The place of communication in the social psychology of education. Social psychology of communication. Communication: structure, functions, basic concepts

The problem of interpersonal relations is relevant for modern psychology. A great contribution to the study of this problem was made by outstanding domestic psychologists: G.M. Andreeva, A.V. Petrovsky, B.G. Ananiev, A.A. Bodalev, S.Ya. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Brushlinsky, A.I. Dontsova, I.V. Dubrovina, A.L. Zhuravleva, A.N. Leontiev, Yu.A. Lunev, B.D. Parygin, L.I. Umansky, A.S. Chernyshev.

In psychological science, there are many different definitions of the concept of "interpersonal relationships". V.N. Myasishchev defines them as an internal personal basis of interaction, Ya.L. Kolominsky understands them as a specific type of relationship between a person and a person, in which there is the possibility of a direct (or mediated by technical means) simultaneous or delayed personal relationship, N.N. Obozov notes that interpersonal relationships are always "subject-subject" connections, they are characterized by constant reciprocity and variability.

According to A. V. Petrov, interpersonal relations are “subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication. This is a system of attitudes, orientations, expectations, stereotypes through which people perceive and evaluate each other. Interpersonal relationships are mediated by the content, goals, values and organization of joint activities and act as the basis for the formation of a socio-psychological climate in a team.

According to G.M. Andreeva, it is necessary to distinguish between two main types of relations: public and interpersonal. Public relations are official, formally fixed, objectified, effective connections. They are leading in the regulation of all types of relations, including interpersonal ones.

The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. There are three types or levels of emotional manifestations of personality: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all kinds of these emotional manifestations. However, in social psychology it is usually the third component that is characterized - feelings. The “set” of these feelings is unlimited. However, all of them can be reduced to two large groups:

1) conjunctive feelings are all sorts of people that bring people together, uniting their feelings. In each case of such an attitude, the other side acts as a desired object, in relation to which a readiness for cooperation, for joint actions is demonstrated;
2) disjunctive feelings - feelings that separate people, when the other side appears as unacceptable, perhaps even as a frustrating object, in relation to which there is no desire for cooperation. The intensity of both kinds of feelings can be very different.

The emotional content of interpersonal relationships (sometimes called valency) changes in two opposite directions: from conjunctive (positive, bringing together) to indifferent (neutral) and disjunctive (negative, separating) and vice versa. Variants of manifestations of interpersonal relationships are huge. Conjunctive feelings are manifested in various forms of positive emotions and states, the demonstration of which indicates a readiness for rapprochement and joint activity. Indifferent feelings suggest manifestations of a neutral attitude towards a partner (indifference, indifference, indifference).

In the monograph by N.N. Obozov "Interpersonal Relations" summarized the results of research on this problem by domestic and foreign scientists. According to this scientist, “the motivational structure of interpersonal relationships can be different. So, when a friendly relationship arises, the motive for inclusion in contact is the need for communication when the opportunity presents itself to carry it out with an attractive person. Since friendships are determined by interpersonal attractiveness (sympathy, attraction) - they do not oblige to anything. Friendly relations can arise during short-term contact communication and persist for a long time without turning into friendly relations. The emergence and subsequent development of comradely interpersonal relations are determined by the motives for cooperation, formed under the influence of the content of joint activities. Friendly interpersonal relations are already formed in a group (educational, industrial, sports, etc.) of the type of association and cooperation. The motivational structure of this type of interpersonal relations is determined by the content of joint activity that is personally significant for each participant in the interaction (including the goal, tasks, etc.) ".

A.V. Petrovsky created the theory of activity mediation of interpersonal relations in small groups and collectives. In his opinion, “group activity is characterized by a stratometric (multilayer) structure. On the periphery are values and the behavioral activity that corresponds to them, not directly related and practically not mediated in any way by the goals, objectives and content of group joint activity. Closer to the group "core" are the value and relational-interpersonal layer, to one degree or another (largely depending on the level of socio-psychological development of a particular community) mediated by the goals, objectives and content of group activity. This structural layer, as it were, “warms up” the surface “shell”, sometimes decisively determining the nature of the attraction relationships themselves. And inside, the "nuclear" layer, i.e., values that are directly "tied" to the specifics of group activity, its social significance and the special conditions for its successful implementation.

The motives of interpersonal choice in a group form the psychological basis of individual preference. Their features can serve as an indicator of their level of development. In diffuse groups - emotional and personal likes and dislikes, orientation to the external aspects of the chosen person. In developed groups, interpersonal choices are conditioned by an orientation mainly on the moral and business qualities of a partner, that is, on his personal characteristics that are formed and manifested in joint activities.

The well-being of a person in a group is the general psychological state, emotional and moral mood that dominates in her as a result of a long stay in it. To determine the well-being of the majority of group members, psychology uses the concept of "psychological climate".

Interpersonal relationships are built along the "vertical" (between the leader and subordinates and vice versa) and "horizontal" (between persons occupying the same status). Emotional manifestations of interpersonal connections are determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicants belong, and by individual differences that vary within these norms. Interpersonal relationships can be formed from positions of dominance - equality - subordination and dependence - independence.

The structure of the group is determined by intra-group relations. Position, status, internal attitude, role describe its socio-psychological structure. In addition to the above, the structure of the group is described in terms of composition (a characteristic that reflects the originality of the individual composition of the group, which can be homogeneous, or homogeneous and heterogeneous, or heterogeneous) and communication channels (a system of interpersonal relationships) that ensure interaction and transmission of information from one group member to another. , which can be: centralized (frontal, radial, hierarchical) and decentralized (chain, circular, full).

In the course of direct contact, the following is manifested: social position, role and norm. Social role - fixing a certain position that a person occupies in the system of social relations. There are social, interpersonal, active, latent, institutional and spontaneous types of roles.

Social position (synonymous with the concept of "status") - the place, position of a person in the system of relations in society, determined by a number of specific features and regulating the style of behavior, as well as the views, ideas, attitudes and dispositions of the individual regarding the conditions of his own life, implemented and defended by him in reference groups.

At the end of the 1930s, M. Sherif and K. Sherif introduced the concept of “social group norm”, with the help of which, along with the categories of “status” and “role”, a group is defined. According to these scientists, a social norm is “an evaluation scale, for example, a scale, a criterion, a ruler that determines the acceptable and objectively allowed freedom of behavior, activity, beliefs and beliefs, or any other property and manifestation of members of a social association” .

In the studies of G.M. Andreeva, A.A. Bodaleva, B.F. Lomova, V.A. Barabanshchikova, E.S. Samoylenko noted the relationship between interpersonal relationships and communication, considered the mechanisms of cognition as the basis for the perception of a person by a person.

According to G.M. Andreeva, both social and interpersonal relations of a person are revealed precisely in communication. Its roots are in the very material life activity of individuals. Communication is “the realization of the entire system of human relations. It includes three interrelated aspects: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The communicative side of communication consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive side is the organization of interaction between the interlocutors. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by partners in communication.

Great contribution to learning psychological problem interpersonal relations in a group, society was introduced by the domestic scientist A.A. Bodalev. According to this scholar, psychological science actual is "consideration of interpersonal communication - the most complex phenomenon as a systemic education, which has a number of essential characteristics, characterized by a multi-level structure" .

The scope of interpersonal relationships is extremely wide. According to A.A. Bodalev, “it covers almost the entire range of a person’s existence, ranging from his relationship to large social groups (nations, work collectives) to intimate, dyadic relationships (marital, parent-child relationships). It can be argued that a person, even being completely alone, continues to rely in his thoughts and actions on the existing ideas about the assessments that are significant to others. It is not for nothing that such psychological theories of personality were created and still retain their theoretical and practical value, in which the status of its main components is attributed to interpersonal relationships.

Based on the scientific research of B.G. Ananiev and V.N. Myasishcheva, A.A. Bodalev in the 1960s began to study the cognitive component of communication: to identify differences in the formation of images of perception, imagination, ideas and memory during direct contact of a person with a person and an object. Studies were carried out on the influence of age, gender, profession and objects, and subjects of knowledge (A. A. Bodalev, V. A. Eremeev, O. G. Kukosyan, V. N. Kunitsyna, V. N. Panferov, etc.). The role of perception of different types of expression (facial expressions and pantomimes, characteristics of gestures and gait, features of voice and speech) in the formation of a sensual image of a person, interpretation of his emotional state and his inherent personal qualities was studied (S. S. Dashkova, V. A. Labunskaya, V. . X. Manerov and others); the impression about people of ordinary and extraordinary appearance, with normal behavioral reactions and deviations was studied (V. I. Kabrin, Z. N. Lukyanova, Z. I. Ryabikina).

In his scientific research, A.A. Bodalev relied on the scientific theories and concepts of domestic psychologists: the principle of determinism, the subject-activity concept of S.L. Rubinstein, principle systems approach B.F. Lomov. Alexei Alexandrovich wrote: “A person is formed as a subject of knowledge of other people, accumulating and expanding life experience, mastering knowledge about nature and society. Mandatory refraction of individual experience through a system of scientific knowledge about society and man, as well as ideas and images of art is one of the most important conditions for the formation of man as a subject of knowledge.

The development of the individual as “the subject of knowledge of other people goes through many phases and stages, which correspond to deep changes in the structure of individual consciousness. Thoughts, feelings and behavior of a person in relation to other people testify to the general development of personality. Therefore, the reflection of one person by another can unfold at different levels. Ultimately, these levels depend on which fund labor activity, cognition and communication possesses personality ".

When perceiving a person, the subject unconsciously chooses various mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. These mechanisms include: interpretation of communication experience, identification, attribution, empathy and reflection. Identification: 1) assimilation, identification of oneself with the interlocutor, 2) the process of the subject uniting himself with another person or group on the basis of an established emotional connection.

In social psychology, reflection appears in the form of the subject's awareness of how he is actually perceived and evaluated by other people. In the course of mutual reflection of the participants in communication, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation of a strategy for the behavior of the subjects of interaction.

In the process of communication, the interlocutors need to understand each other's feelings, this is facilitated by empathy. This is the comprehension of the emotional state, penetration into the experiences of another person.

In conditions of lack of information, the interlocutors begin to attribute to each other both the causes of behavior, and sometimes the patterns of behavior themselves, common characteristics. There is a whole system of methods of attribution (attribution). Theories of causal attribution are widely represented in Western social psychology (G. Kelly, E. Jones, K. Davis, D. Xnnouz, R. Nisbst, L. Stricklesnd). The research is aimed at studying the attempts of the “ordinary person” to understand the cause and effect of the events of which he is a witness or participant.

Various effects of people's perception of each other have been identified. The most studied are: the halo effect, the effect of novelty and primacy, the effect of stereotyping.

« The halo effect "is manifested in the formation of the first impression of a person. A specific setting affects the interlocutor. “A general favorable impression leads to positive assessments and unknown qualities of the perceived and, conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments.”

The effect of novelty and primacy lies in the fact that in relation to a familiar person, the last one is the most significant, that is, new information about him, while in relation to a stranger, the first information is more significant.

In the process of communication, people often use stereotypes. This term was first introduced by W. Lippmann in 1922. A social stereotype is a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object (a group, a person, an event) that develops under the conditions of a lack of information as a result of a generalization of the individual's personal experience and often preconceived notions accepted in society. Very often it arises in relation to a person's group affiliation, for example, to a certain profession. Here there is a tendency to "make sense" from previous experience, to build conclusions based on similarities with this experience.

concept "attraction" is closely related to interpersonal attraction. Researchers consider se as a process and at the same time the result of the attraction of one person to another; allocate levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and associate it with the perceptual side of communication. Attraction can be viewed as a special kind of social attitude towards another person, in which a positive emotional component predominates.

Optimal combination psychological features partners, contributing to the optimization of their communication and activities is called interpersonal compatibility. As equivalent words, "harmonization", "consistency", "consolidation" are used. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and mutual complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with the joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings caused by xu are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result. It develops in the space-time framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.) that affect its manifestation.

In the process of communication there is a psychological impact of the individual on ipynny and vice versa. A person in a goy or other situation can show conformity, negativism or adherence to principles, positivism, collectivism. Conformity - a person's susceptibility to real or imagined group pressure, manifested in a change in his behavior and attitudes in accordance with the position of the majority that he initially did not share. Conformity can be external and internal.

Sometimes a person is negative. This is the unmotivated behavior of the subject, manifested in actions that are deliberately contrary to the requirements and expectations of other individuals or social groups. The psychological basis of negativism is the setting of the subject for disagreement, denial certain requirements, forms of communication, expectations of members of a particular social group, to protest against this group and the rejection of a particular person as such.

For groups of a high level of development, it is characteristic collectivism. This is the principle of organizing relationships and joint activities of people, manifested in the conscious subordination of personal interests to public interests, in comradely cooperation, in readiness for interaction and mutual assistance, in mutual understanding, goodwill and tact, interest in each other's problems and needs.

According to A. Zhuravlev, the process of forming interpersonal relationships includes dynamics, a regulatory mechanism (empathy) and the conditions for their development. The dynamics of the development of these relations in the time continuum goes through several stages: acquaintance, friendly, comradely and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relations in the "reverse" direction has the same dynamics (transition from friendly to comradely, friendly and then there is a termination of relations). The duration of each stage depends on many components of interpersonal relationships. The process of acquaintance is carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which the interlocutors belong. Friendly relations form readiness or unreadiness for the further development of interpersonal relations. If a positive attitude is formed among partners, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

The problem of interpersonal relations was studied by many foreign scientists. American psychologist Gordon Allport believed that human behavior is always the result of a goy or some other configuration of personality traits. Each person is unique and can be understood by identifying individual characteristics. G. Allport's theory is a combination of humanistic and individual approaches to the study of human behavior.

According to K. Rogers, interaction with other people gives a person the opportunity to discover and experience his real self. Our identity is shaped through interpersonal relationships that create the best opportunity to "full function", to be in harmony with ourselves, others and the environment.

To measure various aspects of interpersonal relationships, there are numerous methods and tests. Among them are the diagnostics of interpersonal relations by T. Leary, the “Q-sorting” method, the behavior description test by C. Thomas, the method of interpersonal preferences by J. Moreno for measuring sociometric status in a group, the questionnaire of empathic tendencies by A. Msgrabyan and N. Epstein and others.

Thus, many domestic and foreign psychologists have been studying an important socio-psychological problem - the interpersonal relations of people in a group, team, society, and have made a great contribution to the development of its theory and practical application.

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Introduction

The relevance of the study is explained by the fact that in modern social conditions, when new market relations are replacing the usual forms of life, interest in communication problems has become even more aggravated. Without communication is unthinkable human society. Communication acts in it as a way of integrating people and, at the same time, as a way of their development. It is from here that the problems of communication arise, as ways of interaction and self-knowledge. In a number of different scientific disciplines capable of solving these problems, the primary place is given to social psychology.

The works of many outstanding classical psychologists are devoted to communication issues, however, there is no unambiguous approach to the problems of communication in psychological science, which allowed us to consider them in more detail and determined the direction of the study.

The process of communication is a rather complex social phenomenon, so it is necessary to consider its structure in more detail. There are different approaches to understanding the structure of communication.

The purpose of the study: to consider the problems of communication in social psychology.

The object of the study is communication as a social phenomenon.

The subject of the research is the problems of communication in social psychology.

Research objectives:

To study the development of the problem in the psychological literature.

Analyze the description of communication problems in theoretical sources.

Identify the main structural components of communication and its main functions.

Determine the features of each of the functions of the communication process.

The theoretical significance of the study lies in the study of communication problems, the structure of communication, the content of communication, as well as various aspects (functions) of the communication process, their description and interpretation.

1. Theoretical substantiation of communication problems in social psychology

1.1 The concept of communication

The problems of communication, its individual and age characteristics, the mechanisms of flow and change have become the subject of study by philosophers and sociologists, psychologists, and specialists in social psychology, child and age.

However, different researchers invest in the concept of communication far from the same meaning. Some authors consider it legitimate to assert that communication is the language of man with nature and himself. However, it is very important to define the concept of communication for yourself.

Communication is the interaction of two (or more) people aimed at harmonizing and combining their efforts in order to establish relationships and achieve overall result. Communication is not just an action, but precisely an interaction: it is carried out between the participants, each of whom is equally a carrier of activity and assumes it in his partners.

In addition to the mutual orientation of people's actions during communication, the most important characteristic for us is that each participant is active, i.e. acts as a subject.

Communication is also characterized by the fact that each participant acts in its course as a person, and not as a physical object. When communicating, people are tuned in to the fact that the partner will answer them, and count on his feedback. Pay attention to this feature of communication.

Thus, the features of communication listed above are inextricably linked with each other. The absolutization of impact in isolation from other features of communication leads to an interactionist position that sharply unifies the idea of communication.

With excessive emphasis on the exchange of information as the essence of communication, the latter turns into communication - a phenomenon that is also much narrower than communication. And, finally, the identification of communication with relationships, especially with relationships, also distorts the term under consideration; its clear separation from the term "relationship" is of fundamental importance.

The category of communication is basic for socio-psychological science. Due to the complexity of this phenomenon, there are many approaches to its consideration. In addition to social psychology, communication is considered by other sciences. Thus, the general philosophical concept presents communication as an actualization of real-life social relations: it is social relations that determine the form of communication. Communication is a way of realizing actual relationships in social interaction.

The sociological concept justifies communication as a way to carry out internal evolution or maintain the status quo social structure society, social group to the extent that this evolution involves the dialectical interaction of the individual and society. The socio-pedagogical approach to the analysis of the essence of communication is based on its understanding as a mechanism of society's influence on the individual. In this regard, in social pedagogy, all forms of communication are considered as psychotechnical systems that ensure the interaction of people. With a psychological approach, communication is recognized as the most important social need and a means of developing higher mental functions.

Thus, we can conclude that the above theoretical approaches do not exhaust the relevance of studying the problem of communication in social psychology. At the same time, they show that communication should be studied as a multidimensional phenomenon, and this involves studying the phenomenon using the methods of system analysis.

1.2 Structure, content and forms of the phenomenon of communication

Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to somehow designate its structure, so that then analysis of each element becomes possible. Under the structure of communication, she generally understands the totality of stable connections between many elements that ensure its integrity and identity to itself. Based on this definition, the structure of communication can be considered taking into account its aspects: dynamic (phases or stages of communication), functional, subject-content and operational aspects.

Considering the dynamics of communication, the following components (phases) of this process can be distinguished:

1) the emergence of a need for communication (it is necessary to communicate or find out information, influence the interlocutor, etc.) and clarify goals (what exactly do I want to achieve as a result of communication);

2) entry of the subject into a communicative situation;

3) orientation in the situation of communication and personality of the interlocutor;

4) planning the content and means of communication (a person imagines what he will say, chooses specific means, phrases, decides how to behave, etc.);

5) attachment to the subject - interaction partner (taking a certain position in relation to the communication partner);

6) the phase of mutual information, interaction, exchange of speech or contact actions;

7) perception and evaluation of the interlocutor's responses, monitoring the effectiveness of communication based on the establishment of feedback;

8) adjustment of the direction, style, methods of communication;

9) the phase of mutual disconnection and exit from contact.

The structure of communication can be considered taking into account the analysis of the elements that make up the situation of communication.

Communication is always tied to a certain situation, and, in this sense, its obligatory components are interacting subjects, prompted by specific needs and motives, realizing their goals in communication through the use of certain communicative means and techniques that represent this or that content to the interlocutor. In addition, the structure of the communication situation is made up of time, place, environment and context of communication, as well as the norms governing communication.

The subject of communication is the person who initiates communication, as well as the one to whom this initiative is intended.

The main needs of communication are: the need to solve the objective problems of activity, affiliation (the desire for acceptance, fear of rejection), demonstration of the “I”, prestige, the desire to dominate or submit to another, the need for knowledge, etc.

The purpose of communication is a specific result, to achieve which in a particular situation the various actions performed by a person in the process of communication are directed. The goals of communication include: the transfer and acquisition of knowledge, the coordination of the actions of people in their joint activities, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, the persuasion and motivation of the interlocutor, and much more.

Communication actions are units of communicative activity, a holistic act addressed to another person (group of people). There are two main types of communicative actions - initiative and response.

Speech is the form and way of using language; a system of words, expressions and rules for their combination into meaningful statements used for communication.

Words and rules for their use should be the same for all speakers of a given language. However, the objective meaning of a word is always refracted for a person through the prism of his own activity and already forms his own personal, “subjective” meaning. Therefore, we do not always correctly or accurately understand each other.

The specificity of motives, goals, and the means and methods chosen to achieve them determine the uniqueness of a person's communication style.

Communication style is an individual, stable form of a person's communicative behavior, manifested in any conditions of his interaction with others. In the style of communication, the features of a person’s communicative capabilities, the established nature of relationships with specific people or groups, and the features of a communication partner find their expression.

The role and intensity of communication in modern society are constantly increasing. This is due to a number of reasons. First of all, the transition from an industrial society to an information society leads to an increase in the volume of information and, accordingly, an increase in the intensity of the processes of exchange of this information. The second reason is the increasing specialization of workers employed in different areas. professional activity which requires their cooperation and interaction in the course of achieving the goals. In parallel, and very rapidly, the number of technical means for the exchange of information is increasing. We have witnessed how faxes appeared and entered the everyday life of many people, Email, Internet, etc. There is another reason that prompts us to think about the growing role of communication in modern society and make this problem a subject of special consideration - this is the increase in the number of people engaged in professional activities related to communication. For professionals of the socionomic group (professions of the type "man - man") one of their constituents professional competence is communication competence.

All of the above allows us to conclude that the principle of connection and organic unity of communication with activity, developed in domestic social psychology, opens up really new perspectives in the study of this phenomenon. At the same time, communication should be understood as a form of social interaction between people, in which thoughts and feelings, motives and actions are exchanged through sign (linguistic) means for the purpose of mutual understanding and coordination of joint activities.

2. SOME FEATURES OF THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION IN PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 Types and types of communication

An analysis of psychological literature has shown that communication is extremely diverse in its forms and types. Communication can be direct and indirect, direct and indirect.

Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.

Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and information exchange. These are either natural objects (a stick, a thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.), or cultural ones (sign systems, recordings of symbols on various media, print, radio, television, etc.)

Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the act of communication itself, for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people with each other, their communication in those cases when they see and directly react to each other's actions.

Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries, which can be other people (say, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, international, group, family levels).

The duration of communication can be short-term and long-term. According to the degree of completion - finished and interrupted (unfinished).

According to the contingent of participants and the number of two-way communication channels, interpersonal communication is also distinguished, personal-group (for example, leader - group, teacher - class, etc.), intergroup (group - group), as well as mass (socially-oriented) and intrapersonal (intrapersonal) communication.

Mass communication is a set of direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of means. mass media. Mass communication (or mass communication) is based on modern communication technologies and means. It covers a wide range of types of psychological influence: from awareness (informing) and training people to persuasion and suggestion.

Interpersonal communication is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in composition of participants. In social psychology, there are three types of interpersonal communication: imperative, manipulative and dialogic.

Imperative communication - authoritarian, directive interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. In this case, the communication partner is considered as an object of influence, he acts as a passive, “passive” side. The ultimate goal of such communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. Orders, instructions and demands are used as means of exerting influence.

Manipulative communication is a type of interpersonal communication in which the impact on the communication partner in order to achieve their intentions is carried out covertly. Like the imperative, manipulation involves an objective perception of a communication partner, the desire to gain control over the behavior and thoughts of another person.

Dialogue communication is an equal subject-subject interaction aimed at mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners.

Dialogue communication allows to achieve a deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of the personalities of partners, creates conditions for mutual personal growth.

Formal-role communication, when both the content and means of communication are regulated and, instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they manage with knowledge of his social role.

Business communication is a situation where the goal of interaction is to reach a clear agreement or agreement. In business communication personality traits and the mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, first of all, to achieve the main goal in the interests of the case. Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint productive activity people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, and not those problems that affect their inner world.

Intimate-personal communication is possible when you can touch on any topic and it is not necessary to resort to the help of words, the interlocutor will understand you by facial expressions, movements, intonation. In such communication, each participant has the image of the interlocutor, knows his personality, can anticipate his reactions, interests, beliefs, attitudes.

Secular communication. The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communications.

Characteristics of the main functions of the communication process

In the most generalized classifications, the following aspects (or functions) of communication are distinguished: communicative, interactive and perceptual. social communication communicative perceptual

The communicative function of communication, or communication, in the narrow sense of the word, consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive function consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and knowledge of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

Communication is multifunctional. This means that in relation to a particular person, group, their activities or society as a whole, it performs various functions. Being the most important form of human life, communication acts as a necessary condition and means of reproduction of consciously acting personalities.

From this point of view, the following functions of communication can be distinguished:

1) Social function. The social meaning of communication is that it acts as a means of transferring forms of culture and assimilation of social experience. Thanks to and through communication, all types of social relations are formed and implemented, social communities are created.

2) The instrumental function is to serve various types of joint subject-oriented activities.

3) The general psychological function of communication lies in the fact that it is for a person a means of developing his higher mental functions, a means of his self-expression, which allows him to reveal his inner world to other people.

Thus, in the most generalized classifications, the following aspects (or functions) of communication are distinguished: communicative, interactive and perceptual. Also, there are: information and communication, covering the processes of receiving and transmitting information; regulatory and communicative, associated with the mutual adjustment of actions in the implementation of joint activities; affective-communicative, relating to emotional sphere person and is responsible for the needs to change their emotional state.

Being the most important form of human life, communication acts as a necessary condition and means of reproduction of consciously acting personalities.

CONCLUSION

The problem of communication is the main one for social psychology. Due to the complexity of this phenomenon, there are many approaches to its consideration.

The study of communication shows a variety of manifestations and fixations of this phenomenon. An analysis of communication as a complex, multilateral process shows that its specific forms can be very different. The certain value of such studies is indisputable, but their limitations are also indisputable. They reveal only the mechanism, i.e. the form in which this process is organized. All traditional social psychology has given priority to this aspect. Her methods, technical means analysis were subordinated to this task. Meanwhile, the content aspects of communication remained, in essence, beyond the interest of researchers. The mechanism works very differently, depending on what kind of “material” it is dealing with.

The principle of the unity of communication and activity requires a logical transition from the general characteristics of the communication process to its study in the context of specific groups. Communication, being a complex psychological phenomenon, has its own structure:

1. The communicative side of communication is associated with the exchange of information, enrichment of each other due to the accumulation of knowledge by each.

The interactive side of communication serves the practical interaction of people with each other in the process of joint activities. Here their ability to cooperate, help each other, coordinate their actions, coordinate them is manifested. The lack of skills and abilities of communication or their insufficient formation adversely affect the development of the individual.

3. The perceptual side of communication characterizes the process of people's perception of other people, the process of knowing them individual properties and qualities.

The main mechanisms of perception and knowledge of each other in the processes of communication are identification, reflection and stereotyping.

The communicative, interactive and perceptual sides of communication in their unity determine its content, forms and role in people's life.

Communication is a complex process of interaction between people, which consists in the exchange of information, as well as in the perception and understanding of each other by partners. The subjects of communication are living beings, people. In principle, communication is characteristic of any living beings, but only at the human level the process of communication becomes conscious, connected by verbal and non-verbal acts. The person who transmits information is called the communicator, and the person who receives it is called the recipient.

Through communication activities are organized and enriched. The construction of a joint activity plan requires each participant to have an optimal understanding of its goals, objectives, understanding the specifics of its object, even the capabilities of each of the participants. The inclusion of communication in this process allows for the “coordination” or “mismatch” of the activities of individual participants.

At the same time, communication should be understood as a form of social interaction between people, in which thoughts and feelings, motives and actions are exchanged through sign (linguistic) means for the purpose of mutual understanding and coordination of joint activities.

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Communication as a Phenomenon of Social Psychology

Socio-psychological specificity of communication

Communication is an integral aspect of human existence, an important prerequisite for its formation as a social being, interaction with various communities, as well as

necessary condition for the existence of society. In the process of communication, there is an intellectual and emotional-sensory interaction of individuals, the unity and coherence of their actions is achieved, which leads to the formation general sentiment and views, mutual understanding, cohesion and solidarity. They are needed in collective activity, because they represent the cultural and communicative basis of the social life of society. In the process of development of the individual, the need for communication has a socio-selective character.

In parallel with the need for communication, there is a need for solitude (here, communication with oneself), which in some people is pronounced brightly, in others it is barely noticeable. It depends both on the individual and on the social environment.

Solitude - being in independence in isolation, apart, without communicating with anyone.

Activation, tension of social contacts and interpersonal relations more and more actualizes the desire of the individual to isolate himself, to maintain his independence. It is realized as a need to relax, to understand oneself. If there is no friend nearby with whom to discuss problems, the individual begins to communicate with himself, as if splitting his own "I". The ability to conduct internal reflection-dialogues, "talk", "advisers" with one's own conscience is extremely important not only for making informed decisions, avoiding mistakes, but also for the spiritual and professional development of a person, maintaining his inner harmony.

The phenomenon of communication is manifested in the numerous relationships of people, in the exchange of activities, information, experience, skills, results of work. Communication is one of the manifestations of human nature, personal form existence and functioning of social relations. It reflects the objective need of people to live in society, unite and work with each other. Joint activities cannot take place without coordination of actions, agreement on goals, exchange of views, formation inner world man, his consciousness, feelings, knowledge. And this is possible only through communication.

Communication covers various relationships, interpersonal relationships, is carried out in various forms and with the help of various means, which, being an integral factor of culture, are constantly being improved and enriched.

Communication is the whole range of connections and interactions of people in the process of spiritual and material production, a way of formation, development, implementation and regulation social relations and psychological characteristics of an individual, which is carried out through direct or indirect contacts that individuals and groups enter into.

A narrow interpretation of this concept is associated with interpersonal relationships of a person.

Interpersonal communication is the process of subject and information interaction between people, in which their interpersonal relations (mutual influence, perception of each other, etc.) are formed, concretized, specified and implemented, and the psychological characteristics of the communicative potential of each individual are manifested.

Interpersonal communication is the interaction of people in which each participant realizes certain goals, while simultaneously learning and changing himself and the interlocutor.

For social psychology, the relationship between communication and activity is fundamental. Based on the idea of their unity, she interprets communication as a reality of human relationships that cover all forms of joint human activity. This means that any form of communication refers to specific forms of joint activity. That is, people always communicate in relevant activities. Among scientists, there are many supporters of a broader view of the relationship between activity and communication, according to which communication is interpreted both as an aspect of joint activity and as its product, their opponents consider communication to be an independent phenomenon, unreduced to activity, proving that the process of communication is for a person not only a means but also the goal. According to this understanding, communication is not necessarily predetermined by the need for joint activities, it can also be implemented as a self-motivating process.

So, communication in social psychology is treated as a special kind of activity; a specific social form of information communication; form of interaction of subjects; a category independent and unreduced to activity; the process of interpersonal interaction; exchange of thoughts, feelings and experiences; an essential aspect of human activity; the reality of human relations, which implies any form of joint activity of people; the universal reality of human existence is generated and supported by various forms of human relations, etc. It is obvious that human activity; its communication with others are interconnected and cannot exist separately. Any kind, form of human activity (game, leadership, education, etc.) is realized through communication, and communication - through them. Even communication with oneself occurs in such a way that a person mentally continues the conversation with his partner.

Communication is a social phenomenon, its nature is manifested in society. Being an act of transferring social experience, norms of behavior, traditions, it contributes to the enrichment of knowledge, skills and abilities of participants in joint activities that satisfy the need for psychological contact, is a mechanism for reproducing events, moods, coordinates the efforts of people, contributes to the objective identification of the behavior of partners, their manners, character traits, emotional-volitional and motivational areas. Its socio-psychological specificity lies in the fact that in the process of interaction the subjective world of one individual is revealed to another, there is an exchange of opinions, interests, feelings, activities, information. As a result of communication, certain contacts, interpersonal relationships are realized, people are united (delimited), rules and norms of behavior are developed. The success of any contacts depends on mutual understanding between communication partners. In interpersonal contacts, the whole range of qualities, communicative potential, social significance of the individual is revealed, human likes and dislikes, love and friendship, compatibility and incompatibility are revealed. This indicates the need to know the relationship between the participants of the contact group, because the system of communication of an individual depends on them, the development of its communicative potential, the means used in the interaction.

Social psychology studies not only the form, methods of communication, but also its content - something about which a person enters into interpersonal relationships.

COMMUNICATION - the process of exchange between people with certain results of their mental and spiritual activities: learned information, thoughts, judgments, assessments, feelings, experiences and attitudes.

The concept of communication is also used to characterize the specifics of interaction and communication between representatives of various ethnic communities (see Culture of Communication).

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION - its systemic properties that determine the specifics of manifestation. Communication performs six functions: pragmatic, formation and development, confirmation, unification-separation of people, organization and maintenance of interpersonal relationships, intrapersonal.

The pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need.

The function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects. Communicating with other people, a person assimilates universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes, states and human behavior are born, exist and manifest throughout life.

The validation function provides people with the opportunity to know, validate, and validate themselves.

The function of uniting and separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, contributes to the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can contribute differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result of communication.

The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relations serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.

The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.

In social psychology, the phenomenon communication is one of the most important, because it gives rise to such phenomena as the exchange of information, people's perception of each other, leadership and leadership, cohesion and conflict, sympathy and antipathy, etc.

Domestic psychological science has a long tradition of researching the category of "communication" and identifying its specific psychological aspect. First of all, the question of the relationship between communication and activity is fundamental.

Based on the idea of the unity of communication and activity (B. Ananiev, A. Leontiev, S. Rubinshtein, etc.), communication is understood as the reality of human relations, which provides for any forms of joint activity of people. That is, any form of communication belonging to specific forms of joint activity. In addition, people do not just communicate in the course of performing certain functions, but they always communicate during the corresponding activity.

G. Andreeva believes that the broadest understanding of the relationship between activity and communication is appropriate, when communication is considered both as an aspect of joint activity (since activity itself is not only labor, but also communication in the process of labor), and as its kind of derivative (from Latin derivatus - allotted, derivo - I take away, form: a derivative of something primary).

In other words, communication should be considered in two ways: as an aspect of joint activity and as its product (V. Slobodchikov, E. Isaev). At the same time, activity through communication is not only organized, but also enriched, new connections and relationships between people arise in it. According to G. Andreeva, such a broad understanding of the connection between communication and activity corresponds to the understanding of communication itself as an important condition for the individual to appropriate the achievements of the historical development of mankind, whether at the micro level, in the immediate environment, or at the macro level, in the entire system of social relations.

Concerning another position, when the category of “communication” can be considered as independent and reduced to activity (V. Znakovoe, A. Rean, etc.), the process of communication becomes for a person not only a means, but also an end. Such an understanding of communication allows us to consider this definition as one that does not necessarily arise due to the need for joint activity; it can also act as a self-motivated process. As an example, we have phatic (from lat. Fatuus - stupid, empty) communication, in an active aspect, empty, the purpose of which is to support the very process of communication.

The idea of autonomy and intrinsic value of communication (A. Rean, Ya. Kolominsky) is substantiated, firstly, by the theoretical concept of the structure of fundamental human needs (A. Maslow), in which communication is one of the basic needs (it is necessary in order to share with another person’s grief or joy in order to feel like a person), and secondly, from the standpoint of the subject-subject approach to communication (if the activity is associated with the “subject-object” formula, then in communication none of the partners can be considered as an object, because each of them is an active subject of this process).

Communication as an independent concept raised to activity can be defined as follows: it is a process of interpersonal interaction generated by a wide range of actual needs of partners, aimed at meeting these needs and mediated by certain interpersonal relationships.

From all of the above, it is easy to see that the concept of “communication” is interpreted in different ways in the psychological literature:

as a special kind of activity;

as a specific social form of information communication;

as a form of interaction between subjects;

as an independent category reduced to activity;

as a process of interpersonal interaction;

as an exchange of thoughts, feelings and experiences;

as an essential aspect of human activity;

as a reality of human relations, which implies any form of joint activity of people;

as a universal reality of human existence, is generated and maintained various forms human relations.

Most researchers tend to think that human activity in all its modifications, and the communication of an individual with other people are closely intertwined in his life and in fact none of them is impossible without the other. From this it follows that any kind or form of human activity (play, leadership, education) is manifested through communication and vice versa.

And even communication with oneself (prolonged communication) occurs in such a way that a person mentally continues the conversation with a partner with whom he has recently communicated. That is, the individual acts as follows: he thinks over the scenario of the conversation in advance, provides for possible arguments and counterarguments of the participants in communication, tactics of persuasion, possible types of contacts, etc.

The human need for communication is due to the social way of its life and the need to interact with other people. Observation of children who spent the first years of their lives among animals and did not have the opportunity to communicate with their own kind, testify to numerous violations in their development, both mental and physical, and social.

Communication, thus, becomes the main condition for human survival and ensures the implementation of the functions of training, education and development of the individual. Studying the behavior of infants, American researchers K. F. Lake-Hobson, B. Robinson and P. Skin note that in the first weeks of life, children can only exchange gestures, facial expressions, and numerous sounds with adults, which, perhaps, indicates genetic "programming » to communicate with the environment.

Communication is a multifunctional process. Researchers, highlighting a variety of criteria, present different classification communication functions:

1) emotional, informational, socializing, connecting self-knowledge (A. V. Mudrik);

2) establishing communication, instrumental, awareness, self-determination (A. B. Dobrovich);

3) unity, instrumental, translational, self-expression (A. A. Brudny);

4) contact, information, incentive, coordination, understanding, emotive, establishing relationships, exerting influence (L. A. Karpenko), etc.

However, it is most relevant to consider communication in the system of relations, which allows us to distinguish three groups of functions:

1) psychological, determining the development of a person as an individual and personality;

2) social, which determine the development of society as a social system and the development of groups as constituent units of this system;

3) instrumental, defining connections between a person and the world in the broad sense of the word, between various social groups.

Another option for communication functions

According to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. There are five main communication functions.

1. The pragmatic function of communication is realized when people interact in the process of joint activities.

2. The formative function of communication is manifested in the process of formation and change of the mental image of a person. It is known that at certain stages the development of a child's behavior, activity, and attitude to the world and to himself is mediated by his communication with an adult. In the course of development, external forms of interaction mediated by communication between a child and an adult are transformed into internal mental functions and processes, as well as into an independent external activity of the child.

3. Confirmation function. In the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, approve and confirm himself. Wanting to establish himself in his existence and in his value, a person is looking for a foothold in other people.

4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. The perception of other people and maintaining various relationships with them (from intimate personal to purely business) for any person is invariably associated with evaluating people and establishing certain emotional relationships - either positive or negative in their sign. Of course, emotional interpersonal relationships are not the only type of social connection available to a modern person, but they permeate the entire system of relationships between people, often leaving their mark on business and even role relationships.

5. The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in the communication of a person with himself (through internal or external speech, built according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.

14. Communicative side of communication

When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they first of all mean the fact that in the course of joint activity people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Firstly, communication cannot be considered only as the sending of information by some transmitting system or as its reception by another system. Each participant in the communicative process also assumes activity in his partner, he cannot consider him as an object. The other participant also appears as a subject, and hence it follows that when sending information to him, it is necessary to focus on him, i.e. analyze his motives, goals, attitudes (except, of course, the analysis of his own goals, motives, attitudes), "address" him, in the words of V.N. Myasishchev. Schematically, communication can be depicted as an intersubjective process (SS). But in this case, it must be assumed that in response to the information sent, new information will be received coming from another partner.

Therefore, in the communicative process, there is not a simple movement of information, but at least an active exchange of it. The main "increase" in specifically human exchange of information lies in the fact that here the significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication (Andreeva, 1981), because people do not just "exchange" meanings, but, as A.N. Leontiev, while striving to work out common sense(Leontiev, 1972, p. 291). This is possible only if the information is not just accepted, but also understood and comprehended. The essence of the communicative process is not just mutual information, but a joint comprehension of the subject.

Secondly, the nature of the exchange of information between people, and not cybernetic devices, is determined by the fact that partners can influence each other through a system of signs. The communicative influence that arises here is nothing more than the psychological impact of one communicant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact was.

Thirdly, communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification and decodification. In ordinary language, this rule is expressed in the words: "everyone must speak the same language."

This is especially important because the communicator and the recipient constantly change places in the communicative process. Any exchange of information between them is possible only on condition that the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communication process. Only the adoption of a single system of meanings ensures the ability of partners to understand each other. To describe this situation, social psychology borrows from linguistics the term "thesaurus", denoting the general system of meanings accepted by all members of the group. But the thing is that, even knowing the meanings of the same words, people can understand them differently: social, political, age characteristics can be the reason for this.

Finally, fourthly, under the conditions human communication very specific communication barriers may arise. These can be social, political, religious, professional differences, which not only give rise to different interpretations of the same concepts used in the process of communication, but also in general a different worldview, worldview, worldview. On the other hand, barriers to communication can also be more purely expressed. psychological character. They can arise either as a result of the individual psychological characteristics of the communicants (for example, the excessive shyness of one of them (Zimbardo, 1993), the secrecy of the other, the presence of a feature in someone called "non-communicative"), or due to a special kind of psychological relationship that has developed between the communicants. : hostility towards each other, distrust, etc.

By itself, the information coming from the communicator can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining. Incentive information is expressed in an order, advice, request. It is designed to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation, in turn, can be different. First of all, it can be activation, i.e. motivation to act in a given direction. Further, it can be an interdiction, i.e. an impulse that does not allow, on the contrary, certain actions, a ban on undesirable activities. Finally, it can be destabilization - a mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity.

Ascertaining information appears in the form of a message, it takes place in various educational systems and does not imply a direct change in behavior, although it indirectly contributes to this. The nature of the message itself can be different: the measure of objectivity can vary from a deliberately "indifferent" tone of presentation to the inclusion of fairly obvious elements of persuasion in the text of the message. The message variant is set by the communicator, i.e. the person from whom the information originated.

15. Non-verbal communication.

Non-verbal communication (from lat. verbalis - oral and lat. communicatio - to communicate) is a behavior that signals the nature of the interaction and the emotional states of communicating individuals. It is an additional source of information to the actual verbal message. There are the following forms:

paralinguistic components which include non-linguistic sounds (shouts, groans, groans) and such features as the pitch and intensity of the sound, the timbre of speech. In addition, hesitations, reservations, pauses and silence can act as emotional indicators (in particular, tension);

facial expressions;

kinesthetic expressions (posture, body movements);

eye movements (frequency and duration of eye fixation of another person);

proxemics (characteristics of interpersonal distance).

interpersonal space. Sight. The language of postures and gestures.

Non-verbal communication, better known as posture and gesture language, includes all forms of human self-expression that do not rely on words. Psychologists believe that reading non-verbal cues is essential to effective communication. Why are nonverbal cues so important in communication?

About 70% of information a person perceives precisely through the visual (visual) channel;

Non-verbal signals allow you to understand the true feelings and thoughts of the interlocutor;

Our attitude towards the interlocutor is often formed under the influence of the first impression, and this, in turn, is the result of the influence of non-verbal factors - gait, facial expressions, gaze, demeanor, clothing style, etc.

Non-verbal signals are especially valuable because they are spontaneous, unconscious and, unlike words, always sincere.

The great importance of non-verbal signals in business communication is confirmed by experimental studies, which say that words (to which we attach such great importance) reveal only 7% of the meaning, sounds, 38% of the meanings carry sounds and intonations, and 55% - postures and gestures.

Non-verbal communication includes five subsystems:

1. Spatial subsystem (interpersonal space).

2. Look.

3. Optical-kinetic subsystem, which includes:

Appearance interlocutor,

Mimicry (facial expression),

Pantomime (poses and gestures).

4. Paralinguistic or near-speech subsystem, including:

His range

Key,

5. Extra-linguistic or extra-verbal subsystem, which includes:

speech rate,

Laughter, etc.

16. Perceptual side of communication.

The perceptual side of communication means the process of mutual perception and knowledge of communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

A person enters into communication as a person and is perceived by a communication partner also as a person. In the course of cognition, several processes are simultaneously carried out: an emotional assessment of another, an attempt to understand his actions, building a strategy for changing his behavior, building a strategy for his own behavior. Thus, the success of organizing coordinated actions with him also depends on the degree of accuracy of "decoding" and understanding of the external pattern of another person's behavior. It takes a lot of time to realize that the impression they make on other people can be very different from what they expect.

Very often, the perception of a person by a person is denoted by the term "social perception", introduced by J. Bruner in 1947 during the development of the so-called "new look" (New Look) on perception. Later, the understanding of the process of perception of all "social objects" (other people, social groups and large social communities), i.e. more broadly than just human perception of a person. When considering communication, it is advisable to talk not about social perception in general, but about interpersonal perception, or interpersonal perception. Moreover, the very use of the term "perception" is also not entirely accurate, since we are talking about the knowledge of a person by a person as a whole, including cognitive processes.

Identification - assimilation of oneself to a communication partner, is one of the easiest ways to understand another person. Here is the assumption about internal state the interlocutor is built on the basis of an attempt to put oneself in his place.

Empathy is another phenomenon, close in content to identification, understood as “feeling”, the ability to recognize the emotions of others, to respond to them. This does not mean a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but the desire to emotionally understand him and emotionally respond to his experiences.

Reflection - is defined in the processes of communication as the knowledge and understanding of how the other person knows and understands me. In communication, this looks like a kind of double process of mirror reflections of each other, a consistent mutual reflection. This is what true understanding depends on. personal development. A person becomes for himself what he is through what he is for others.

The effects of interpersonal perception depend on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception. Each of the participants, evaluating the other, seeks to build a certain system of interpretation of behavior, its causes. In everyday life, people usually know little about the real causes of another's behavior. Then, in conditions of lack of information, they begin to attribute to each other causes and patterns of behavior that do not exist in reality. Attribution is carried out either on the basis of the similarity of behavior with some pattern that took place in past experience, or on the basis of an analysis of one's own motives, assumed in a similar situation. One way or another, a whole system of ways of such attribution arises - causal attribution. At the same time, the role of the "first impression", prejudices and attitudes is significant. The most studied mechanisms of "attribution" are the effects of "halo" ("halo effect"), "primacy and novelty", as well as "stereotyping".

The halo effect is the attribution of qualities to a perceived person based on the image that has previously developed about him from various sources of information. This image, which previously existed, plays the role of a "halo" that makes it difficult to see the actual features and manifestations of the object of perception.

The effects of "primacy" and "novelty" depend on the order in which information about a person is presented to form an idea about him. In the perception of strangers, the very first known information about him is predominant. On the contrary, in situations of perception of a familiar person, the effect of novelty operates, which consists in the fact that the latter, i.e. newer, information about it is the most significant.

Stereotyping is a certain stable image of an event, phenomenon or person that we use as a kind of "reduction" in the course of interaction. In a broader sense, all the effects described above can be considered as manifestations of stereotyping. For the first time the term "social stereotype" was introduced by W. Lippmann in 1922 and contained a negative connotation associated with the falsity or inaccuracy of perception. In everyday terms, these are all kinds of prejudices and biases.

The area of research related to the identification of mechanisms for the formation of various emotional attitudes towards a perceived person was called "attraction". Literally, attraction is attraction, but here it’s not just attraction, but the process of forming the attractiveness of a person and the product of this process, i.e. some quality of attitude towards him. Attraction can be considered as a special kind of social attitude towards another person, in which the emotional component predominates.

Sex differences in communication. Communication between men is more subordinate to the status hierarchy than communication between women. At the same time, people with lower status benefit more from the use of socially acceptable behaviors than people with high status (Carli L.G., 1989). Communicating with each other, men and women demonstrate more masculine than feminine behavior: they talk more about the case, more often disagree with each other. Differences in stereotypical behavior are greater when communicating with a communicant of the same gender. Men express more disagreement when interacting with men. Women interact with women in a more dramatic way than they do with men. Communicators of both sexes are more persuasive in communicating with women than with men.

17. Implicit personality theory.

Implicit personality theory (from English implicit - unexpressed and Greek theoria - research) - everyday ideas about the relationships between certain qualities of a person, regarding its structure, and sometimes regarding the motives of behavior, authors - J. Bruner and R. Tagiuri (1954 .). The subject of an implicit theory can be not only a person, but also other individual processes (memory, intellect, etc.). It is based on intuition (on a general feeling or idea), does not have a strict conceptual formalization. At the same time, experiments have shown that, on average, an implicit theory is quite adequate, corresponding to those properties of a person that are fixed in scientific research. The reasoning is based on the model: if the evaluator is convinced that trait X always occurs together with trait Y, then observing trait X in an individual, the assessor automatically ascribes trait Y to him. This arbitrary chaining of traits is called “illusory correlation”.

Theory acquires a special role in the situation of communication between people in a group. Here these theories collide, influencing the whole system of relationships. A person's perception of a partner based on a false expectation can lead to feelings of discomfort and withdrawal.

I. t. l. allows you to form a holistic impression of another person on the basis of partial, sometimes fragmentary information about his personal characteristics.

Particular influence on the development of problems I. t. l. had a theory personal constructs J. Kelly (a construct is a way of seeing the world, interpreting its elements, characteristic of each individual, the totality of constructs is the degree of cognitive complexity of a person).

ITL - if a person is kind, then he is also generous. Grouping personality traits.

Function - the rapid formation of an opinion about a person ...

Implicit personality theory is a specific cognitive system that influences how we perceive other people.

18. Social categories and stereotypes.

Sventsitsky:

When we perceive the objects of the world around us, we identify them in accordance with certain characteristics. At the same time, based on our experience, we create certain classifications of these objects. So, we classify a table as furniture, a cup as dishes, and a cat as pets. Each category includes objects that have significant common features and properties. Such categorization facilitates our knowledge of the world, gives us the opportunity to successfully operate in it. We do not do without categorization when it comes to people.

This tendency, which we constantly demonstrate, is called the process of social categorization. From what social category we attribute a person to, our attitude towards him, and subsequent actions depend.

One and the same person can be attributed to different social categories. An example about the ex-president of Chile: about General Pinochet. Some call him a "bloody dictator", others call him the "creator of the Chilean economic miracle" - people have different attitudes towards him.

This is not to say that such a categorization is always adequate.

We may see someone for the first time, but even this is enough to form a definite opinion about him. Gender, age, race, nationality, elements of the external appearance of the person we perceive - hair length, type of clothing, various jewelry, etc. - all these signs, both separately and taken together, encourage us to attribute it to any category. At the same time, we usually attribute to him certain personal properties, abilities, motives, social values, i.e. process stereotyping. That is, in the end, we evaluate it in that social. category to which we believe it belongs. And then we attribute to it all the properties that belong to this category.

The term "stereotype" itself is borrowed from the typographic world. This is the name of a monolithic printing plate used for printing large runs. This form saves time and effort. The term "stereotype" was introduced into the social sciences in 1922 by the American journalist W. Lippman. When we attribute someone to a category, it is easier for us to build our relationship with him.

B. Raven and D. Rubin identify two important functions of stereotypes.

1) through stereo-typing, we facilitate the perception of complex information. It is easier for us to attribute a character trait to a person (use a stereotype) than to understand him. This is especially important when you need to quickly make a decision in a situation of uncertainty.

2) stereotypes lead to an easy form of communication (since many people adhere to the same stereotypes). Stereotypes act as a form of "social shorthand".

Ethnic (or cultural) stereotypes (stereotypes of nations) are widespread (Italians are more emotional and less skilled at work than the inhabitants of Northern Europe - Germans and Scandinavians). + your examples.

Let's not forget!! Stereotypes contain a grain of truth. There are rational grounds for the formation of certain stereotypes.

Instead of trying to take into account the whole uniqueness of a person, he is perceived only on the basis of some single category to which he belongs. Stereotypes give rise to certain expectations about people's behavior and give us the opportunity to interact on this basis.

halo effect (halo effect)). (The term "halo" is taken from meteorology. Halo are light circles observed near the Sun or Moon and represent a certain optical phenomenon. In a psychological sense, this term was first used by E. Thorn-Dyke in 1920)

The world around us, as well as the people living in it - everything is full of certain contradictions. A bright beautiful mushroom sometimes turns out to be poisonous, and a nondescript plant is full of healing properties. We are falling for this bait. A university teacher who looked through a student's record book during the exam and found only "five" in it, often puts the "five" himself. In order not to break the statistics. The teacher logically, as it seems to him, believes that the student will answer his questions with "excellent". It can be concluded that the teacher was under the influence of the halo effect.

The formation of this or that impression about a person can be influenced by the whole appearance + clothes, speech, manners. Experiment: a student went to an interview. When she seemed attractive and (or) intelligent, she was credited with more benevolent traits, long-term job prospects.

Lecture:

The blonde is stupid

Politics is dirty

Beauty is selfishness.

The stereotype on the one hand simplifies, and on the other complicates. S-p is a “hard typo”, a simplified image of the social. object. It develops in conditions of lack of information, as a result of generalization of personal experience.

A stereotype does not appear in a vacuum.

ThornDyke says that perceptual bias is when, in assessing personality traits, we are influenced by the overall impression.

19. Theory of causal attribution. Fundamental attribution error.

Attribution theory - a description of how we explain the reasons for our behavior and the behavior of other people

father of attribution - F. Haider

Causal attribution (from Latin causa - cause and attribuo - I attach, endow) - interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and motives of other people's behavior.

FOA - the tendency to overestimate the importance of internal (dispositional - character) factors in explaining human behavior and underestimate the role of external (situational) factors.

Role of culture in FOA:

Western culture emphasizes individual freedom and autonomy, and therefore encourages us to exaggerate the role of dispositional (internal) attributions and downplay the impact of the situation;

The collectivist cultures of the East emphasize group membership, interdependence and conformity in relation to group members, therefore they prefer situational rather than personal dispositions.

The study of causal attribution proceeds from the following provisions:

1) people, getting to know each other, are not limited to obtaining externally observable information, but strive to clarify the causes of behavior and conclusions regarding the corresponding personal qualities of the subject;

2) since information about a person obtained as a result of observation is most often insufficient for reliable conclusions, the observer finds probable causes of behavior and traits, personality and attributes them to the observed subject;

3) this causal interpretation significantly affects the behavior of the observer.

Studies of causal attribution, which originally belonged to social psychology, now cover other sections of psychological science: general, pedagogical, age psychology, sports psychology.

Most significant results pilot study causal attribution are to establish:

1) systematic differences in a person's explanation of his behavior and the behavior of other people;

2) deviations of the process of causal attribution from logical norms under the influence of subjective (motivational and informational) factors;

3) the stimulating effect on the motivation and activity of a person by explaining the unsuccessful results of this activity external factors, and successful - internal.

Causal attribution is also studied as the phenomenon of assigning or accepting personal responsibility for the successes and failures in joint activities by group members. It is shown that in groups top level development (in teams), this phenomenon is adequate to the real contribution of team members to the result of activity.

Attribution errors

In experiments, it was found that different people demonstrate predominantly completely different types of attribution, that is, different degrees of “correctness” of the attributed causes. In order to determine the degree of this correctness, three categories are introduced:

similarity, i.e. agreement with the opinions of other people

differences, i.e. differences from the opinions of other people

correspondence, i.e., the constancy of the action of the cause in time and space.

under communication in psychologist AI refers to any process of social interaction between people. The need for communication is one of the basic human needs. Communication includes the exchange of information, the development of a common basis for joint actions, the perception and understanding of another person. The purpose of communication is also to achieve the desired change in the states and behavior of the partner.

Means of communication- behavioral manifestations that are addressed to the partner in the course of communication. Three main categories of means of communication are distinguished, with the help of which it is carried out: expressive-mimic, subject-effective and speech means of communication.

The first to arise expressive-mimic means of communication: smile, laughter, expressive vocalizations, facial movements, etc. These means of communication arise at the end of the 1st, at the beginning of the 2nd month of a child's life,

Subject-effective S. about. appear later in ontogeny. These are no longer expressive, but pictorial S. o. These include locomotion (approaching, postures, turns, etc.), pointing gestures, stretching and passing objects, actions with objects, touching, etc.

The most effective are speech means of communication. All means of communication are formed in vivo in the process of real interaction between people. Types of communication

Contact masks - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor. The usual masks are used (politeness, courtesy, indifference, modesty, sympathy, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor.

Secular communication - its essence is non-objectivity, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communication. For example: formal politeness, ritual communication.

Formal-role communication - when both the content and the means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.

Business communication is a process of interaction in communication, in which information is exchanged to achieve a certain result. That is, this communication is purposeful. It arises on the basis of and about a certain type of activity. In business communication, the personality, character, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.

Spiritual interpersonal communication (intimate-personal) - the deep structures of the personality are revealed.

Manipulative communication - aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.

sides of communication.

Communication is a complex multifaceted process that includes three components:

The communicative side of communication (the exchange of information between people); interactive side (organization of interaction between individuals); perceptual side (the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding). The transfer of information is possible with the help of signs, sign systems.

In the communicative process, verbal and non-verbal means of communication are usually distinguished. Verbal communication Communication is carried out through speech. Speech is understood as a natural sound language, i.e. a system of phonetic signs, including two principles - lexical and syntactic. Speech is a universal means of communication, since when transmitting information, it conveys the meaning of the message. Speech is used to encode and decode information. Non-verbal communication: Visual types of communication are gestures (kinesics), facial expressions, postures (pantomime), skin reactions (redness, blanching, sweating), spatio-temporal organization of communication (proxemics), eye contact. An acoustic system that includes the following aspects: a paralinguistic system (voice timbre, range, tonality) and an extralinguistic system (this is the inclusion of pauses and other means in speech, such as coughing, laughter, crying, etc.). Tactile system (takesika) ( touching, shaking hands, hugging, kissing).

Olfactory system (pleasant and unpleasant odors) environment; artificial and natural human odors). The goals of communication reflect the needs of joint activities of people. Business communication almost always involves some result - a change in the behavior and activities of other people.

Interactive side communication involves a psychological impact, there is a change in personality under the influence of other people (change in views, attitudes, motives, attitudes, states). Personality changes under the influence of other people can be temporary, transient or permanent. The interactive side (interaction) is characterized by:

the appropriateness of the adopted management decisions;

clear distribution of responsibilities among employees;

skillful conflict resolution.

Perceptual side communication. Interaction is impossible without mutual understanding . Perception- the process of perception, contributing to the mutual understanding of the participants in communication. A person realizes himself through another person through certain mechanisms of interpersonal perception. These include: knowledge and understanding of each other by people (identification, empathy, attraction); knowledge of oneself in the process of communication (reflection); prediction of the behavior of a communication partner (causal attribution). Identification - a way of knowing another person, in which an assumption about his internal state is based on attempts to put himself in the place of a communication partner. Empathy- emotional empathy for others. attraction(attraction) - a form of cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling for him. Reflection- a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of communication, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. Causal attribution - a mechanism for interpreting the actions and feelings of another person (finding out the causes of the object's behavior).

Question 34Personality problems in the social. psychology: socialization, social. Installation, problems of personality and group. There are three main approaches to the interpretation of the concept of personality: 1) Anthropological. It is based on ideas about the individual as a carrier of universal human properties; personality is considered as a generic concept denoting a representative of the human race, and has become likened to the concept of an individual. 2) Sociological. Considers personality as an object and product of social relations. Personality is a person, an actor wearing a certain mask and performing certain roles, that is, a person is a system of role-playing behavior. Due to the totality of social relations. 3) Personalistic. Considers the personality as an absolutely independent and individually unique integrity.

Personality is a person in the system of such psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social relations and relationships are stable, determine the moral actions of a person who have significant relationships for himself and those around him. The man taken in his social quality, have personality .

Personality, therefore, is formed in the process of ontogeny in society.

Socialization takes place in childhood and adolescence, but it continues in middle age and in old age. His research allows us to highlight a number of differences in socialization in children and adults:

1. The socialization of adults is manifested mainly in a change in their external behavior, and in children - in the correction of basic value orientations.

2. Adults can evaluate the norms; children - only to assimilate them.

3. The socialization of adults often involves the understanding that there are many "shades" of the manifestation of various norms and rules of behavior. The socialization of children is based on obedience to adults and the implementation of certain rules. Adults are forced to adapt to the requirements of different roles and in these situations prioritize using criteria such as "more good" or "less bad".

4. The socialization of adults is focused on mastering certain skills; socialization of children - mainly on the motivation of their behavior.

Targetsocializationpersonalities how education is to form, in a person the skills of self-regulation personal processes, to develop to the maximum those abilities that create the dominant orientation of his personality, give meaning to his entire life.

social attitudepersonalities - one of the main categories of social psychology in general and social personality psychology in particular. social attitude defined (G. Allport 1924) This is a state of psychological readiness of a person to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by her past experience. Main installation function– regulation social behavior individual.

social group is a socially organized community of people united by common interests, goals and joint activities. This is the subject of socially organized and socially significant activity, social groups distinguish between large, medium and small. The study of the interaction of an individual and a small group is connected, on the one hand, with the study group pressure, those. a set of phenomena due to those influences, the influences that small group on the course of mental processes, attitudes and behavior of the individual, and on the other hand, with the study of the patterns of influence of the individual on group psychological phenomena and group behavior, i.e. with the study of the phenomenon of leadership.

Varieties of social installations are stereotypes and prejudice, representing stable and relatively closed forms of social existence from the influence of new experience. installation. They perform a protective function due to the tendency for the uniformity of installations in the nearest social network. environment. The social attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group - he acquires the experience to think and act in accordance with group norms and values and refrain from unauthorized forms of behavior.

Stereotype is a social attitude with a frozen, often unified content of the cognitive component. When talking about stereotypical thinking, we mean the limited, simplistic and superficial ideas of a person about certain objects of reality or about ways of interacting with them. Other reasons for the emergence of stereotypes are usually a lack of knowledge, dogmatic upbringing, underdevelopment of the personality or a stop for some reason of the processes of its development.

Prejudice- this is a social attitude with a distortion of the content of its cognitive component, as a result of which the individual perceives some social objects in an inadequate way. The main reason for the formation of prejudices lies in the underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere of the individual, due to which the individual uncritically perceives the influence of the corresponding environment. Therefore, most often prejudices arise in childhood, when the child does not yet have or almost does not have adequate knowledge about a particular social object, but under the influence of the parents of the immediate environment, a certain emotional and evaluative attitude towards it is already formed.

The measurement of social attitudes cannot be measured directly. Ideally, attitudes should be derived from observing an individual's behavioral responses in a variety of social situations. In practice, this is not possible. Therefore, a more or less standard procedure for measuring attitudes is the procedure for considering mainly the verbal (evaluative) reactions of the individual to the symbolic (intended) representations of the object of the attitude.

The place of communication in the social psychology of education. Social psychology of communication. Communication: structure, functions, basic concepts

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