian, Italian. But by the end of the XIX century. Germany became the main creditor and trading partner of the Habsburg Monarchy. The strong influence of German capital was felt in all sectors of the Austro-Hungarian economy: banking, railway construction, mechanical engineering, chemical, electrical industries. In the prewar years, German capital held 50% of Austrian and Hungarian securities. In the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as of 1899, 52% of exports went to Germany and 34% of imports from Germany. The financial and economic dependence of the Habsburg Monarchy on Germany became stronger and stronger.
The concentration process led to the formation of powerful financial groups in Austria. How strong the Austrian banks were is shown by the fact that the National Bank in 1909 owned a capital of £85 million. Art., and the Bank of England controlled 82 million pounds. Art. Austrian finance capital, which to a large extent ceded its field of activity in the empire to foreign monopolies, compensated for itself by penetrating into Serbia, Bulgaria, Rumania, and Greece. The Austrian bourgeoisie controlled a significant part of the industry of these countries and most of the local banks, and strove for economic and political assertion in the Balkan countries. The aggressive foreign policy of the empire in this region should also be connected with this.

Ways to resolve the national problem in the programs of social and political movements

The national-political history of the empire in the era of dualism is characterized by the struggle of two directions - centralist and federalist. Centralism was the core political system the Habsburg Monarchy and the rule of the Austro-German and Hungarian ruling classes. At the same time, the unresolved national question prompted political parties, social movements, and the ruling elite itself to look for ways out of the political crisis in the transition to a federalist state structure. Plans to transform the monarchy from a dualistic to a trialist one were hatched by the heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand and his entourage. It was planned to create a third state formation within the borders of the empire by uniting the translatian Croatia-Slavonia, the Austrian province of Dalmatia and the annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian-Yugoslavian trialism project aimed to paralyze liberation movements Yugoslavs and strengthen their loyalty to Austria, neutralize the unifying aspirations of Serbia, which was thinking about gathering the South Slavs in one state. Of no small importance was the intention to create a counterbalance to the Hungarian opposition. Naturally, Hungary sharply opposed these plans.
The problems of the national reorganization of the empire were at the center of attention of various community groups. The Christian Social Party, formed in 1891 and in 1907 absorbed the Conservative Catholic People's Party, took anti-Hungarian and anti-Semitic positions on the national question. She rejected the Austro-Hungarian dualism and put forward the idea of ​​transforming the country on the basis of federalism in the state form of the United States of Austria under the leadership of the Habsburgs.
The consolidation of the socialist forces of Austria led to overcoming the split between the moderate and radical currents and the formation of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SDPA) at the unification congress in Geinfelde (December 30, 1888 - January 1, 1889), led by Viktor Adler. As a single entity, the party did not function for long. The Prague Congress (1896) transformed the SDPA into a Federative Union of individual national social democratic parties: Austrian, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, Yugoslav, Italian. Each of the national parties had its own leading centers and enjoyed broad autonomy. A certain unity was ensured by the all-party Executive Committee and Congress, designed to resolve the most general programmatic and organizational issues. The adopted party structure led to a situation where workers of different nationalities found themselves in different party organizations at one enterprise. The principle of division along national lines was also transferred by the SDPA to its vision of solving the national problem in the empire.
One of the leaders of the SDPA Karl Renner in 1899 put forward a program of cultural-national autonomy. Renner believed that cultural-national autonomy, i.e. cultural and national community, regardless of habitat, will ensure the preservation of a multinational empire. Renner's ideas were accepted to a certain extent by the SDPA congress in Brunn (1899) National program. She demanded: “Austria should be transformed into a state representing a democratic union of nationalities ... Instead of historical crown lands, separate national self-governing administrative units should be formed, in each of which legislation and administration would be in the hands of a national parliament elected on the basis of universal, direct and equal voting. The combination of ideas of non-territorial cultural-national autonomy and limited territorial self-government of nations in the preserved Habsburg Empire could not but lead to new conflicts: “national self-governing administrative units” were by no means always nationally homogeneous, on the contrary, especially in cities, they were distinguished by a multi-ethnic composition of the population.
If these parties proceeded from the need to preserve the empire, then the German National Movement led by Georg von Schörner called for its destruction. The Linz program of 1882, reflecting the concept of the movement, focused on the unification of Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovenia into a single whole with the German language as the state language and the "German character" as the ethnic dominant. The next step in ethnic cleansing was to be the transfer of Galicia and the Yugoslav lands under the jurisdiction of Hungary, with which ties are limited to a personal union. Finally, Schörner demanded that Jewish influence be excluded from all spheres public life. The final stage was supposed to be the accession to Germany of an ethnically and racially “cleansed” Austria. Thus, the pan-German-minded Austrian Germans put forward a program for the actual dismemberment of the empire, but these plans met with a sharp rejection of the monarchy and the majority of the Austrian Germans themselves, who did not seek the abolition of the Habsburg empire and the Anschluss.
All these plans for overcoming the crisis were not and could not be implemented: the imperial state mechanism was not able to modernize itself, even if it was aware that we are talking about the preservation of the empire. The failure of attempts to resolve the Czech-German contradictions testifies to this.

Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th century

1) Domestic policy: exacerbation of social and national problems.

2) Foreign policy: the struggle for a place among the leading powers.

3) Preparation of Austria-Hungary for the First World War and the reasons for the collapse of the empire.

Literature: Shimov Ya. Austro-Hungarian Empire. M. 2003 (bibliography of the issue, p.
Hosted on ref.rf
603-605).

1. The transformation of the unified Austrian Empire into a (dualistic) Austria-Hungary in 1867 allowed the country to maintain its position among the great powers. In December 1867, a liberal constitution was adopted. Emperor Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) had to give up absolutist illusions and become a constitutional ruler. It seemed that the state had avoided collapse, but it immediately had to face new problems: social conflicts, a sharp aggravation of the national question.

The most acute was the national question. At the same time, the Austrian Germans were dissatisfied with the compromise of 1867. A small but very noisy National Party appears in the country (Georg von Schenereyr). The basis of the program of this party was pan-Germanism and support for the Hohenzollern dynasty as the unifier of all Germans. Shenereyr invented a new tactic of political struggle - not participation in parliamentary life, but noisy street demonstrations and power actions. Party members raided the offices of a Viennese newspaper that erroneously announced the death of Wilhelm I. This tactic was later adopted by Hitler's party.

A more influential political force was another party of Austrian Germans - the Christian Socialists (Karl Luger). Program:

1. Exposing the vices of a liberal society that does not care about the poor.

2. Sharp criticism of the ruling elite, which has grown together with the trade and financial oligarchy.

3. Calls to fight against the dominance of the Jewish plutocracy.

4. The struggle against the socialists and Marxists who are leading Europe to revolution.

The social support of the party was the petty bourgeoisie, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, part of the peasantry, rural priests, part of the intelligentsia. In 1895, the Christian Socialists won the elections to the Vienna municipality. Luger was elected mayor of Vienna. This was opposed by Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was annoyed by the popularity, xenophobia and anti-Semitism of Luger. He refused three times to approve the results of the elections and only surrendered in April 1897, having received a promise from Luger to act within the framework of the constitution. Luger kept his promise, dealing exclusively with economic issues and constantly demonstrating loyalty, he even refused anti-Semitism (ʼʼwho is the Jew here, I decideʼʼ). Luger becomes the leader and idol of the Austrian middle class.

The workers, urban and rural poor followed the Social Democrats (SDPA). The leader is Viktor Adler, who completely reformed the party. 1888 - the party announces itself with mass actions: the organization of ʼʼhungry marchesʼʼ, the organization of the first actions on May 1. The attitude towards the Social Democrats in Austria-Hungary is better than in Germany. Franz Joseph I saw the Social Democrats as allies in the fight against the nationalists. Adler's personal meeting with the emperor, where he and Karl Renner proposed to the emperor their concept of solving the national question (the project of federalization of the monarchy):

1. Divide the empire into separate national areas with broad autonomy in the field of internal self-government (Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia, Transylvania, Croatia).

2. Create a cadastre of nationalities, give every citizen the right to register in it. He can use his native language in everyday life and in contacts with the state (all languages ​​\u200b\u200bmust be declared equal in the daily life of citizens).

3. All peoples must be granted broad cultural autonomy.

4. The central government should be in charge of developing a common economic strategy, defense and foreign policy of the state.

The project was utopian, but by order of the emperor, it began to be implemented in two provinces - Moravia and Bukovina. The sharp protest of the Austrian Germans and Hungarians. Such a close rapprochement between the leaders of the socialists and the emperor provoked a sharp protest from the social democrats and led to a split in this party. Adler's opponents ironically called them "imperial and royal socialists". The SDPA is actually falling apart into several socialist parties.

Nationalism had a detrimental effect on the unity of the empire. After the recognition of the rights of Hungary, the Czech provinces (Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia) began to claim such rights. The Czech Republic is the third most developed country after Austria and Hungary. The Czechs demanded not only cultural, but also national-state autonomy.

Back in the early 70s of the XIX century, the Czech elite split into two groups - Old Czechs and Young Czechs. The former soon founded their own national party, led by František Palacki and Rieger. The main point is the restoration of the ʼʼhistorical rights of the Czech crownʼʼ, the creation of trialism. The government is ready to negotiate. The head of the Austrian government, Count Hohenwart, in 1871 achieved an agreement with the Old Czechs on granting the Czech lands broad internal autonomy, leaving Vienna with the highest sovereignty. The Austrian Germans and Hungarians opposed. The ʼʼHohenwart Compromiseʼʼ denounces the emperor's entourage. Franz Joseph retreated. On October 30, 1871, he referred the decision of this issue to the lower house, where opponents of Czech autonomy predominated. The question is buried, the resignation of Hohenwart. This intensified the activities of the Young Czechs, who in 1871 created their own ʼʼNational Liberal Partyʼʼ (K. Sładkowski, Gregr). If the Old Czechs boycotted the elections to the Reichstag, then the Young Czechs abandon this policy. In 1879, they entered into a coalition with the Austrian and Polish conservative deputies (ʼʼIron Ringʼʼ) in parliament, thus winning a parliamentary majority. Political support was given to the Austrian Prime Minister E. Taaffe (1879-1893). ʼʼEra Taaffeʼʼ - the time of greatest political stability, economic growth and cultural flourishing. Taaffe played on national contradictions. ʼʼ different peoples you need to keep in a state of constant light discontentʼʼ. But as soon as he came up with a project to democratize the electoral system, the block supporting him fell apart. Aristocrats of all nationalities and liberal German nationalists were not ready to allow representatives of ʼʼunprivileged peoplesʼʼ into parliament, primarily Slavs, as well as social democrats. In 1893, anti-German, anti-Habsburg demonstrations swept through the Slavic cities. Cause for Taaffe's resignation. All subsequent governments have to solve the most difficult national problem. On the one hand, the reform of the electoral system was inevitable, on the other hand, the government could not lose the support of the Austrian Germans. Germans (35% of the population) provided 63% of tax collections. The government of Badoni (1895-1897) fell due to an attempt to introduce bilingualism in the Czech Republic. Czech cities are again overwhelmed by a wave of unrest. German politicians (von Monsen) urged the Austrian Germans not to surrender to the Slavs. Russia secretly supported the struggle of the Slavs, relying on the Young Czechs. In the western part of the monarchy (Cisleithania), universal suffrage was introduced in 1907, opening the way to parliament for both the Slavs and the Social Democrats. The fight flares up with renewed vigor.

In addition to the Czech question, there were other acute national problems in Austria-Hungary. In the South Slavic lands - pan-Slavism, in Galicia - strife between Polish landowners and Ukrainian peasants, South Tyrol and Istria (700 thousand Italians) were covered by a movement for joining Italy (iredentism).

National problems all the time posed new questions for the government. Franz Joseph I was a master of political compromise ʼʼJosefinismʼʼ, but he fought all the time with the consequences, not the causes.

2. Since the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century, there were 3 basic problems in the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary:

1. Close alliance with Germany.

2. Careful advance to the Balkans.

3. The desire to avoid a new big war.

An alliance with Germany was necessary for Vienna in order to ensure advance into the Balkans and neutralize Russian influence there. Prussia needed the support of Austria to counter France. It remains to oppose something to the influence of Great Britain. Bismarck invites Franz Joseph and Alexander II to conclude the "Union of the Three Emperors" (1873). however, the rivalry between St. Petersburg and Vienna in the Balkans significantly weakened this alliance. Austria-Hungary lost the opportunity to influence the affairs of Germany and Italy. She did not have colonies and did not seek to acquire them. It could only strengthen its position in the Balkans. She is frightened by the possibility of Russia using pan-Slavism to strike at Ottoman Empire. Vienna takes a course to support the Turks.

In 1875 the situation in the Balkans sharply worsened. Slavic uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks brutally suppressed the uprisings. In Russia, the public demands from the tsar to provide decisive support to the Slavic brothers. Franz Joseph I and his foreign minister, Count Gyula Androshi, hesitated: they did not want to push Turkey away. Bismarck advised to negotiate with Russia on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans. In January-March 1877, Austro-Russian diplomatic agreements were signed (Vienna received freedom of action in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for benevolent neutrality during Russian-Turkish war). The Treaty of San Stefano of 1878 provided for the creation of an independent Bulgaria, the strengthening of Montenegro and Serbia. In Vienna, this was regarded as a violation of the agreement. During the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria received permission from the Great Powers to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina while formally maintaining Turkish sovereignty. The territories of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro were cut. The triumph of Androsha's policy. The only time Austria-Hungary gained land and did not lose it.

Cons of this acquisition: the new lands were poor, the existence of significant social and national problems. These lands became an "apple of discord" between Vienna and St. Petersburg. The ʼʼUnion of the Three Emperorsʼʼ received a mortal blow.
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This throws Austria into the closest alliance with Germany. On October 7, 1879, a secret Austro-German agreement was signed in Vienna. Franz Joseph I finally falls into the sphere of influence of Wilhelm I and Bismarck.

After the accession to the throne of the emperor Alexander III Bismarck is pushing Franz Joseph I to renew the "Union of Three Emperors", but the Bulgarian question (the Austro-German protege ceased to suit Russia) finally buried this union. Austria managed to significantly strengthen its position in Serbia, whose economy completely fell under Austrian control. The Serbian prince (since 1881 king) Milos Abrenovich, who was entangled in debt, offered Franz Joseph to "buy" Serbia, but he refused, fearing the preponderance of the Slavs in Austria-Hungary. Bismarck pushed Austria to improve relations with Italy. In his opinion, Italy, in the event of a new Franco-German war, could divert part of the French forces to itself. On May 20, 1882, the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was concluded in Vienna. Italy, the weak link, withdrew from the union in 1912ᴦ. but until then

assistance allowed Vienna to strengthen its advance in the Balkans.

After the death of Wilhelm I and the resignation of Bismarck, Germany also begins to look at the Balkans. This caused Franz Joseph and his foreign minister, Count Holuchovsky, to turn their attention back to improving relations with Russia. The rapprochement of the two countries was facilitated by the death of Alexander III and the accession to the throne of Nicholas II. During 1896-1897, the parties exchanged official state visits, agreements were concluded on non-obstruction to each other in the south-east of Europe. But this improvement in relations did not cancel Vienna's desire to completely annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia wanted to achieve control over the Black Sea straits. The Austrian General Staff in the late 1890s begins to develop plans for a war with Russia.

On June 11, 1903, a coup d'etat took place in Serbia. King Alexander Abrenovich and his wife Draga were overthrown and killed by conspiring officers (ʼʼPeople's Defenseʼʼ and ʼʼBlack Handʼʼ). King Peter I Karageorgievich, who sympathized with the ideas of pan-Slavism and Russia, came to the throne. Austrian influence in Serbia begins to wane. The Austrian government tried to change the situation with a customs war (pig), but the Serbs quickly found other trading partners such as France, Germany and Bulgaria, and Austria finally lost the Serbian market. Serbs, with the support of Russia, begin to put forward claims to create a "Great Serbia" with the inclusion of Bosnia and Herzegovina (occupied by the Austrians since 1878), as well as all Austrian lands inhabited by Slavs (Slovenia).

The situation in the Balkans quickly heated up (ʼʼpowder keg of Europeʼʼ). Three basic problems:

10. the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence

11. contradictions between young, independent states: Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece were at enmity over Macedonia, and Romania and Bulgaria - because of Dobruja (a region in the lower reaches of the Danube)

12. Serbia and Italy claimed dominance over the Albanian lands, which worried Austria-Hungary.

Bosnian Crisis 1908-1909.

A war with Serbia inevitably meant a clash between Austria and Russia. It was extremely important for Vienna to get the support of Berlin, but in Berlin they did not want to spoil relations with Serbia, since Germany began to actively develop the Serbian market. Vienna tried to bring Turkey into the union, but she was weakened by the Young Turk revolution of 1908ᴦ.

In this situation, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria, Baron (and later Count) Alois Lexa von Ehrenthal (1906-1912) headed for the complete annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was a strategically important part of the Balkan Peninsula, inhabited by Orthodox Serbs (42%), Catholic Croats (21%) and Bosniaks (34%, Muslim Slavs). The Austrians were forced to act immediately by the events in Turkey, where, after the successful revolution of 1908, parliamentary elections were scheduled. On August 19, 1908, at a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers, Erenthal declared the extreme importance of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was supported by the Chief of the Austrian General Staff, General Konrad von Getzendorf, and the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand d'Este.

Emperor Franz Joseph I hesitated, fearing Russian discontent, but Erenthal was able to negotiate with the Russian Foreign Minister Izvolsky, who promised not to object to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in return Erenthal promised to support St. Petersburg's demand for a revision of the status of the Black Sea straits. Ehrenthal knew that Great Britain would be strongly opposed to this. And so it happened. Izvolsky's mission to London ended unsuccessfully. And on October 6, Franz Joseph I announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This caused indignation in Serbia, and in St. Petersburg, Izvolsky was subjected to sharp criticism in the State Duma. He justifies himself, claiming that Erenthal deceived him by not specifying the exact terms of the annexation, but the documents caught him in a lie. Petersburg felt deceived, but this acquisition brought new difficulties to Vienna:

7. Berlin was extremely offended by the fact that France found out about the annexation earlier than Germany, due to the negligence of the ambassador in Paris, Kevenhüller.

8. Turkey did not agree with this loss and announced a boycott of all Austrian goods on the Turkish market. Turkey was only able to calm down with a huge compensation of 54 million marks.

9. Belgrade announces the mobilization of reservists and increases the military budget by 16 million dinars.

Serbia hoped for help from Russia, but Russia, weakened by the revolution of 1905-1907, could not fight. The Serbs were tried in every possible way to reassure the Serbs from St. Petersburg, promising that Serbia would receive compensation for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Erenthal categorically refuses this, stating that the Serbs have not lost anything. Vienna turns to Berlin for help, but Berlin is also not going to fight. Chancellor Bulow appeals to St. Petersburg with a proposal not to object to this annexation. If his proposal was not accepted, Bülow threatened to ʼʼleave events to their natural courseʼʼ. Petersburg was forced to retreat. London also influenced the Serbs to come to terms with this loss. On March 31, 1909, Serbia officially agreed to recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ehrenthal won, but this only added to Vienna's problems:

1) The Treasury suffered significant material losses associated with the compensation of Turkey and the mobilization of reservists.

2) The hostility of Russia is sharply manifested.

3) Hostility towards Austria is growing among the Bosnian Serbs.

4) The Austrian Germans and Hungarians are extremely dissatisfied with the sharp increase in the Slavic population of the Empire.

But there were also pluses of this accession. In particular, the alliance between Austria and Germany was significantly strengthened. Germany, even for a short time, went in line with Austrian policy (the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909).

3. The time, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, preceded the First World War, for Austria it is an almost continuous chain of large and small crises. The rivalry between the Entente and the Triple Alliance is becoming more and more acute. Moreover, in each of these blocks there was no internal unity.

By 1911, Vienna finally fell under the influence of Berlin, and Ehrenthal died in 1912 from leukemia. After that, the Austrian military elite strengthens its position, and Getzendorf returns to the post of Chief of the General Staff. In 1912, the Balkan problem escalated. The Ottoman Empire is falling apart, losing one province after another. In the summer of 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Balkan Union against Turkey. From October 1912 to June 1913 the first Balkan war was going on. Turkey has lost almost all of its territories in the Balkan Peninsula. In Austria, this caused shock and suspicions of the revitalization of Russia's activities. But having barely won a victory in Turkey, the winners quarreled over the issue of Macedonia. In June 1913, the Second Balkan War began against the aggression of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Romania allied with Turkey. Bulgaria was defeated, losing most of the conquered territory, and Turkey was able to retain a small part of its European possessions, centered on Adrianople (Edirne). Austria-Hungary decided to use the results of the Second Balkan War to weaken Serbia. Vienna supported the idea of ​​creating an independent Albania, hoping that this state would be under the Austrian protectorate. Russia, supporting Serbia, began to concentrate troops near the Austrian border. Austria does the same. It was about the prestige of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, without which it was impossible to resolve the internal national question, but the position of Great Britain and Germany puts off a big war for a while. For a while, the interests of these states intersect. In both countries, it was believed that it was stupid to start a war because of a petty conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Britain did not want to lose profitable trade on mediterranean sea and feared for the ways of communication with the eastern colonies. Germany is actively developing the young Balkan states. Under the joint pressure of the Great Powers, Serbia agrees to the creation of a formally independent Albania. The crisis of 1912 was resolved. But in Vienna there is a sense of defeat. Causes:

6. Serbia did not lose its positions in the Balkans and retained its claims to unite the Balkan Slavs. Austro-Serbian relations were hopelessly damaged.

7. The clash between Romania and Bulgaria destroyed the fragile system of relations beneficial to Austria.

8. More and more contradictions arise between Austria-Hungary and Italy, threatening the collapse of the Triple Alliance.

The abundance of insoluble problems forces Austria-Hungary to hope only for a big war. The aged emperor Franz Joseph I did not want war, but was unable to restrain national strife (the Austrian Germans, the Hungarian elite, the Slavs were dissatisfied). Many of the Austrian politicians saw a way out in the transfer of the throne to the heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand (since 1913 he was appointed to the most important military post of inspector general of the armed forces). He spoke in favor of improving relations with Russia and at the same time was sharply anti-Hungarian.

In June 1914 he left for maneuvers in Bosnia. After the end of the maneuvers, he visited the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. Here he and his wife, Countess Sophia von Hohenberg, were killed on June 28 by Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip of the Black Hand. This pushes Vienna to present an ultimatum to Serbia, which becomes the formal reason for the start of the First World War. Participation in the war to the limit aggravated the internal problems of the Empire and led to its collapse in 1918ᴦ.

Austria-Hungary in the late XIX - early XX century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Austria-Hungary in the late XIX - early XX centuries" 2017, 2018.

The turning point - 1867 - the transformation of the unitary Austrian empire into a dualitarian Austria-Hungary:

1. The defeat of Austria in the war with Prussia in 1866 - alienated from the unification of Germany;
2. National movements (eg Hungarian).

From February 1867 Verger. Minister D. Andrasche is developing a draft Hungarian requirements, which will save Austria. Empire. June-August 1867 The Austrian Emperor approves this project and crowns the King of Hungary. December 1867 - law on the common affairs of Austria and Hungary - dualistic monarchy.

Those. A state in the form of a confederation that has a center. Power. And limited features.

General: the monarch, a single all-imperial minister (András), affairs (military sphere - a single army; foreign policy; funding - 70% Austria and 30% Hungary); Separately: attributes of statehood, parliament, government.

Austria (Cisleithania) - 17 provinces with their own self-government (Austria, Czech Republic, Maravia, Czech Selesia, Galicia, northern Bukovina, Slovenian lands, South Tyrol, Dolmatia).

Hungary (Transleitania) is a unitary state (Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovonia, Kvavodina?).

Inevitable compromise:

• Austria: Relinquished control of Hungary; retained a dominant position within the empire;
• Hungary: abandoned aspirations for full independence; received complete independence inside;
• The Habsburg dynasty: renounced absolute power; retained control in both parts of the empire.

Controlling the disintegration from a unitary state into an asymmetric confederation:

In the second half of 1867, he adopted 3 laws of constitutional significance:

• law on the change of imperial power;
• law on the functioning of the executive branch;
• law on universal rights of citizens;

December constitution of 1867. Hungary's own constitution of 1849.

The most developed are Austria and the Czech lands. Up to 90% of coal was mined. The newest branches of the economy: electrical engineering, mechanical engineering. Hungary lagged behind, the agrarian character of the territory.

Features of the internal political development of Austria:

• instability within the political course;
• the main directions are centralist and federalist.
• multi-party system (parties on national grounds)

1868 Hungarian law on the equality of nationalities (Magyers = Hungarians).

1868 Hungarian-Croatian agreement. Provided for a certain autonomy of the Croats. Lands (for example, language, culture): Croatia, Slavonia, Dolmatia were part of Austria and the provisions did not apply to it.

National movements on the territory of Austria-Hungary:

1. the diversity of nations;
2. the existence of 2 dominant nations: the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians under the agreement of 1867;
3. The Czechs had special autonomy in the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia and Bohemia, the Poles in Galicia, the Croats. These are peoples enjoying to-l rights.
4. The rest of the peoples did not have rights.

Until 1867, there was the only dominant ethnic group - the Austro-Germans, followed by the Hungarians, Czechs, Poles.

2 dominant ethnic groups never had a majority in numbers (data for 1900: Slavic population in Astria - 60%, Hungarians in Hungary - 45%, Slavic peoples - 27%).

The specifics of the national Relations in Austria:

1. constant balancing of powers in solving nat. Question (policy of concessions and centralis policy);
2. National Movements: Czech and Polish.

Czechs in conditions A-B compromise (its preparation) at the same time formulated their demands - "fundamental articles", the monarchy should become trialist. The Germans in the Czech lands, German nationalists, Hungarians, Germany took up arms against the Czechs. Consequence: Czech nat. The requirements have not been implemented. Therefore, they continued to protest by peaceful means (protest of the Czech party in the Austrian Diet - concentrated on the language demand, equality of the Czech and German). 1896-1897 Austrian The prime minister implemented the "linguistic decree" on equality in the Czech lands - an anti-Czech company - the abolition of the decree.

The most acute contradictions: between Germans and Czechs; between Germans and Slavs; between the Austrian authorities and the Italians. Settlement of Trieste and south. Tyrol (transfer land to Italy).

Non-German controversies: between Italians and Croats in Dalmatia; between Poles and Ukrainians in Galicia.

The reasons for the national Movements and features:

• high level of economy. development;
• relative autonomy of the lands;
• developed social culture;
• developed in the absence of strong national traditions;
• the highest degree of development and differentiation of the movement (Old Czechs; Liberals - Young Czechs; radicals - National Socialist Party; Agrarian Party, Social Democrats);
• moderate nature of the movement;
• main goals: Austro-Slavism and federalism, Trialism, Pan-Slavism.

• Galicia. The level of development is low, agricultural lands with federal vestiges;
• Social The structure was not entirely the structure of bourgeois society;
• Preserve their own feud. Class (landownership);
• Polit. Fragmentation within the framework of 3 empires (the kingdom of Poland in Russia, in Germany and a-c);
• The most favorable conditions for the development of nat. Movements in Galicia, as had some autonomy (for example, the Sejm, the language, most state positions were occupied by Poles);
• Preservation of the traditions of Polish statehood;
• High differentiation of the movement: conservative-clerical groupings, liberal, radical (peasant party), social democratic;
• Moderate movement. The dominance of the ideas of Austro-Slavism, the unification of all Polish lands together, the restoration of Poland within the borders before the first partition.

The specifics of the national Relations in Hungary:

• hard assimilation course;
• Croatian movement.

Croatian development conditions. National Movements:

• slow development of the capitalist. Relations, agricultural territories with feudal lords. Remnants (large. Landownership);
• since 1868 it developed in terms of autonomy: its own elected body - the cathedral under the governor - ban;
• Croatian political fragmentation. Lands;
• lack of strong state. Traditions;
• differentiation: conservative. - people's party - people;; liberals - the party of rights - right-handers; socialist.
• High degree heterogeneity: legal activity on the scale of the cathedral and the Austrian. Seimas + armed strikes (for example, 1871);
• Main ideas: Austro-Slavism, Croatian trialism, Con-Croatism, Yugoslavism;
• Different orientation of forces: pro-Autrian and Pro-Hungarian.

Relations between Austria and Hungary under nat. Movement:

The dynasty sought to use nat. Movements to maintain their power and the integrity of the empire. Austria sought to use the Croat. National Movement to contain Hungarian separatism. Hungary supported any anti-Slavic movements in Austria, to prevent the strengthening of Slavic influence.

The development of the worker and the social democrat. Movements:

The labor movement has been developing since the 1860s and 70s.

1867 - the first slave. Society in Vienna;

1869 - the first social democrats. Newspaper;

1873 - the first democratic organization in Hungary (forbidden);

1874 - the Social Democrat was created at the congress. Party of Austria with the right of nations to self-determination;

1878 - in the Czech lands, the Czechoslovak social. Union;

1878-1879 Hanfilho. Social Democrat. The party has been restored. New program: socialist character;

Since 1897 - within the framework of the Social Democrats. The party acted several times. National parties;

1899 - Mr. Bruno. National program Question: Democrat. Federation, state-in with self-governing lands according to nat. sign; the demand for guarantees of the rights of nat. Minorities and the exclusion of nat. Privilege; cultural-national Autonomy of mixed territories.

1870 - universal slave. The Hungarian Party in 1880 was transformed into a Social Democrat. party;

1894 - Social Democrat. Party of Croatia and Slavonia.

The influence of the national Questions on external Policy:

European policy - emphasis on the Balkans - to prevent the creation of a large South Slavic state;

The problem of foreign policy. Orientations (Russia, Germany):

• Union of the Three Emperors 1873;
• The final definition of an ally during the Eastern crisis of 1875-1878;
• 1879 - dual alliance under German dominance.

Since 1878 the problem of relations with Serbia. Since 1903, the aggravation of Austro-Serbian relations.

• 1882 - Triple Alliance with complex relationship A-B and Italy.

Every pro-German. step strengthened nat. Problems. Czech national the movement begins to operate towards other countries, i.e. to Russia.

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Presentation on the topic: Austria-Hungary in the 19th - early 20th centuries

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By the 30s - 40s. 19th century The Austrian Empire was a multinational state. It included the territories of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, as well as part of the territory of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. In these lands, the desire for state independence and national independence was strengthened. The Habsburgs tried to maintain the empire at the cost of minor concessions to the peoples who inhabited it.

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The Austrian Empire in the first half of the 19th century The peasantry remained disenfranchised, corvée reached 104 days a year, and dues were collected. Guild restrictions dominated the country. There were internal customs duties. The construction of new manufactories and factories was forbidden. Severe censorship. The school was under the control of the clergy. Political and spiritual oppression of the peoples of the empire (the principle of "divide and conquer" was applied to the oppressed peoples). Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz IAustrian Chancellor Clement Wenzel Metternich

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1848 - Revolution in the Austrian Empire (Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic) Causes The development of the industrial revolution was hampered by the old feudal order. The prohibitive policy of the Habsburgs in the field of economicsPolitical repressions. 1847 - the world economic crisis ("hungry forties") The desire of the peoples of the empire for national independence. Emperor of the Austrian Empire Ferdinand I (1835 - 1848)

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The results of the revolutions in the Austrian Empire Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his eighteen-year-old nephew Franz Joseph (1830-1916). The introduction of a constitution that consolidated the integrity of the empire. The establishment of a high property qualification for voters. Carrying out a peasant reform in Hungary: the abolition of corvee and church tithes, one third of the cultivated land passed into the hands of the peasants. All the peoples of the Kingdom of Hungary received political freedoms and land. However, the peoples of the Austrian Empire did not receive national independence. Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz Joseph

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Defeats in the wars with France, Piedmont and Prussia Unrest in Hungary The need to strengthen the integrity of the state increased. internal affairs states - Austria and Hungary. Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph

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1868 - The Czech state (Czech Republic, Moravia and Silesia) raised the issue of secession from Austria Austria agreed to democratic reforms: They lowered the property qualification, which gave the right to participate in elections, as a result, wide sections of small owners of the city and village, part of the workers received voting right. The Czechs led their representatives to the Austrian Parliament. In areas where there was a mixed population, two languages ​​were introduced, and the officials of the Czech Republic and Moravia were obliged to know them. On the whole, the position of the Czechs, who raised the question of complete separation from Austria, remained the same. Hungary also opposed their claims to independence, fearing similar demands from "their own" Slavs.

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All Austrian governments pursued a policy of small concessions in order to keep the population of the empire in a "state of moderate discontent" and not lead them to dangerous explosions. Austria-Hungary became a federation, but the borders of Austria and Hungary did not coincide with national borders.

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Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th century From the late 1880s. accelerated the pace of economic development. Large centers of transport engineering and weapons production have grown. In connection with the rapid development of railway construction, metal processing and mechanical engineering began to develop actively. In Hungary, food processing was the leading industry Agriculture. In 1873, three cities - Buda, Pest and Obuda - merged into one city of Budapest. In 1887, the first tram passed through the city, and in 1895 the metro opened. By the beginning of the 20th century. monopoly capitalism is rapidly developing in the empire (cartels were the main form of association of enterprises). England, France and Germany actively invested in the industry of the empire. The old nobility, in alliance with the new bourgeoisie, became the dominant force in the empire. The process of stratification of the peasantry was going on in the countryside.

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Problems of Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the 20th century Government crises (from 1897 to 1914 governments changed 15 times in Austria). Social legislation in the country practically did not exist. It was not until 1907 that the Austrian parliament adopted a new electoral law that gave the right to vote to all men over the age of 24. In Hungary in 1908, only literate men were granted the right to vote, and the owners of any property received two votes each. Land-poor and landless peasants went to the cities or emigrated. The bulk of the peasants lived in terrible poverty. In many areas, landowners and peasants belonged to different nationalities, and this increased national hostility. The desire for national independence and state independence of the peoples that were part of the empire At the beginning of the 20th century. the empire was largely based on the authority of the old emperor and on the bayonets of the Habsburg army. Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph I

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Foreign policy of Austria-Hungary and At the beginning of the XX century. Austria-Hungary began to intensify its penetration into the Balkans. In 1878, the empire received the right to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina, which formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire. 1882 Austria-Hungary joined the Triple Alliance. In 1908, a revolution took place in Turkey, the emperor sent troops to Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared them part of Austria-Hungary. Tension in the Balkans grew, the interests of the leading European powers clashed there. On June 28, 1914, a member of the secret nationalist organization "Mlada Bosna" Gavrila Princip killed in Sarajevo the nephew of Franz Joseph, heir to the Austro-Hungarian thrones, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, who was there on military maneuvers .This was the reason for the start of the First World War.

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