2 methods of psychological research are objective and subjective. Method does not belong to subjective methods. The main methods of examination of a sick patient

It is important for us to know the whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can provide reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon under study. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that each reader can use them in Everyday life.

The methods of psychology return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent form of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on only one method, several methods can be created. It is also an indisputable fact that psychological science there is no unambiguous set of research methods.

In this lesson, we divided the methods of psychology into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology and methods of practical psychology:

Fundamental (general) psychology doing psychological research general patterns the human psyche, his beliefs, ways of behavior, character traits, as well as what affects all this. In ordinary life, the methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for researching, analyzing and predicting people's behavior.

Practical (or Applied) Psychology is aimed at working with specific people, and its methods allow for psychological procedures designed to change mental condition and behavior of the subject.

Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology

Methods of theoretical psychology are the means and techniques by which researchers are able to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and making practical recommendations. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, influence environment and education, etc.

Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, there are methods of scientific research and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.

EXAMPLE: If an employee of the organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then in order to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.

It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used in a complex way and are "sharpened" for each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the problem and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. there must be a specific goal. And only after that you need to choose a method.

So, the methods of theoretical psychology.

Observation

In psychology under observation refers to purposeful perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that was widely used only in late XIX century. At first it was applied in developmental psychology, as well as pedagogical, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in labor psychology. Observation is usually used in cases where it is not recommended or impossible to interfere with the natural process of the course of events.

There are several types of observation:

• Field - in ordinary life;
• Laboratory - in special conditions;
• Indirect;
• Immediate;
• Included;
• Not included;
• Direct;
• indirect;
• solid;
• Selective;
• systematic;
• Unsystematic.

As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher can disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and to fully capture the behavior of a person / people. The important features of observation are:

• Impossibility or difficulty of re-observation;
• Emotional coloring of observation;
• Communication of the observed object and the observer.

  Observation is carried out to identify various features of behavior - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:

• Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
• Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eye expression, body position, movement expression, etc.
• Movement of people: distance, manner, features, etc.

  That is, the object of observation is something that can be fixed visually. The researcher in this case observes not mental properties, but registers the obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about the manifestation of what mental characteristics they are, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about the mental properties of the individual.

  How is the observation carried out?

  The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. The most objective conclusions can be drawn if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize different results. Certain requirements must also be observed when observing:

  • Observations should not affect the natural course of events;
  • It is better to observe different people, because there is an opportunity to compare;
  • Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained during past observations should be taken into account.

  Observation consists of several stages:

  1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
  2. Determination of the method of observation;
  3. Choice of data registration method;
  4. Create a plan;
  5. The choice of the method of processing the results;
  6. Observation;
  7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

  It is also necessary to decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance maps). Observation is often confused with experiment. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

  • The observer does not affect the process;
  • The observer registers exactly what he observes.

  There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies that observations are made according to certain rules and precautions. The following are examples:

  • If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
  • Researchers must not allow participants to be harmed in any way during the course of the research.
  • Researchers should minimize their intrusion into participants' privacy.
  • Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

  Every person, even without being a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the method of observation in order to obtain data, if necessary, regarding any issue.

  EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or circle. To make the right choice, you need to identify its predispositions, i.e. to which it gravitates by itself without external influence. To do this, you need to make an observation. Look at the child from the outside what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural inclination for drawing and you can try to send him to art school. If he likes to disassemble / assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. The constant craving for the ball suggests that it is worth giving it to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or teachers at school to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son constantly bullies and fights with the boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll in the section of some martial art. If your daughter loves to braid her girlfriends, then she might be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

  There are many options for monitoring. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to define and think through best ways their observations.

  Psychological experiment

  Under experiment in psychology, they understand an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life of the subject. In the process of research, the scientist changes a certain factor / factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

  There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

  • Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
  • Natural - held in normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
  • Psychological and pedagogical - when a person / group of people learn something and form certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
  • Pilot - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

  There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

  • Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
  • Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
  • Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

  Organization of the experiment process

  The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being carried out, with whom and under what conditions. Further, certain relations must be established between the subject and the scientist, and instructions are given to the subject (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained are processed and interpreted.

  Experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

  • Objectivity of the received data;
  • Reliability of received data;
  • Validity of the received data.

  But, despite the fact that the experiment is one of the most respected methods of research, it has both pros and cons.

  • Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
  • Possibility of repeating;
  • The ability to change certain factors, thereby affecting the result.

  Cons (according to some experts):

  • The psyche is difficult to study;
  • The psyche is fickle and unique;
  • The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

  For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on the data of this method alone in their results and must resort to combining with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, the APA Code of Ethics must also be adhered to.

  It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of graduates and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained in the course of independent experiments will be purely subjective. But some information can still be obtained.

  EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about the behavior of people in certain circumstances, to see how they will react to something, and perhaps even to understand the course of their thoughts. Model some situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be cited: a person was interested in how people around him react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in transport. To do this, he took his friend, who filmed what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned on his neighbor. The reaction of people was different: someone moved away, someone woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, someone sat peacefully, putting his shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, it was concluded that people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is only the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

  When conducting your personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

  Introspection

  Introspection It is observation of oneself and the peculiarities of one's behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in the psychology and life of a person. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgotten something, but it is not known why). That is why self-observation, although it is an important research method, cannot be the main and independent in the process of understanding the essence of the manifestations of the psyche.

  The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on the self-esteem of a person. For example, people with low self-esteem are more prone to introspection. And the result of hypertrophied self-observation can be self-digging, obsession with wrong actions, guilt, self-justification, etc.

  Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

  • Keeping personal records (diary);
  • Comparison of self-observation with the observations of others;
  • Increased self-esteem;
  • Psychological training for personal growth and development.

  The use of self-observation in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (in communication with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of awareness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking now) and your actions (what you are doing in this moment). Try to analyze what causes you certain reactions (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). For what "hooks" people and circumstances pull you. Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just watch what is happening inside you and what is contributing to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion on the topic of what you should cultivate in yourself, and what you should start getting rid of.

  The regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on the inner world of a person and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

  Psychological testing

  Psychological testing refers to the section of psychodiagnostics and deals with the study of psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers in hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn more about a person's personality, which cannot be done with a conversation or a survey.

  The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

  • Validity - the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
  • Reliability - conformity of the received results at repeated testing;
  • Reliability - the property of the test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
  • Representativeness - compliance with the norms.

  A truly effective test is created through trials and modifications (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to evaluate the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

  There are different types of tests:

  • Career guidance tests - to determine a person's predisposition to any type of activity or compliance with the position;
  • Personality tests - to study the character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
  • Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
  • Verbal tests - to study the ability of a person to describe in words the actions performed;
  • Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

  There are other options for tests aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometry, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

  Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to get to know yourself or the people you care about better.

  EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But here's what you don't know. Find some career orientation tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you did not even know about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you have a penchant for. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something to your liking. In addition, it is also good that a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, in addition, begins to earn more.

  Psychological testing contributes to a deeper understanding of oneself, one's needs and abilities, and also often indicates the direction for further personal development.

  biographical method

  Biographical method in psychology- this is a method by which a person's life path is investigated, diagnosed, corrected and projected. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, personality is studied in the context of history and perspectives of its individual development. Here it is supposed to obtain data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

  This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers who study the life of some people, and simply in communication between little-known people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to draw up his psychological portrait.

  EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person this is, what are the characteristics of his personality, what is his life experience, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to a person, let him tell you the facts from his biography and some significant moments on his life path. Ask about what he can tell about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills and training. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant to both interlocutors.

  Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and see their strengths and weak sides, as well as to present a possible perspective of interaction with him.

  Poll

  Poll- a verbal-communicative method, during which there is an interaction between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the researcher (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained in the course of the study. Typically, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, not just one person.

  Polls are divided into:

  • Standardized - strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
  • Non-standardized - less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

  In the process of creating surveys, first of all, programmatic questions are formulated that are understandable only to specialists. After that, they are translated into questionnaire questions that are more understandable to the average layman.

  Types of surveys:

  • Written allows you to get superficial knowledge about the problem;
  • Oral - allows you to penetrate into the psychology of a person more deeply than written;
  • Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
  • personality tests- to determine the mental characteristics of the individual;
  • Interview - a personal conversation (also applies to the method of conversation).

  When writing questions, you need to follow some rules:

  • Separateness and conciseness;
  • Exclusion of specific terms;
  • brevity;
  • specificity;
  • Without hints;
  • Questions provide non-template responses;
  • Questions should not be repulsive;
  • Questions should not suggest anything.

  Depending on the tasks, the questions are divided into several types:

  • Open - offering answers in free form;
  • Closed - offering prepared answers;
  • Subjective - about a person's attitude to something / someone;
  • Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

  A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to establish the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a particular issue.

  EXAMPLE: You are the director of a service firm and you need to know what your employees think about improving working conditions and attracting more customers. In order to do this as quickly and efficiently as possible, you can create (for example, together with an in-house analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve your problems. Namely: to make the process of work of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (perhaps very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need to make the atmosphere in the team better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all kinds of methods to improve your business. And, thirdly, you will probably be able to single out a promising and promising person from the general mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving general indicators enterprises.

  Polls and questionnaires are a great way to get important and up-to-date information on topical topics from a large number of people.

  Conversation

  Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its purpose is to identify a special range of issues that are not available in the process of direct observation. The conversation is widely used in psychological research and is of great practical importance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

  The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of study. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

  • It is necessary to think over the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
  • Establish contact with the researched person;
  • Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
  • All questions asked during the conversation should be clear;
  • Leading questions should not lead to answers;
  • During the conversation, you need to observe the reaction of a person and compare his behavior with his answers;
  • The content of the conversation should be memorized so that later it can be recorded and analyzed;
  • Do not take notes during the conversation, because this can cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
  • Pay attention to the "subtext": omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

  Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the "original source" and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know the interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives”.

  EXAMPLE: Zhiteisky. You notice that your close friend has been walking around with a drooping and dejected look for days. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual society. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on this. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How can I find out what's going on and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to guess the moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to drink a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: "What happened?" or “Come on, tell me what you got!”. Even if you have good friendships, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise something. "Turn" the person to yourself. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him anyway. Most likely, under your good pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what the matter is. Almost every person needs other people to take part in his life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and not indifferent. Especially to your friends.

  A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to talk face-to-face, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about what, for some reason, you can’t talk about in the bustle of ordinary affairs.

  The methods of theoretical psychology are far from being exhausted on this. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

  Part two. Methods of practical psychology

  The methods of practical psychology include the methods of the fields that form the general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of counseling and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.

  Suggestion

  suggestion is the process of insertion into the examined person certain formulas, attitudes, attitudes or views beyond his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion does not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

  From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect each person, but to varying degrees.

  There are several types of offerings:

  • Direct - impact with the help of words (orders, commands, instructions);
  • Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, irritants);
  • Intentional;
  • Unintentional;
  • positive;
  • Negative.

  There are also different methods of suggestion:

  • Methods of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
  • Methods of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
  • Techniques of hidden suggestion - the provision of all options, the illusion of choice, truism.

  Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a trance state. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because are used in the process of education, in advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

  EXAMPLE: A well-known example of suggestion, called the "placebo" effect, is the phenomenon of an improvement in the patient's condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties when in fact it's empty. You can apply this method on practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a remedy for a headache - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. That's what it is .

  Reinforcement

  reinforcements is the instantaneous reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the researcher. The reaction must actually be instantaneous so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that one should continue to act or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

  Reinforcement can be of the following types:

  • Positive - the correct behavior / action is fixed;
  • Negative - incorrect behavior/action is prevented;
  • Conscious;
  • Unconscious;
  • Spontaneous - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
  • Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
  • One-time;
  • systematic;
  • Direct;
  • indirect;
  • Basic;
  • secondary;
  • Complete;
  • Partial.

  Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, is present in her from childhood in the process of education and gaining life experience.

  EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are all around us at every turn: if you dip your hand into boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is a negative elemental reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - a positive intentional reinforcement. A child who received a deuce at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to bring more deuces, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time / systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give the result - systematic positive reinforcement.

  Psychological consultation

  Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start of work, because. the client does not need any special preparation and the specialist together with him can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

  The main problems for which people seek the advice of a psychologist are:

  • Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, parenting;
  • Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
  • Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

  Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

  • Contact;
  • Request;
  • Plan;
  • Setting up for work;
  • Implementation;
  • Hometasks;
  • Completion.

  Method psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution for many life problems and getting out of difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological counseling can be absolutely any life situation which a person cannot solve on his own. This is the occurrence of problems at work, and troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or states for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with this alone, and there is no one nearby who could support, then without a shadow of a doubt and hesitation, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and centers of psychological assistance, where experienced highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

  This concludes the consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and training, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space, and many others.

  Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it is in reality. And this involves studying close relationship with the environment and external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality surrounding us is in constant motion and change, so its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. To gain a deeper understanding of the features inner world of a person, and the essence of things in general, one should also come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

  Now in the public domain there is an incalculable amount of materials for the study of psychological science and its features. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinshtein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananiev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can see interesting video on the topic of psychology methods:

  Test your knowledge

  If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.

(English method of objective observation)- general scientific method of empirical research; used in psychology for indirect study mental activity by observing (registering) acts of behavior and physiological processes, which, according to the researcher's hypothesis, reveal mental processes. Observation is usually not designed to create the conditions necessary to evoke the processes under study, which does not exclude preliminary planning of the time, place and situations that are most favorable for solving the problems posed in the study (cf. Laboratory experiment , Experiment Method).

It is advisable to use the method of objective observation in the study of processes, the flow and development of which under experimental conditions may be subject to distortions. But it is possible that under natural conditions the processes under study will appear in complex interrelations with numerous random factors; therefore, when using M. o. n. the special problem of isolating random and atypical observations may arise. Scientific observation should have a preliminary plan with the most complete list of parameters to be recorded. The method of objective observation is especially effective to apply at the first approaches to the development of the problem, when it is necessary to highlight, at least preliminary, the qualitative and integral characteristics of the processes under study. In the future, a more detailed development of the problem (if the nature of the problem under study allows) should be planned during the experiment.

Addition ed.: At least 3 meanings of the term Method of objective observation should be separated (see. objective method).

1. One of 2 divisions of observation as a method of empirical research; this meaning is in binary opposition to the method of self-observation (introspection), which is also considered as a kind of observation method (the method of subjective observation). "Objective" here means "external", i.e. observation carried out with the help of external sense organs (exterospection) and / or various instruments. From this point of view the psychological sciences have always been a "unique preserve" of the method of subjective observation. It was he who tried to destroy some representatives of the so-called. objective psychology.
2. In a narrower sense, it is an observation in which the observed phenomenon is recorded using technical means, and the role of the researcher is limited to the performance of certain stages: reading instrument readings, choosing methods for processing and analyzing data, processing, interpreting and presenting data. Here "objective" is actually equivalent to "instrumental", but in many sciences it is not possible to completely exclude a human observer. From this t. sp. subjective observations are widely represented in any empirical science (from astronomy and physiology to linguistics and ethnography).
3. In a fairly broad sense, this is any method of observation in which the requirement of independent control (by double observers or with the help of instruments) is fulfilled. There is a naive notion that in principle self-observation methods do not satisfy this requirement, while exterospective and especially instrumental observations always satisfy it (and are objective in this sense). Both statements can be disagreed with. Cm . also Types of observation , Observation. (B. M.)

Dictionary of Practical Psychologist S.Yu. Golovin

Method of objective observation- a research strategy for fixing the given characteristics of a certain process without interfering with its course. It can focus on the registration of behavioral acts and physiological processes. As a rule, it acts as a preliminary stage before planning and conducting an experimental study.

Dictionary of psychiatric terms. V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Crook

Neurology. Full dictionary. Nikiforov A.S.

there is no meaning and interpretation of the word

Oxford Dictionary of Psychology

there is no meaning and interpretation of the word

subject area of ​​the term

One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would be based on the methods of observing the course of this or that type of activity common to all other sciences and on the experimental change in the conditions for the course of this activity. They were the method of experiment and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. Distinguish direct and indirect observation. An example of direct observation would be the study of a person's response to a stimulus, or observation of the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are further subdivided into active(scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeatedly repeated, everyday observations are accumulated in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard are of particular interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes definite purpose, task, observation conditions. At the same time, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation using objective methods. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use the methods of registration of physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin reaction, etc.), which do not themselves reveal the features of the course of mental activity, but may reflect general physiological conditions characterizing the course of the studied processes.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect, when the researcher gets acquainted with the observed subjects indirectly, through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

Under the terms of observation field observation that takes place in the conditions of everyday life, study or work, and laboratory, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

According to the nature of the interaction with the object, they distinguish included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and unincluded(from the side), i.e. without interaction and establishing any contact with the person or group being studied.

There are also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is to reduce the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden(incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.

Observations are classified according to their goals: purposeful systematic approaching in terms of its conditions to the experimental, but differing in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of its manifestations, and random, search, not subject to any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in search mode managed to make observations that were not included in their original plans. Thus, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888. a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient who had such dry skin that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks jump from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge on her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of certain stimulations. Thus the psychogalvanic reflex was discovered. It later became known as galvanic skin response (GSR). In the same way, I.P. Pavlov, in the course of his experiments on the physiology of digestion, discovered conditioned reflexes.

Structural scheme ways of observing

According to the order in time, observations are distinguished solid, when the course of events is fixed constantly, and selective, in which the researcher captures the observed processes only at certain intervals.

According to the order in conducting, observations are distinguished structured, when events occurring are recorded in accordance with a previously developed monitoring scheme, and arbitrary(unstructured), when the researcher freely describes the events as he sees fit. Such observation is usually carried out at the pilot (indicative) stage of the study, when it is required to form a general idea of ​​the object of study and the possible patterns of its functioning.

According to the nature of fixation, they are distinguished ascertaining observation, when the observer fixes the facts as they are, observing them directly, or receiving from the witnesses of the event, and evaluating, when the observer not only fixes, but also evaluates the facts in relation to the degree of their expression according to a given criterion (for example, the degree of expression of emotional states etc.).

The diagram shows the main methods of observation and the relationship between them. According to this scheme, it is possible to trace how the most diverse models of observation are structurally formed. For example, methodically it can be organized as: direct - field - not included - open - purposeful - selective - structured - evaluating, etc.

observation errors. Objective methods of observation were developed to obtain reliable scientific knowledge. However, observations are made by a person, and therefore the subjective factor is always present in his observation. In psychology, more than in other disciplines, the observer runs the risk, due to his mistakes (eg, perceptual limitations), of not noticing some important facts, of not taking into account useful data, of distorting the facts due to his preconceived notions, and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the "pitfalls" associated with the method of observation. The most common observational errors occur due to susceptibility gala effect(or the halo effect), which is based on the generalization of single impressions of the observer, based on whether he likes or dislikes the observed, his actions or behavior. Such an approach leads to incorrect generalization, evaluation in "black and white", exaggeration or understatement of the observed facts. Averaging errors occur when the observer for one reason or another feels insecure. Then there is a tendency to average the estimates of the observed processes, since it is known that extremes are less common than properties of average intensity. Logic errors appear when, for example, they conclude that a person is intelligent from his eloquence, or that an amiable person is at the same time good-natured; this error is based on the assumption of a close connection between a person's behavior and his personal qualities, which is far from always true. Contrast errors caused by the observer's tendency to emphasize opposite traits in the observed individuals. There are also errors related to prejudice, ethnic and professional stereotypes, errors of incompetence observer, when the description of a fact is replaced by the observer's opinion about it, etc.

In order to increase the reliability of observation and avoid errors, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions, and resist the temptation to judge complex processes based on first impressions. In research practice, to increase the objectivity of observations, they often turn to several observers who make independent records. However, an increase in the number of observers does not always increase the value of their records, since they can all be subject to the same common misconceptions (for example, when men judge women, or northerners judge southerners, and vice versa). However, increasing the number of observers increases the reliability of the conclusions. For example, studies have found that to obtain a reliability coefficient of 0.9 when assessing school knowledge, four “judges” are needed, and eighteen judges are needed to assess such a personal quality as impulsiveness.

The methodological basis of the objective methods of psychology is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. This group includes the following methods:

• observation (continuous, selective);
• experiment (laboratory, natural, formative);
• testing (achievements, abilities, aptitude, etc.);
• analysis of products of activity (graphological, content analysis, analysis of drawings, etc.);
• survey (questionnaire, conversation, interview);
• mathematical modeling and statistical analysis.

Observation- this is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of the external behavior of a person with the aim of its subsequent analysis and explanation. Observation should be selective, planned and systematic, i.e. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain fragment of the reality being studied, be based on a plan and be carried out over a certain period of time.

Experiment- one of the main methods of psychology. Psychology acquired the status of an independent science due to the emergence of experimental methods. S. L. Rubinshtein identifies four main features of the experiment:

1. in the experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying, in contrast to the observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation;
2. the experimenter can vary, change the conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process under study;
3. in the experiment, it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study;
4. the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.

There are three types of experiment: laboratory, natural and shaping.

Laboratory experiment are carried out in specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment and instruments.

The idea of ​​holding natural experiment belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazursky (1874–1917). Its essence lies in the fact that the researcher has an impact on the subjects in the usual conditions of their activities. The subjects are often unaware that they are participating in the experiment. For example, a teacher has the ability to vary the content, forms, teaching methods in parallel classes or student groups and compare the results.

Formative experiment is a research method in the conditions of a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. It is also called a transformative, creative, educational method or a psychological and pedagogical method of active formation of the psyche. A number of pedagogical methods are based on it, for example, immersion in a problem, training in a group. The results of the experiment allow us to confirm, clarify or reject a previously developed model of impact on a person or group of people.

Testing- a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. It is used to recognize or evaluate conditions, features, characteristics of a particular person, group of people, a particular mental function, etc. The result of the test is evaluated in quantitative terms. Tests have various kinds of norms-scales of values: age, social, etc. An individual test performance indicator corresponds to its norm. There is a special area of ​​psychology - testology, which is the theory of applying and creating tests. The development of a currently scientifically based psychological test- It's hard and time consuming.

Product Analysis proceeds from the general premise of the connection of internal mental processes and external forms of behavior and activity. Studying the objective products of activity, one can draw conclusions about the psychological characteristics of its subject or subjects. Graphology is a specific form of the activity results analysis method. Psychologists have found that the characteristics of handwriting are associated with certain psychological properties the author of the letter; they developed norms and techniques for the psychological analysis of handwriting. Content analysis allows you to identify and evaluate the specific characteristics of literary, scientific, journalistic texts, and then, on their basis, determine the psychological characteristics of the author.

Poll used in psychology in the form of questionnaires and conversations (or interviews). The sources of information in the survey are the written or oral judgments of the individual. To obtain reliable information, special questionnaires are created, the questions in which are arranged in a certain order, grouped into separate blocks, etc. When questioning, the survey is conducted in writing using a questionnaire. The advantage of this method is that a group of people can simultaneously participate in such a survey, and the data obtained during the survey can be statistically processed and analyzed. During the conversation, there is a direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent (or respondent). The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish contact between them, to create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher must win over the interviewee, call him to frankness.

mathematical method is used in psychology not as an independent, but is included as an auxiliary means of increasing the reliability, objectivity, and accuracy of the data obtained. A number of statistical methods have been created specifically to test the quality of psychological tests.

Subjective Methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of the subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the emphasis on psychology in independent science subjective methods have received priority development and continue to improve at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, self-observation and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest. It is based on the systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out in ordinary life conditions without any deliberate interference on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, proceeding from the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Poll is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

ü oral questioning, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written one, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject.

ü Written survey allows you to reach a large number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire.

ü Free survey - a type of written or oral survey, in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance.

Test questionnaire as a method based on the analysis of the answers of the subjects to questions that allow obtaining reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is carried out on the basis of the number of answers that coincided in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about psychological characteristics person based on the analysis of the success of certain tasks. In tests of this type, the subject is asked to perform a certain list of tasks. The number of completed tasks is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most level tests mental development belongs to this category.

objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than other psychological methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the studied phenomenon with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property under study can be best evaluated. Natural the experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere in the course of events, fixing them as they are.

Simulation. They should be attributed to independent class methods. They are used when other methods are difficult to use. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they are based on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, when using them, as a rule, the participation of the subjects or taking into account the real situation is not required. Therefore, it can be very difficult to attribute various modeling techniques to the category of objective or subjective methods.