Logic and Thinking Logic is the art of being wrong with complete certainty. (Joseph Wood Crutch)* * *Logic: a tool used to justify prejudice. (Elbert Hubbard)* * *Logic teaches the rules of presentation, but not of thinking. (Mason Cooley)* * *A person who thinks logically

Critical thinking Critical thinking is independent thinking, is of an individual nature. Information is the starting point, and by no means the final point of critical thinking. Critical thinking begins with the formulation of questions and the clarification of problems that need to be solved. Critical thinking strives for convincing argument. Critical thinking is social thinking. David Kluster, Professor of American Literature, Hope College, Holland, Michigan, USA.

Teacher: inside view Any teacher has three basic feelings: - a sense of hierarchy - a sense of stage - a sense of self-influence Each of these feelings can be expressed in a weak, medium and strong degree. But they are necessarily inherent in the psychology of the teacher.

Ways to Success Remember that too high scores on the three basic pedagogical senses not only reduce the effectiveness of the learning process, but can also harm your health There are no unambiguously right and wrong thoughts When we are given positive attention, we think better. Pause. Silence is also a powerful form of work Plan "islands" of uncertainty in your lessons. They guarantee creativity

Technique INSERT V - check this box if what you are reading matches what you know or thought you knew; - - check this box if what you are reading contradicts what you know, or thought you knew; + - put this mark in the margins if what you are reading is new to you; ? - check this box if what you are reading is not clear or you would like more information on the subject.
19 Recommended literature I.O. Zagashev, S.I. Zair-Bek, I.V. Mushtavinskaya Teaching children to think critically "Alliance-Delta", St. Petersburg, 2003 See: Petrov Yu. N. On the technology of developing critical thinking / / Chemistry at school C; Petrov Yu. P., Tsareva V. V. On the application of technology "Reading and writing for the development of critical thinking" // Chemistry at school S; Petrov Yu. N. On the application of the strategy "Parallel texts" // Chemistry at school C

We said that an important factor in the persuasiveness of speech is the culture of thinking of the speaker. Thinking is a person's ability to reason, think, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts. To think means to reason, comparing thoughts and drawing conclusions from them.

The culture of thinking, the logic of reasoning and the ability to draw correct, true conclusions from true premises are taught by the basic laws of thinking formulated by logic - the law of identity, the law of contradiction, the law of the excluded middle and the law of sufficient reason. Any act of thinking must comply with the laws of logic. It has great importance to increase the efficiency of the speaker's mental activity, to prevent possible errors. It is impossible to construct a meaningful statement contrary to logical rules or ignoring them.

The law of identity expresses the main property of thinking - its certainty; it says: every thought in the process of a given reasoning must have the same definite, stable content, no matter how many times it is repeated. The law of contradiction teaches consistency in thinking and speech, consistency of thoughts, since two opposite thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time, in the same respect, cannot be true at the same time. Knowledge of the law of contradiction is important so that in the process of reasoning one can come to the right conclusion. Its use helps to detect and eliminate contradictions in the testimony of the defendants, witnesses, in the arguments of the plaintiff or the defendant, in the reasoning of the prosecutor and the defense. According to the law of the excluded middle, of two contradictory propositions, one must be true, the other false, and the third is not given. This law, like the law of contradiction, does not allow contradictions in thoughts; it requires clear, specific answers, especially where a categorical solution of the issue is necessary, and is the basis for circumstantial evidence and refutation. The law of sufficient reason requires that the truth of every proposition put forward in speech be proved by facts: every correct thought must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. Judgments and conclusions cannot be unfounded. This is the most important requirement for the speech of the participants in judicial debates. So, a lawyer, putting forward a thesis about the innocence of his client, is forced to provide the necessary evidence, to substantiate the truth of his statement. The guilty verdict must contain evidence sufficient for its issuance. Thus, the laws of formal logic teach that thought must be expressed clearly and accurately, reasoning must be consistent, consistent and justified. Deviation from the laws of logic, inability to conduct evidence-based reasoning significantly reduce the persuasiveness of speech, lead to logical errors, make it difficult to clarify the case, and sometimes lead to false conclusions and an unfair judicial decision.

Logical proof operation

The word proof is ambiguous: 1. Argument or fact, confirming, proving something. Argument. 2. A system of inferences by which a new position is derived. This is a logical operation of substantiating the truth of a proposition with the help of other true and related propositions.

In civil and criminal proceedings, proof is the activity of the court and judicial orators, aimed at establishing, with the help of judicial evidence, the facts on which the resolution of the dispute depends on the merits.

The logical operation of proof (i.e. substantiation of the truth of any position) includes three interrelated elements: thesis, arguments, demonstration.

To ensure the logic of reasoning, it should be remembered that the central point of each proof is the thesis - the position, the truth of which should be proved. Its substantiation is subject to the entire content of the speech. However, the thesis must be reliable, otherwise it will not be possible to substantiate it. Demonstrative reasoning requires compliance with two rules in relation to the thesis: 1) logical certainty, clarity and accuracy of the thesis; lack of logical contradiction; 2) the immutability of the thesis, the prohibition to change it in the process of this reasoning.

The speeches of V.D. Spasovich: “I put as a thesis, which I must prove and which I hope to prove, the thesis, in the full truth of which I am deeply convinced and which is clearer to me than broad daylight, namely: that N. Andreevskaya, while swimming, drowned and that, consequently, no one is to blame for her death. IN AND. Tsarev formulated the main thesis of the accusatory speech in the case of the Kondrakov brothers as follows: ... I declare that the objective truth in the case we are examining has been established specifically and accurately: the robbery attack on Krivosheeva A.S. and Krivosheev A.R., their rape and murder were committed by the Kondrakov brothers.

How to prove the correctness of your thought? Logical arguments, the use of persuasive arguments, competent opinions aimed at inducing persuasion.

An argument is one or more interconnected statements (judgments) intended to confirm the truth of the thesis. In civil and criminal proceedings, arguments are understood as forensic evidence: these are any factual data about the circumstances that are important for the correct trial of a criminal, civil, arbitration, constitutional case. Evidence is contained in testimonies, physical evidence, expert opinions, protocols, etc. There are direct and indirect evidence. Direct evidence - those from which it is possible to draw an unambiguous conclusion (subject to their reliability) about the existence (or non-existence) of the fact being proved. Indirect evidence is that evidence from which, subject to their reliability, it is possible to draw a presumptive conclusion about the existence of the fact being proved. All evidence is subject to the requirements of relevance and admissibility.

None of the evidence takes precedence. Yu.V. said this well. Andrianova-Strepetova: “... the vast majority of the evidence examined is the so-called circumstantial evidence. In this regard, it must be remembered that direct evidence does not have an advantage over indirect evidence, and accordingly, indirect evidence is not second-class evidence that loses over direct evidence. N.P. Karabchevsky once wrote about the difficulties of using circumstantial evidence and formulated the requirements for them: “Indirect evidence, unlike direct evidence, can be very thin, very lightweight in itself, but one inner quality must necessarily be inherent in them: they are mathematically must be accurate. Accurate in the sense of their own authenticity, quality and size. Another indispensable condition: that these small quantities in themselves give nevertheless some real result, that they constitute one continuous chain of individual links. In order for circumstantial evidence to become sufficient for a conviction or dismissal of a claim, the following conditions must be met: 1) the fact of circumstantial evidence must be in causation with the researched fact; 2) substantiation of the thesis by indirect evidence always requires the establishment of several pieces of evidence in the case that are consistent with each other, in a certain connection. convincing circumstantial evidence proved the guilt of the defendant YU.V. Andrianova-Strepetova. An excellent defense of Berdnikov with the help of circumstantial evidence was built by Ya.S. Kiselev.

credibility judicial speech largely depends on the quality of the arguments. Judges evaluate the correctness of the prosecutor's and lawyer's thoughts primarily by the degree of significance and value of the factual material. Only the strength of the arguments, their persuasiveness matter for the complete inner conviction of the judges.

What are the requirements for arguments? What qualities should they possess in order to convince listeners? Arguments must be true, reliable and must not contradict each other. Their truth has been verified by practice. They must be sufficient for proof. The sufficiency of arguments is not their number, but their weightiness, when a thesis necessarily follows from them. “There is little evidence. But the evidence is not considered, but evaluated, and evaluated in aggregate and in comparison. And as a result of such an assessment, the right decision is made. Rhetoric teaches: evidence should not be multiplied so much as weighed; discard arguments that can be refuted. The speaker is not entitled to refer in support of his position a) to evidence that was not considered in the court session; b) evidence declared inadmissible by the court; c) on evidence that is not relevant to the case under consideration.

Strong arguments can be found in the speech of S.A. Andreevsky in the case of Mironovich. The lawyer proves Mironovich's innocence by analyzing in detail: 1) expert examination data; 2) the accidental posture of Sarah Becker: “The main position that the whole drama of the murder took place on an armchair collapsed. It turned out that Sarah was brought to the chair from another place, laid on it almost dead; there was no struggle here, because the cover remained motionless and blood stains quietly seeped from the cover onto the fabric of the chair”; 3) the calm, natural behavior of Mironovich, who left in the morning after the murder to collect money from debtors: “After all, if he had killed, he would have known that the cash desk was open all night, that it is now open, that maybe everything is already out of it torn apart and he is now a beggar, that there are traces of his terrible deed ... Where is it to Porkhovnikov? Where would the former energy come from to pursue debtors?

N.I. Kholev, defending Maksimenko, who is accused of poisoning her husband with arsenic, logically and convincingly analyzes the circumstances of the case: The main question is: did N. Maksimenko recover by October 18 (by the day of death. - N.I.)? After analyzing the symptoms of typhoid fever, the timing of the course of the disease, the testimony of witnesses, the speaker comes to the conclusion: on October 18, the disease was in the period of its full development (this was also confirmed by the autopsy). Further. Having examined in detail the intravital symptoms of arsenic poisoning and post-mortem phenomena, citing scientific data and the opinions of scientists, he concludes: there were no signs of arsenic poisoning.

You will find weighty, convincing arguments in the speeches of A.F. Koni, P.A. Alexandrov, in the speech of N.P. Karabchevsky in defense of Kriun, the former captain of the Vladimir steamship, in I.M. Kisenishsky in the case of the disaster of the ship "Admiral Nakhimov".

Strong arguments are especially needed in favor of the application of this or that article of the criminal law.

How to arrange arguments in a speech? They should be ordered in such a way that they correspond to the way of thinking. But do not forget about the principle of amplification.

The process of persuasion includes, in addition to the thesis and arguments, a demonstration. Demonstration, or method of proof, is a form of logical connection between arguments and thesis. This is logical reasoning, a set of conclusions when deriving a thesis from arguments. To demonstrate means to show that the thesis is logically justified by the arguments and therefore is true. You can complete the demonstration with constructions: From all that has been said, it follows ...; that's why I think (better - affirm, convinced); thus; From what has been said, we can conclude that other similar

Direct and indirect evidence

Justification of the thesis can be carried out by direct or indirect evidence. Direct proof is carried out directly with the help of arguments, without involving any assumptions that contradict the thesis: a direct reference is made to arguments, facts confirming something, a reference to the generally accepted norm. In the speech of a judicial orator, direct evidence is used when the role of arguments is played by the testimony of witnesses, written documents, and material evidence. Informational evidence (testimonies of witnesses, written documents) must be checked, and their reliability must be proved.

Direct justification may take the form of deductive reasoning, induction, or analogy.

The deductive method is that particular statements are logically deduced from general provisions, rules, laws.

Deduction (from Latin deductio - inference) is a conclusion representing the transition from premises to a conclusion, based on a logical law, whereby the conclusion follows with logical necessity from the premises accepted. A premise can be an axiom, a postulate, or simply a hypothesis that has the character of general statements. This may be one or another well-known scientific position, the truth of which is not in doubt, or the rule of law and other evaluative standards. If the premises are true, then their consequences are also true. Deduction is the main method of proof.

The inductive method involves a presentation from particular facts to the establishment of general provisions, this is a logical transition from arguments to a thesis. It is especially important that the speaker cite impressive concrete facts. The inductive method is often used in the analysis of experimental data, when operating with statistical materials. Arguments here are, as a rule, actual data.

The method is chosen by the judicial orator depending on the materials of the case.

Indirect evidence is a type of deductive evidence in which the thesis is proved by refuting the antithesis. Indirect evidence is called proof by contradiction, since the antithesis is formulated and its inconsistency is proved. Thus, indirect evidence consists of the following stages: an antithesis is put forward (If ...; Suppose that), consequences are derived from it with the intention of finding the false among them (then ...;); it is concluded that the antithesis is incorrect (however...).

Then, on the basis of the law of the excluded middle, a conclusion is drawn: since the thesis and antithesis exclude each other, the falsity of the antithesis means the truth of the thesis. As an example of an indirect method of proof, one can cite the speech of A.F. Horses in the case of the drowning of a peasant woman Emelyanova by her husband, speech by A.I. Urusov in the case of Volokhova, speech by Ya.S. Kiselev in the case of Berdnikov.

The art of argument also implies the ability to refute.

Refutation

Refutation is a logical operation that justifies the falsity of a statement or several statements; destroying the earlier process of argumentation; this is criticism of the thesis of the opponent, establishing the falsity, inconsistency or fallacy of the thesis of the procedural opponent, the investigating authorities, the defendant, etc.

A direct refutation of the thesis is built in the form of reasoning, called "reduction to the absurd". They conditionally admit the truth of the position put forward by the opponent and deduce the consequences logically arising from it: Let us assume that the opponent is right and his thesis is true, but in this case it follows from it ... If it turns out that this consequence contradicts objective data, then it is recognized as untenable. Further, a conclusion is made about the inconsistency of the thesis.

The evidence given by the opponent in support of his thesis is subjected to verification and criticism. An inaccurate presentation of facts, doubts about the correctness of the arguments are transferred to the thesis. If the arguments are found to be false, the thesis is unconditionally considered unfounded.

The refutation of the demonstration consists in the fact that they show that in the opponent's reasoning there is no logical connection between the arguments and the thesis. For the final refutation, it is necessary to prove the inconsistency of the content of the thesis itself. Let's take an example of a rebuttal.

The masters of refuting the arguments of the procedural opponent were N.P. Karabchevsky, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich.

The difference between proof and refutation lies in the fact that in proof the truth of thought is substantiated, and in refutation - falsity. At the same time, the proof of the falsity of any thesis is the proof of the truth of the statement that contradicts it.

As a rule, refutation and evidence are regularly and consistently present in every judicial speech, which is determined by its persuasive nature. For example, M.G. Kazarinov logically and convincingly defended the lawyer L.A. Bazunov. He puts forward the antithesis: Three lawyers, the prosecution alleges, convinced their client Olga Stein to flee the court. What motives could lead lawyers! - and refutes it, proves its inconsistency. Then he puts forward the thesis: Who should have conceived the idea of ​​escaping from the court? Of course, the one to whom the trial threatened with grave consequences - Olga Stein herself. Analyzing in detail her life, her behavior, habits, fear of punishment, the lawyer concludes: Here are the motives that could have prompted Olga Stein to flee. And he argues the conclusion: And that it was of her own free will that she fled, is confirmed by her sincere, friendly letters to Parchment from America. Here is what we are reading... I revealed to you, gentlemen of the jury, the feelings that prompted Stein to leave Russia. These feelings spoke so powerfully and eloquently that no speeches and convictions of lawyers could influence her decision in the slightest.

A court orator who is convinced of the correctness of his position on the case and who owns the rules of thinking will be able to make his speech convincing.

Logical errors in speech

In the process of reasoning, it is necessary to follow the rules formulated by logic. Unintentional violation of them due to logical negligence, insufficient logical culture is perceived as a logical error.

Errors in the logic of reasoning

There may be the following logical errors in judicial speech. If the speaker, having formulated a thought, forgets about it and involuntarily moves to a fundamentally different position, then the thesis is lost. As a result, the speaker may lose the original thought. This is where self-control is needed. Partial or complete substitution of the thesis also happens. This happens when the speaker, having put forward a certain position, substantiates in fact another. Often this happens when the main idea was not formulated clearly and definitely at the beginning of the speech, and then it is corrected or clarified throughout the speech.

Logical errors can result from inept reasoning. If the arguments are unreliable, have only a probability, then with their help it is impossible to substantiate a reliable conclusion. This error is called the main fallacy, when a deliberately false position, a non-existent fact, and the like is used as an argument in the hope that no one will notice it. An experienced speaker, having found at least one unverified or dubious argument in an opponent's speech, can easily refute the entire system of his reasoning. Remember how Y.S. Kiselev did this in his speech on the Berdnikov case: “The half-truth is interspersed with a fact, another, or even a third, each of them is confirmed by something ... Some of the facts are true, which means that the other is true. And that's not the case at all."

Unproven assumptions made by someone, for example, false testimony of the defendant, witnesses, cannot be used as arguments. The argument in the following example is not true: The investigating authorities established / that Solenkov / was stabbed / stabbed / in the lumbar region of the victim // My client denies / that he had a knife / and explains / no one / of those who are with him / there / Podkuiko and Nogotkov / did not see a knife / / I think / that this episode / is completely unproven //.

The proof is also untenable in the case when the arguments are insufficient to substantiate the thesis: He admits his guilt in part / I think / that it has been partially proven //. The arguments in this example are also insufficient: The guilt of the defendant / is also confirmed / by the conclusion of the forensic medical examination / and other materials of the case //, since there is no specificity due to the word by others. The vicious circle error lies in the fact that the thesis is justified by arguments, and the arguments are derived from the same thesis.

Errors in the demonstration are caused by the lack of a logical connection between the arguments and the thesis. This is the so-called imaginary following.

Errors in the choice of language means

The logic of reasoning finds expression in specific linguistic means, and this makes it possible to identify typical logical errors that lead to an inaccurate choice of linguistic means.

One of the reasons for the illogicality of the statement is the use of words without taking into account their meaning, for example: Two photographs were found in the breast pocket of his trousers (it should be in the front pocket). The fuzzy differentiation of concepts, the substitution of concepts also violates the logic of presentation: Marriage of products - cowhide boots in the amount of 19 pieces - to be assigned to the defendants. Or: Returning from the flight, Korotkoe dozed off, which was the result of his collision with a pole standing near the curb (it is necessary: ​​reimbursement for the cost of defective boots, in the amount of 19 pairs; ... which was the reason for his collision with a standing one ...). The combination of words should not be contradictory. Breaking the logical connections between words can create an unintentional comedy: The court cannot satisfy the request of the deceased to recover money for burial. Or: Defendant Mirov continued to abuse alcohol together with the deceased Mirova (necessarily: the Court cannot satisfy the request of the relatives of the deceased; the defendant Mirov continued together with Mirova, now deceased ...).

An inattentive attitude to the choice of words leads to the emergence of alogism in speech - a comparison of disparate concepts: "Bosniatsky's actions differ from other defendants not only in volume, but also in consequences." Or: "Among the nine heads presented to me, I recognized the bull." Or: “The cause of the electrical injury was that the victim did not check the absence of electric welding” (necessary: ​​different from actions; I identified the head of a bull; did not check the absence of electric welding).

One of the logical errors is the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept resulting from the mixing of generic and specific concepts, as well as the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts: “A vacuum cleaner and other medical equipment were stolen from a store.” Or: "When my client was returning from the dance, precipitation fell out." Or: "The suspect Shevtsov testified that on February 13, 1991 he was on duty at the event." Or: “Vojvodin is charged with stealing a vehicle” (it is necessary: ​​theft of a vacuum cleaner and medical equipment; it was snowing (or raining); he was on duty at the evening; stealing a vehicle).

The illogicality of the statement, the distortion of its meaning appears as a result of the discrepancy between the premise and the consequence: The growth of crime depends on how stubbornly and effectively the fight against offenders is carried out. Or: In order to protect them from hooligan actions, Petukhov's neighbors ask to isolate them from Petukhov (it is necessary: ​​to reduce crime; to isolate Petukhov from society). Another example: “Based on the foregoing, Solonin is accused of being detained for driving while intoxicated” (necessary: ​​accused of driving while intoxicated). Such errors reduce the quality of a speech that is good in content, besides, they indicate the unwillingness of the court speaker to think about the meaning of the words used, about disrespect for the language and people who have to listen to this speaker.

We have considered unintentional logical errors that arise due to the speaker's lack of logical culture. Intentional mistakes are deliberately made. These are logical tricks, deliberately erroneous reasoning presented as true. They are called sophisms. Sophism (from the Greek sophisma, I cunningly invent) is a reasoning that seems correct, but contains a hidden logical error and gives the appearance of truth to a false statement. This is reasoning based on a deliberate violation of the laws of logic.

Sophists have existed since Ancient Greece(from the Greek sophistes - an expert, a sage) and constituted a sophist direction in oratory, the purpose of which was to convince listeners of anything at all costs. To do this, they used inferences based on a deliberately incorrect selection of starting points and arguments. Examples of sophisms: “All people are rational beings. The inhabitants of the planets are not people. Therefore, they are not rational beings”; “The Law of Moses forbade theft. The Law of Moses has lost its force. Therefore, theft is not prohibited”; “All metals are simple bodies. Bronze - metal. Therefore, bronze is a simple body."

A systematic analysis of sophisms was given for the first time by Aristotle in his final part of the Organon. Sophism is a false conclusion, the incorrectness of which is due to three kinds of reasons: 1) logical, 2) grammatical and 3) psychological.

Sophisms are a special method of intellectual fraud, an attempt to pass off a lie as the truth and thereby mislead the enemy. Their use for the purpose of deception is an incorrect method of argumentation.

(THROUGH THE NEBELS OF THE RUSSIAN VERBAL LANGUAGE)

You can devote a lot of complimentary reviews to the Russian verbal language, but if there are shortcomings in it, then in order to eliminate them, you need to talk about them. There is no hostility to the language in this, there is a desire to understand the nebulae, voluntarily or involuntarily introduced by specialists into dictionaries when interpreting certain concepts, and, if possible, to correct the shortcomings.
It is no secret that the nebulosity of the language turns into nebulous speech when it is used and makes it difficult to form the right thought, which, in turn, prevents the mutual understanding of communicating people and making the right decisions.

Modern science persistently explores the mystery of the formation of human thought and brings us closer to a new era - the era of the creation and functioning of artificial thinking tools. On this path, among the most important are the tasks of creating a language understandable both to a person and an artificially thinking means, as well as methods for forming an artificial thought that corresponds to the reflection of human speech. The difficulty of the task is exacerbated by the fact that artificial intellectual tools can only work in an environment of standardized concepts. The context for clarifying this or that concept of the applied term, on which human thought often relies, even if it is ever implemented for an artificially thinking tool, will always be a factor that reduces both productivity, and reliability, and the quality of its work.
At present, there are frequent cases in dictionaries when a term is interpreted by many concepts, when its concept is vague or replaced by one or more other terms that also do not have clear definitions. For example: the term "life" has 14 interpretations, and the term "invention" is explained through four other terms: fiction, invention, invention, lie.
There are four terms in the title of the article. It seems that they are well known, for each of them the reader can give explanations and not believe that the definitions of these terms in dictionaries are vague. But, unfortunately, it is.
Before starting to get acquainted with the article, I ask the reader to write down on a piece of paper his idea of ​​language, speech, thought, thinking.
"Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova explains these terms as follows:
Language is a system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies thinking and is an instrument of communication.
Language is speech, the ability to speak, and also a system of signs that convey information.
In other dictionaries, in addition to this, we find that language is a means of storing information.
Speech is the ability to speak (speaking); language style; sounding tongue; conversation, conversation, public speaking; one of the types of human communication activity that uses the means of language.
Thought is thinking; idea; that which fills the mind; beliefs and attitudes.
Thinking is a person's ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts.
"Stylistic encyclopedic Dictionary Russian language, Moscow, ed. "Science", 2003 gives the following interpretations of the terms language and speech:
Language is a system of linguistic and extralinguistic means of expressing a particular content (text), their speech organization.
Speech is the functioning of language in the process of communication.
A speech act is a purposeful speech action performed in accordance with the norms of communication accepted in a given society; elementary unit of linguistic communication.

Probably, the reader, your understanding of the terms was not so exhaustive, but the purpose of the article is not to upset you. On the contrary, I propose to have an interesting time, plunging into the study of the concepts of these terms. And for this, not only dictionary interpretations are necessary, but your ideas about them are also important. Next, I will offer my definitions of language, speech, thought and thinking. And this means that you will be able to carry out a critical analysis of the concepts of terms based on three judgments: your own, dictionary and mine. I am sure that the result of your research work will be intellectual elevation.
Think I'll rock the boat.
I'll start by describing how we perceive, feel and reflect reality (reality).
The world around us is represented by objects and phenomena. Objects are understood as physical bodies from galaxies to particles of energy radiation. Phenomena are understood as events, the signs of which are revealed by our thinking. For example, an electromagnetic field around a conductor through which an electric current moves, rain, wind, snowfall, night, day, sky, force, movement, and much more.
A person, as you know, has six organs of perception of external information: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch and a sense of the direction of gravity created by the vestibular apparatus. Given that the result of their “work” is a signal or an electrical impulse that is transmitted from them to the brain through a nerve fiber, it is possible to limit the consideration of the process of our sensations within the framework of the concept: information about images and phenomena of reality - organs of perception - reason - mind - memory . When an electrical impulse arrives at a neuron of the brain, it undergoes, as science suggests, a change in the biochemical composition. The information received by us, for example, in the form of photons of light reflected from objects, is converted into an electrical impulse, and then into a biochemical change in the brain cell. The totality of neurons with a changed biochemical structure stores the representations formed by us as images and signs of objects and phenomena of reality. They, taking into account the mutual connections between neurons, constitute a complex of knowledge or a set of concepts about reality.
Why am I writing this? - in order for the reader to remember how these ideas were formed in his brain when he was still very small and could not speak. A year or two later, at first hesitantly, clumsily, inaccurately, he began to use words - codes for those concepts that he had already formed: mom, dad. Before applying these codes, he formed by listening to the voices of his native people, gradually connecting their visual images with auditory ones. This method of cognition and coding of reality a person keeps all his life. Concepts are primary, their codes and verbal descriptions of concepts - definitions - are secondary.
When perceiving verbal information, the mind of the person listening or reading supplies codes (words) to the mind. The mind, by codes, establishes connections with the concepts that make up its knowledge. If concepts are available and are in memory, the received information becomes understandable to a person; if not, then he does not understand the information. If there are other concepts in the knowledge bases according to the accepted code, then the person understands the received information in his own way. In support of this, remember how the Turkisides and Murmisides look like.
Note: Turkisides and Murmisides were invented in 1964 by a student of the Moscow state institute culture Fedorov Ivan Makarovich in the preparation of an etude on directing and acting.
You can not? What does Cheburashka look like? You can. Hearing a word, the concept of which is absent in the memory of a person, he perceives it as a set of phonemes.
The concept code is the header of the information block artificially created by the mind, which is the concept. It was the process of encoding concepts that provided a person with the opportunity to transmit information (a set of concepts) in a compressed form. If this invention had not happened, a person would have only the ability to copy images and signs of objects and phenomena of reality to transmit information, which in some cases is extremely difficult. But the success of encoding concepts when they are transmitted from one person to another depends on whether the receiving party has in memory the incoming code and the concept that it names. The absence of one of these factors excludes the possibility of understanding the incoming information.
I hope that this description did not irritate the reader.
Next, I offer my definitions of the declared terms.
Thinking is a process of consistent formation of mental categories by the mind.
A mental category is a set of impulses from mind-activated neurons that form a thematic block of information for its subsequent reflection.
Thinking can only be conceptual, based on reality, on what constitutes the basis of knowledge. Its initial quality is the flow of impulses from activated memory neurons to information processing complexes.
We do not feel the process of thinking, and the first phase of its objectification is the formation of thought.
Thought is a sequence of codes of concepts of the mental category.
With the formation of thought, we feel the emergence of a sequence of concept codes that form a thematic block of information about someone or something, the possibility of its critical analysis, editing and decision-making on reflection to the external environment in a chosen way. A feature of thought is its connection with concepts that, like a ghost, follow the codes of thought.
Note: With the definitions of the terms: thinking, thought, and phrases - a mental category, the reader could already meet in the previously published article "Reason, Reason, Thinking".
A concept is a set of a person's ideas about an object or phenomenon of reality, formed by his mind.
When the task of reflecting a thought into the external environment arises, the mind transmits the thought to the brain structure that controls the biological organs of a person in order to reflect it. After that, the thought is reflected through voice, writing, pantomime, dance, gesture, painting, sculpture and other means. These tools are called language.
Let's open dictionary, in it we will see terms (codes) with verbal definitions or interpretations of concepts, systematized in alphabetical order. This is a dictionary of the national language. Let's open a topographic map of the area, and we will meet with the language of the map - conventional signs, each of which is associated with a certain interpretation related to some concept of an element of the area. Sign language is also familiar to us: we either own it, or have seen other people use it.
Is language a store of information? Of course not. He is unable to perform memory functions. The existing connection between codes and concepts, first of all, exists in the memory of a person and is stored there. Its publication in books or documents, again, is not the merit of the language, but is the merit of these books and documents. The language is also not a carrier of the nation's culture and only allows one to judge its intellect based on the composition of codes and definitions of concepts that reflect the area of ​​known (in demand) reality. Language has no style and cannot be called speech. It is a tool, one of the quality features of which is the correctness and unambiguity of the interpretation of the encoded concepts.
Human language is a means of objectifying thinking (representing thoughts), based on coding the concepts of reality, through verbal, symbolic, color, grammatical, associative and other constructions, reflected and perceived during communication (communication) using light and sound waves.
But what is speech? Talking, talking, talking? But the first, second, third and public performance is the sound of words (codes) or the manifestation of verbal language in a sequence of thoughts. What about lyrics that don't sound? Are they not speech before they are spoken? In those quoted from the Dictionary of the Russian Language, S.I. Ozhegov's interpretations of the terms speech and language are synonymous. But some imperfection is felt in this. A collection of conventional signs for a cartographic description of an area cannot be considered a map of some area. The language of the card and its speech are essentially different. With regard to verbal language and verbal speech, this difference also exists between them. Verbal speech is called “sounding language” by dictionaries, but in the grammar of the Russian language there is a list of parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.). Bewilderment arises: does a noun cease to be one if it does not appear to us in the form of a sounding language? Most likely, it is necessary to draw a conclusion about the incorrectness of the definition in the dictionaries of the concept of the term speech (verbal).
Remember the phrase native speech. What does it mean for us? Right! - a correctly established correlation of words and concepts that are hidden behind them, like a ghost. But this is not one code with a concept, but a set of codes with concepts, built by thinking according to the rules of grammar into sentences expressing an event. What does non-native speech mean? This is when we have no concepts behind the codes, or when neither codes nor concepts are known to us, or when the rules of grammar are violated, or when the presented set of codes with their concepts, being an arbitrary set of information, does not express events.
Speech is a set of thoughts built according to established rules, represented by means of language.
Verbal speech is a set of thoughts built according to the rules of grammar into sentences, represented by means of verbal language.
Verbal speech can be mental, textual, colloquial. It is based on verbal language. The use of other means of language generates a different type of speech, which can be transformed on the basis of concepts into verbal speech. So the speech of a topographic map can be presented in the form of textual verbal descriptions, speech based on sign language can also be translated into verbal colloquial or text speech. The speech of the ballet is represented by the libretto. Speech is the essence of what a person thinks, speaks, writes or represents.
How are parts of verbal speech understood in this case: noun, adjective, and so on? - as classification codes in the structure of this type of speech. I would call them first order classification codes. Further, I would introduce the concept of second-order classification codes for parts of speech in a sentence. So the first-order code of a noun in a sentence can be encoded as a subject, or it can be an object. In modern grammar, parts of a sentence represent an independent section and are not correlated with speech. But it is sentences that define the concept of verbal speech - a thought that reflects the essence of someone or something. Based on the foregoing, it is advisable to refer to the phrase part of a sentence as parts of speech in a sentence.
Speech, and speech alone, is the bearer of a nation's culture or intellect, reflecting the quality of its people's thinking. Speech has a style, and only through it information bases are formed in our memory and in the memory of technical storage means. The existing judgment that these qualities of speech belong to the language is erroneous.
That's all. I'm exhausted "rock the boat" and leave the reader on the crest of thoughts.

thought processes

The mental activity of a person is a solution to various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the ways of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems.

Thinking operations are varied. These are analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification. Which of the logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he subjects to mental processing.

Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental separation of its aspects, actions, relations from the whole. Synthesis is the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental. Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activity of man. AT labor activity people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis. Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made. The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be of different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence. Abstraction is a process of mental abstraction from certain signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better understand it. A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking. Concretization is a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it. Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, therefore, is the selection in objects and phenomena of the general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Features of thinking of younger students

The current level of development of society and, accordingly, information gleaned from various sources of information, cause the need for even younger students to reveal the causes and essence of phenomena, to explain them, i.e. think abstractly.

The question of the mental abilities of the younger schoolchild at different times was solved in different ways.

As a result of a number of studies, it turned out that the mental capabilities of the child are wider than previously thought, and when conditions are created, that is, with special methodological organization learning, the younger student can learn abstract theoretical material.

In general, with regard to the concept of “thinking”, several views should be noted.

Firstly, as S.I. Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary points out, thinking is “a person’s ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts.” Let's dissect this concept.

A person would know very little about the surrounding world if his knowledge was limited only to the testimony of his analyzers. The possibility of a deep and broad knowledge of the world opens up human thinking. There is no need to prove that the figure has four corners, since we see it with the help of the analyzer (vision). But that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs, we can neither see, nor hear, nor feel. This kind of concept is indirect.

Thus, thinking is mediated cognition.

Likewise, thinking is the knowledge of relationships and regular connections between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In order to identify these connections, a person resorts to mental operations- compares, compares facts, analyzes them, generalizes, draws conclusions, conclusions.

And, finally, thinking is a generalized cognition of reality, the process of cognizing the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.

And this process is quite accessible to children. As studies by V.V. Davydov show, children of the younger school age may well master the elements of algebra, for example, to establish relationships between quantities. To reveal the relationships between quantities, it turned out to be necessary to model these relationships - their expression in a different material form, in which they appear, as it were, in a purified form and become an orienting basis for actions.