With the end of the Crimean War and the death of Nicholas I, in an atmosphere of increased liberal sentiment, general dissatisfaction with the state of the press, the “era of censorship terror” came to an end. In 1855, the government of Alexander II ceased the activities of the Buturlin Committee. The most reactionary censors were removed. In 1857, the government created a committee to develop a new censorship charter, introduced only in 1865. According to the new law, the capital's periodicals and books with more than ten printed sheets for Russian and twenty printed sheets for translated publications were exempted from preliminary censorship. Spiritual, theatrical and foreign preliminary censorship was upheld. As part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Main Directorate for Press Affairs was formed. The Minister of the Interior received the right to issue "warnings" to editors for the "harmful" direction of articles. After three warnings, the publication was suspended for up to ten months (by the decision of the Senate) or completely closed. Publishers of a "harmful" direction were punished with a fine, confiscation and arrest of books, and were brought to court. Since 1872, cases of confiscation of publications began to be considered administratively by the Committee of Ministers. By a law of June 16, 1873, the Minister of the Interior was given the right to suspend the publication of any publication that touches on matters of national importance, the discussion of which "for reasons of the higher government was found to be inconvenient."
A number of new restrictive measures introduced an additional law on the press in 1882. A special meeting of the four ministers; Internal Affairs, Public Education, Justice and the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod - received the right to stop the publication of any press organ if its "harmful" direction was discovered. It could deprive the publisher and editor of the right to work in the field of printing, require the disclosure of pseudonyms and surnames of the authors of anonymous articles. Works containing socialist and communist ideas, criticizing the monarchical form of government, the church, written in a materialistic spirit, were subjected to persecution.
The abolition of serfdom in 1861, which was the result of a crisis in the feudal-serf system, accelerated the development of capitalism in the country. In the 1860s large publishing, printing and booksellers financially powerful. The development of science and technology, the successes of natural science and medicine, and the ever-increasing differentiation of knowledge have led to the emergence, along with large universal bookselling and publishing firms, of a number of no less solid specialized enterprises that have concentrated their attention on publishing books in two or three, mostly related, industries. knowledge.
Major publishing houses and booksellers. The bulk of books were released to the book market by the largest universal publishing houses headed by M. O. Wolf, A. S. Suvorin, A. F. Marx, I. D. Sytin. Arising at the beginning of the second half of XIX century, these firms significantly pressed, and then completely ousted, many old publishing houses and bookselling enterprises (Glazunovs, Bazunovs, Isakovs, etc.).
A major Petersburg publisher and bookseller in the second half of the 19th century. was M. O. Wolf. Coming from the family of a Warsaw doctor, Wolf from a young age decided to devote himself to the book business. At the age of 15, he entered the Warsaw shop of A.E. Glucksberg as an apprentice, and then improved himself in France and Germany, working in well-known firms of Bossange, Engelman, Brockhaus. After returning to Poland, he served in Lvov, Krakow, Vilna, dealing mainly with the sale of publications of the Polish fiction.
In the early 1850s Wolf moved to St. Petersburg and became a clerk in the bookstore of Ya. A. Isakov, who sold foreign book. Soon, however, he separated and started his own business. In 1856, Wolf acquired a printing house, and in 1878, the well-known type foundry of E. Revillon.
The pre-reform revival of Russian society contributed to the success of the new book enterprise. Wolf's bookstore had an extensive assortment of domestic and foreign books; here you could buy any foreign novelty. Wolf tried to keep abreast of all new trends in science, literature, and art. In an effort to expand the book business, he began publishing books.
The publishing house of M. O. Wolf had a universal character. Given the popularity of the natural sciences, he publishes "The Doctrine of the Origin of Species" by C. Darwin, popular natural science books by M. Faraday, J. Moleschott. At the end of the 1870s. he began to issue a multi-volume edition "Picturesque Russia". The lavishly printed edition consisted of 20 books and was completed in the 1900s. Outstanding figures of science and art - P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, G. N. Potanin, N. I. Kostomarov, V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko - took part in the editing of "Picturesque Russia". Rural readers were addressed to Wolff's "Pocket Household Library", which compiled four series of "instructions and manuals on agriculture and home economics" of 20 volumes each.
Fiction took a significant place in Wolf's book production. The series “Library of Famous Writers” was especially popular, consisting of the works of A. F. Pisemsky, A. Melnikov-Pechersky, N. S. Leskov, I. I. Lazhechnikov, N. I. Gnedich, P. D. Boborykin, M. N. Zagoskina, V. I. Dahl. Wolf's merit is the publication of the first posthumous collected works of the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz (1882). Wolf's publishing house became famous for the release of children's books, which he printed in the form of gift editions, as was customary in foreign practice. In the publication of children's books, Wolf collaborated with some of the German and French publishers, with the Parisian firm of P. J. Etzel. For better distribution of children's literature, Wolf published numerous series: "Golden Library", "Green Library", "Pink Library", "Russian Library", "Young Reader's Library", "Moral Novels for Youth", "Our Library", etc. Wolf, often for the first time, published many works included in the "golden fund" of children's classics - "The Adventures of Gulliver", "Robinson Crusoe", "Tales of 1001 Nights", "The Prince and the Pauper", "Uncle Tom's Cabin", novels, stories, fairy tales X. K. Andersen, J. Verne, V. Scott, C. Perro, V. Hugo, Mine Reed, F. Cooper and others. Much has been done by the Wolf publishing house to familiarize the Russian reader with the works of Russian children's literature - M. B. Chistyakova, A. E. Razina, V. I. Lapina, A. K. Gippius, S. M. Makarova. The works of the children's writer L. A. Charskaya, popular before the revolution, were widely published.
In the popular science series, Wolf introduced young readers to the classic works of M. Faraday, S. Smiles, D. Livingston. In 1876, he began publishing a monthly children's magazine, Sincere Word. One of the first Wolf began to produce expensive, richly illustrated large format editions: "Faust" by Goethe, " The Divine Comedy» Dante, “Picture Galleries of Europe”, “Thought after Thought”. Wolf founded a number of journals: "Nature and Agriculture", "Foreign Bulletin". Shortly before Wolf's death, his publishing house was transformed into a share partnership, which lasted until 1918 ("M.O. Wolf's Partnership"),
Since 1897, Izvestia of bookstores of the M.O. Wolf Association was published regularly. The journal published extensive information about the book trade, the history of the book and book business, a chronicle, letters from readers.
The fate of another major St. Petersburg publisher and bookseller, A.F. Marx, is connected with M. O. Wolf. He was born in Stettin, the son of a manufacturer. Like Wolf, from his youth he was addicted to reading, to the book. After leaving the school, A.F. Marx entered as a clerk in one of the book firms in Wismar, then worked for two years in Berlin, from where he returned to Stettin.
In 1859, Marx arrived in St. Petersburg to set up a German department in the bookstore of F. A. Bitepage. After working here for 5 years, he then moved to Wolf. In 1865, Marx begins independent activity. At the end of 1869, he secured the right to publish a weekly illustrated magazine "for family reading- "Niva". The magazine was intended for an educated public - the urban intelligentsia, officials, teachers, doctors, wealthy merchants, provincial landlords. Most of all, readers were attracted by photo correspondence about the most important events in the world and reproductions from paintings by prominent artists: I. A. Aivazovsky, V. V. Vereshchagin, I. E. Repin, and others. Art reproductions were also issued in the form of “awards” to the magazine. In 1879, the Ministry of the Interior allowed Marx to issue free prizes for the Niva in the form of books, paintings, photographs, portraits, calendars, etc. This was a new thing in the practice of Russian book publishing. The idea of applications for the "Niva" justified itself. Subscription to the journal increased sharply, reaching an unprecedented figure for its time - 250,000 copies.
The case got bigger and bigger. A.F. Marx acquired his own printing house - the largest at that time.
As appendices to Niva, Marx published the complete works of M. V. Lomonosov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol, G. P. Danilevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, G. I. Uspensky, I. A. Goncharov. The works of foreign authors were also published in this series: Moliere, E. Rostand, G. Heine, M. Maeterlinck, O. Wilde: Marx published collected works outside the series - A. A. Fet, A. N. Pleshcheev, A. K Tolstoy, K. M. Stanyukovich, Ya. P. Polonsky and others.
The book publishing business of A.F. Marx had a universal character. He published books on natural science, art, geographical atlases, large format gift editions - “ Dead Souls"N. V. Gogol (1900), Milton's Paradise Lost and Returned (1878), Goethe's Lis Patrikeevich (1901), P. P. Gnedich's History of Art, etc. Increasing circulation publications, Marx was able to reduce the price of books and thus successfully compete with other publishers and booksellers.
The writer L. Andreev wrote that the publication of Niva and the appendices to the journal gave A.F. Marx the right "to eternal gratitude from the Russian people." After the death of Marx, according to his will, the publishing house was transformed into a joint-stock company "Association of Publishing and Printing of A.F. Marx". In 1917, the A.F. Marx Partnership ceased to exist, but for some time books with this brand continued to be stereotypically published by Soviet publishing houses - the literary and publishing department of the People's Commissariat for Education and Gosizdat.
In 1877, a new printing house appeared in St. Petersburg. Its owner A. S. Suvorin ordered a printing press from Paris, it was supposed to expand the business widely. A native of the family of a “peasant-one-palace”, A.S. Suvorin, after graduating from the cadet corps, taught at the gymnasium in the city of Bobrov and at the same time began to appear in print with correspondence from provincial life. After moving to St. Petersburg, he became acquainted with liberal-democratic circles, collaborated in the journal Sovremennik and St. Petersburg Vedomosti. In February 1876, Suvorin bought the Novoye Vremya newspaper, founded back in 1867, but which did not bring income to the former publisher. In the hands of Suvorin, the newspaper became famous, its circulation increased, and it began to bring income to Suvorin. Suvorin put his newspaper enterprise on a grand scale. He was one of the first to introduce illustrations into his newspaper, equip the printing house with rotary machines, and start photozincography. In the 1880s already hundreds of workers served the printing house, when it opened special school typographic apprenticeship.
Having become the owner of a large capitalist enterprise, Suvorin expanded his book publishing activities. In the 1880s he set about publishing the public domain series "The Cheap Library", with which his prosperity as a publisher is associated. These were books of a small format, unusual for the then reader, in hard calico or cardboard bindings with paper pasting, multi-colored. They were inexpensive and were printed in large numbers for those times. Their content was the works of classical writers: Russian, European and ancient. The series was a huge success. Until January 1, 1900, 4 million copies of the "Cheap Series" were printed. At the same time, 300 of the 450 book titles published by Suvorin fell on this series.
Suvorin undertook the publication of several more series: Cheap Scientific Library, New Library, a series of historical memoirs about Russia. Suvorin's illustrated gift editions were successful - "Dresden Gallery", "London Gallery", "Imperial Hermitage", "Rembrandt", "Anthony van Dyck", "Historical Portrait Gallery", "Hellas and Rome", "History of Peter the Great" and etc. Suvorin's reference publications - "All Moscow", "All Russia", "All Petersburg" should be noted.
Suvorin opened his first bookstore in 1877. At the beginning of the 20th century. he already had six large bookstores in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Odessa, Saratov. Rostov-on-Don. Suvorin also owned a special counterparty "New Time" for the sale of printed works on Russian railways.
In 1912, on the basis of the Suvorin book business, the Novoye Vremya joint-stock company arose, which was controlled by the Volga-Kama Commercial Bank.
In the mid 1870s. the activity of the largest publisher of the pre-revolutionary era, ID Sytin, begins. A native of peasants who did not receive any education, Sytin worked as a child in the bookstore of the Moscow lubok P. N. Sharapov. In 1876, he opened his own lithograph and began to print popular prints. In the 1880s Sytin becomes the largest publisher of popular print books in Russia. In huge quantities, he published robbery-fairytale, religious and heroic popular prints. Peasant book-sellers, the so-called "ofeni", carried Sytin's books, calendars and pictures to the most isolated corners of Russia. Lubok editions of Sytin served as an excellent advertisement for the publishing house, paved the way to the village for his other books.
At the same time, Sytin followed the mood and demands of an educated society and issues for the intelligentsia engaged in self-education, the series "Library for Self-Education". Sympathizing with the aspirations of the progressive intelligentsia to give the people a good book, Sytin took upon himself the distribution of the publications of Posrednik, a publishing house founded by L. N. Tolstoy and V. G. Chertkov to combat popular print books. Using the familiar and accessible form of a popular print book, Sytin was able to convey to the peasant reader the works of L. N. Tolstoy, N. S. Leskov, V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko. In the 1890s Sytin took over the publication of a series of folk books called Pravda, which was prepared by famous figures public education V. V. Iskul and V. P. Vakhterov. Sytin also collaborated with the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee, the Kharkov Society for the Propagation of Literacy, and the Association of Librarians. Of great cultural and educational significance was the release by Sytin of cheap collected works of A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy and other classic writers.
Sytin also published scientific books, and from the mid-1890s. - textbooks in all branches of knowledge. Among the publications, a significant place is occupied by children's books, gift editions, "Military Encyclopedia" (18 volumes), "Patriotic War and Russian society, 1812-1912 "(7 volumes), "Children's Encyclopedia" in 10 volumes. Sytin published many calendars of various types - tear-off, thematic, desktop, the annual circulation of which amounted to tens of millions of copies. In the mid 90s. 19th century Sytin's enterprise was turned into the "Partnership of Printing, Publishing and Book Trade". The company's turnover exceeded 1 million rubles a year.
Since 1900, Sytin became the publisher of the large liberal-bourgeois newspaper Russkoye Slovo, a number of magazines - Vokrug Sveta, Prosveshchenie, Uchitel, and others. illustrated collections "On land and at sea", dedicated to travel, adventure and fantasy (since 1916 - "Journal of Adventures"). Sytin's publications were cheap, which contributed to their wide distribution. Contemporaries highly appreciated the activities of Sytin, releasing in 1916 the anniversary collection "Half a century for the book", containing articles and reviews of writers, scientists, cultural figures about I. D. Sytin and his publications. After 1917, Sytin's printing houses were nationalized. Sytin himself continued to cooperate in the Soviet publishing business, was a consultant to the State Publishing House of the RSFSR.
In the 60s. 19th century Petersburg, the first specialized publishing houses and bookstores began to appear. In 1861, the book firm of K. L. Ricker, a native of Germany, was opened. Having devoted himself to commercial and industrial activities at the request of his father, the young man thoroughly studied book business in the firm of his uncle A. Ricker. Then he improved in Prague with G. Kleinberg, with the Choir in Zurich, with Leben in Vienna. In 1858, he was invited as an experienced businessman by the St. Petersburg bookseller A. Munks, the owner (since 1853) of the foreign book trade, one of the first to enter into direct relations with foreign firms. In 1861, due to illness, Münks handed over the business to K. L. Ricker, who soon expanded it significantly.
Selling books, Ricker simultaneously launched a book publishing activity. He paid special attention to the publication of books and journals on medicine. Many prominent specialists were involved in the translation of books. Its first publication was a medical journal on German. Also published: "Calendars for doctors of all departments", "Pharmaceutical Journal" (1879-1885), "Bulletin of Clinical and Forensic Psychiatry and Neuropathology" (1883-1885), "Proceedings of the Society of Russian Doctors in St. Petersburg" (1882-1885).
Gradually, Ricker expanded the topics of publications - he began to publish literature on natural science, agriculture, technology, literary criticism. The Bulletin of Horticulture, Fruit Growing and Horticulture (1882-1885) was published. Ricker published works on medicine and natural and technical sciences at a high scientific level and in careful printing execution. In 1900, at the World Exhibition in Paris, Ricker's company was awarded a gold medal. After the death of C. L. Ricker, the firm continued to operate under the leadership of his wife, O. A. Ricker. Over the 50 years of its existence, the company has released about 900 book titles.
In 1872, A.F. Devrien settled in St. Petersburg. A Swiss by birth, Devrien studied book production in Mannheim, Paris (with Ashette) and in London with Trubner. Devrien's publications on agriculture, natural science and geography gained wide popularity. They were distinguished by a high scientific level and thoroughness of printing. Devrian's publications were intended for agricultural specialists, students and teachers of universities and higher educational institutions.
Among Devrien's numerous publications, a special place is occupied by the Complete Encyclopedia of Russian Agriculture in 11 volumes (1900-1912) and the multi-volume work Russia. Complete geographical description our Fatherland. Desk and travel book”, published under the general editorship of Academician P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.
Devrien's publishing house paid great attention to the release of popular science literature and books of a reference and encyclopedic nature in various branches of knowledge. Among the gymnasium youth, the Travel series was a success, consisting of books about outstanding Russian and European travelers: N. M. Przhevalsky, G. E. and M. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, G. N. Potanin, F. Nansen and others .
In 1884, a bookstore by V. S. Ettinger was opened in St. Petersburg. The son of a doctor, he published the popular Guide to Topographic Anatomy by I. Girtl as a young man. Ettinger's systematic publishing activity began in 1884 with the publication of the journal "Practical Medicine", a series of manuals and monographs on all major issues of medicine. Ettinger was able to lower the cost of medical literature for his subscribers. The medical world received, thanks to his efforts, a relatively cheap scientific book. In 1891, Ettinger undertook the publication of a translation of the "Real Encyclopedia of Medical Sciences" by Professor of Nervous Diseases in Berlin A. Eulenburg. The translation was supplemented with original articles, the publication was completed in 1898 and amounted to 21 volumes. For 20 years, from 1891, Ettinger published the Medical Calendar, which was in great demand. The publishing house also published medical atlases and a series of popular science books on hygiene issues. The capital work "Russian Surgery" was published in separate issues. Ettinger's periodicals became famous - "Yearbook of Practical Medicine" (since 1901 - "Doctor's Newspaper"), the journal "Therapy", etc. The publishing house had its own printing house and a bookbinding workshop. The business of W. S. Ettinger was succeeded by his son F. W. Ettinger (died 1916). The publishing house existed until 1929 (under the name "Practical Medicine"), continuing to publish special journals and works of the largest physicians (V. L. Oppel, V. P. Osipov, etc.).
By 1879, the beginning of the book publishing activity of V. A. Berezovsky, who created the first specialized publishing house and book trade in military literature in Russia, dates back. The son of an officer and himself a military man, Berezovsky, on the instructions of the military ministry, began issuing new charters and instructions, and in 1881 - textbooks for privates and non-commissioned officers. In order to expand the literacy and education of soldiers, in 1882 Berezovsky began publishing the series "Library for Soldiers' Reading". In 1886, Berezovsky retired to devote himself entirely to the book business. His special merit is the publication of works by prominent Russian military figures: M. I. Dragomirov, A. K. Puzyrevsky, D. F. Maslovsky, N. P. Mikhnichev, A. E. Berezhansky, G. A. Leer. Berezovsky attached great importance to the publication of books on military psychology and pedagogy; a significant place among his book production was occupied by military history literature. He published the "Encyclopedia of Military and Naval Sciences" edited by G. A. Leer, "Atlas of the Battles of the 19th Century", series "Soldier's Library". In 1886, Berezovsky began publishing the Firm's Office List and Book Store, which in 1889 was transformed into the military biographical magazine Scout. The military-bibliographic magazine Vestovoy was also published (1894-1918).
Berezovsky's book warehouse offered a wide range of books for the army, where officers of all military branches, military doctors, military units, headquarters and institutions, military educational institutions found everything they needed. This was facilitated by Berezovsky's annual catalogs of the availability of publications in stock.
In 1882, I. N. Knebel's bookstore was opened in Moscow (together with P. F. Grossman). Having received a higher education in the humanities in Vienna, Knebel founded the first specialized publishing house in Russia for the fine arts. Beginning in 1895, he published a multi-volume "History of Russian Art" edited by AD. Grabar, monographs about artists, tone and color reproductions of paintings ("Tretyakov Gallery", "Paintings of Contemporary Artists", etc.). Knebel's children's editions were widely known. In total, he published about 400 publications.
PI Yurgenson specialized in publishing and selling sheet music and musical literature. He published 29 thousand titles of music. Russian composers P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. A. Balakirev, A. G. Rubinshtein, A. S. Arensky maintained close relations with the publishing house of Jurgenson. For the first time in Russia he published the complete works of L. Beethoven, F. Mendelssohn, F. Chopin, R. Schumann. Thanks to Jurgenson major cities The first specialized music shops-salons were opened in Russia. The publishing house of P.I. Jurgenson had its own branch in Leipzig. After the death of P.I. Yurgenson, his son B.P. Yurgenson (1868-1935) continued the business.
A native of Germany, A. A. Kaspari launched publishing activities in 1870, starting with the release of mass calendars. In 1886, he purchased the Rodina magazine. Having become rich, Caspari opened three bookstores, started a printing house. He published fiction: a series of two-volume books "Cheap Library of Classics" and "Library of Novels", illustrated luxury editions ("Faust" by Goethe with illustrations by G. Dore). He also published numerous supplements to his journals and the "World History of Caspari" - cheap and profusely illustrated. Cheap editions of Caspari were designed for undemanding tastes.
A well-known Petersburg publisher and bookseller of the second half of the 19th century. was N. P. Karbasnikov. Starting with the service in the bookstores of N. A. Serno-Solovyevich and A. A. Cherkesov, in the late 1860s. N. P. Karbasnikov entered the firm of N. O. Fen as a clerk, which sold textbooks for secondary and elementary school but already in the early 1870s. founded his own business. He mainly specialized in the publication of educational and pedagogical literature, fiction and books on the history of literature, and he published mainly books that had already been published in the first edition in Russia or abroad. Karbasnikov's textbooks were popular and often reprinted, because. they were distinguished by good printing performance and were sold at affordable prices. Karbasnikov published the magazines "Book News" (1879-1883) and "Leaf of Book Announcements" (1886-1909).
The first bookstore Karbasnikov opened in 1878 in St. Petersburg, then in Moscow, Warsaw and Vilna. He was also a commissioner of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow and Warsaw Universities and one of the founders of the Russian Society of Publishers and Booksellers. In 1908, the partnership “N. P. Karbasnikov", which published the monthly magazine "Among the Books" (1913-1917).
By the 60s. 19th century refers to the beginning of the publishing activities of organizations created to guide the education of the people. They made an attempt to publish books for the people and thus fight against popular publications.
In 1860, the partnership "Public Benefit" arose in St. Petersburg. It published public books on various branches of knowledge, "if only these works would meet the main task: to serve for the common good, for the enlightenment of the people." The partnership set as its goal to publish books "for reading by the common people and in relation to their understanding." However, the books of the publishing house differed in different reader orientation, there were varying degrees of difficulty - natural science publications, solid historical works, books for youth. A special section was made up of books "for children and the people" - works by writers and teachers, written "in relation to the understanding" of the people, whose level of consciousness was erroneously equated to that of a child. The publishing activity of "Public Good" lasted 35 years, until 1895.
By 1861, the beginning of the activity of the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee dates back. The Committee's program was based on the project "Societies for the Propagation of Literacy", compiled by I. S. Turgenev. Particular attention was paid to the publication of books for public reading. According to Turgenev, they had to be "numerous, as cheap as possible, available everywhere and to everyone." The program developed by the Committee stated: “The Committee publishes various books for popular reading, manuals and flyers, sending them to those who wish and to rural schools at a price that they will cost the Society, and in some cases free of charge.” The first members of the Committee were L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, historian P. V. Pavlov, teachers I. I. Paulson, A. N. Strannolyubsky and others. the first bibliographic organization in Russia, which included the teacher and bibliographer F. G. Tol, I. I. Paulson and V. A. Zolotarev, the writer A. F. Pogossky.
The first 20 years of the Committee's activities were limited mainly to sending books to schools and libraries, compiling a list of books for public reading. During this time, 16 books were published, intended for reading leaders and novice teachers.
In the mid 80s. 19th century new young forces came to the Committee, representatives of the radical intelligentsia - the brothers F. F. and S. F. Oldenburg, A. M. Kalmykova, N. A. Rubakin, and others. In 1880, a special publishing commission was created. Since then, the publishing activity of the Committee has become systematic. When releasing “folk publications”, works by Russian and foreign writers, the Committee paid special attention to the publication of books that showed “difficult pictures” of the life of ordinary people, “an unequal struggle of people of higher development with painful, oppressive conditions of activity”. The Literacy Committee distributed its publications through its book warehouse. In the late 1890s - early 1900s. were published "The Life of Animals" by A. E. Brem, "The History of Russia from Ancient Times" by S. M. Solovyov, "The History of the French Revolution" by Louis Blanc. Three illustrated editions of the book by the French geographer E. Reclus "Earth and People" were undertaken.
AT last years The committee published the "Philosophical Library", which included the works of Aristotle, Rousseau, Kuno Fischer, GV Plekhanov. The "Historical Library", "Library of Public Issues" were published. Fairy tales by L. N. Tolstoy and V. M. Garshin were published for children.
The Posrednik publishing house, organized in 1884 by L. N. Tolstoy and V. G. Chertkov, joined the publication of the book for the people. Since 1897, I. I. Gorbunov-Posadov became the head of the publishing house. Having entered into an agreement with I. D. Sytin, according to which the latter was obliged to print and distribute editions of the Intermediary at a cheap price (from 1 to 5 kopecks), Tolstoy and Chertkov ensured that the book of the Intermediary reached the broad masses of the people. These publications preached mainly the moral and ethical views of Leo Tolstoy, his doctrine of non-resistance to evil by violence. The works of N. S. Leskov, V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko, M. Gorky, books of foreign writers at the choice of L. N. Tolstoy (G. Toro, R. Emerson, etc.) were published. Since 1898, the Library for Children and Youth series has been published. The books were designed with drawings by I. E. Repin, N. N. Ge, V. I. Surikov, A. D. Kivshenko. Posrednik also published books for peasants on agriculture, medicine, hygiene, and child care. The publishing house existed until 1935.
The distribution of useful and reasonable books among the people, as well as counteracting speculation and the distribution of popular publications, was aimed at the publishing house "People's Library", which arose in 1885, owned by V. N. Marakuev. In an effort to expand the knowledge of the peasants, Marakuev published not only the works of Russian writers, but also foreign ones - H. K. Andersen, C. Dickens, E. Ozheshko, G. Flaubert, W. Shakespeare, as well as books on agriculture. Marakuev made a common mistake for the then intelligentsia, not making a difference between children's and "folk" reading.
Moscow publishers P. N. Sharapov, A. V. Morozov, E. A. Gubanov were engaged in publishing and selling popular books. They opened bookshops and warehouses in many cities and at fairs. I. A. Golyshev's factory of popular lithographed publications in Mstera was famous. More than 3,000 prints per day were printed here, and 500,000 copies were published annually. popular prints and 20 thousand divination tables. The so-called "servant" literature, such as "Guide to the choice of wives", "Practical lessons in playing cards and not losing", etc., which was published by the same publishing houses, was designed for petty-bourgeois tastes. The undemanding reader was offered reworkings of works of classical literature. Under the title "The Terrible Beauty, or Three Nights at the Coffin", an unrecognizably altered story by N.V. Gogol "Viy" was published. The story of A. Melnikov-Pechersky "In the Forests" was in the same form under the "intriguing" title "A Cave in the Forest, or the Corpse of a Dead Man", etc.
In the early 1860s A. F. Bazunov started publishing. The book trade of the Bazunovs was founded in Moscow in 1810; in 1835, F. V. Bazunov acquired a bookstore in St. Petersburg. His son A.F. Bazunov significantly expanded and strengthened the business. He became a commissioner of the Academy of Sciences and a number of ministries and departments. As a publisher, he became famous for publishing works by Russian and foreign writers. The “Library of Modern Writers” series included works by F. M. Dostoevsky, G. I. Uspensky, N. V. Uspensky, N. S. Leskov, A. S. Chuzhbinsky and others. "Crime and Punishment" by F. M. Dostoevsky, works by G. Heine, edited by P. I. Weinberg. Attempts to reconcile the commercial direction with the social usefulness of publications were unsuccessful, as a result, Bazunov went bankrupt, his publications that did not sell out and the literary rights he acquired were transferred to Wolf.
To liberal booksellers and publishers of the second half of the 19th century. refers to K. T. Soldatenkov, a major Moscow industrialist and patron of the arts. A decisive role in Soldatenkov's biography was played by his close relationship with members of the Moscow circle of progressive intelligentsia, headed by Professor T. N. Granovsky. He especially became close to a member of the circle, N. X. Ketcher. In 1856, the son of the actor M. S. Shchepkin, N. M. Shchepkin, together with a group of liberals (N. V. Stankevich, P. V. Annenkov and N. Kh. Ketcher), formed a partnership for the publication and distribution of books. Soldatenkov also joined the Association. In fact, he was in charge of the publishing house N. X. Ketcher, who determined the choice of books for publication, edited them. Soldatenkov and Shchepkin contributed to the publication of the works of Russian democratic poets: N. A. Nekrasov, A. V. Koltsov, N. P. Ogarev, A. I. Polezhaev. The most valuable publication was the 12-volume collected works of V. G. Belinsky.
In 1862, after the split of the Moscow circle, Shchepkin left the publishing house, and it completely became the property of Soldatenkov, who from that time, while maintaining the cultural and educational direction of the publishing house, focuses on the publication of multi-volume scientific works on history, history of literature, pedagogy, logic . Among these works are the following: "General History" by G. Weber translated by N. G. Chernyshevsky, "General History" edited by E. Lavisse and A. Rambaud, "Roman History" by T. Mommsen; books by T. N. Granovsky, I. E. Zabelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky; monuments of world classics - Iliad, Gulistan by Saadi, Dramatic Works by W. Shakespeare and many others. It should be noted the series "Library of Economists", in which the works of D. Smith, D. Riccardo, J. P. Sismondi and others were published. Soldatenkov's publications were inexpensive and were publicly available.
In the 1860s in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities, so-called "ideological" bookstores and publishing houses, printing houses began to appear, the owners of which were often participants freedom movement, members of secret societies and used the book trade and publishing for revolutionary educational purposes.
Of considerable interest is the book trade, organized at the end of 1861 in St. Petersburg by N. A. Serno-Solovyevich. A nobleman by birth, a court adviser, he draws closer to the advanced circles of St. Petersburg, together with N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. A. Sleptsov and others, organizes the secret society "Land and Freedom". In the interests of spreading advanced ideas in Russian society, it was decided to open a large bookstore in St. Petersburg. Serno-Solov'evich undertook this. The employees of the store were members of the "Earth and Freedom" A. A. Sleptsov, A. A. Richter, P. I. Aprelev, A. N. Engelgardt - the wife of an artillery officer, a member of a secret society. A library-reading room was opened at the store on Nevsky Prospekt. Metropolitan students, officers, writers willingly came here. It was a genuine "students' headquarters," recalled N. Ya. Nikoladze, a student of the university. “Here we had the opportunity to have everything we wanted ... Here you could find out all the political and literary news that did not appear in print, see almost all the celebrities, and often get to know them.”
The store distributed the works of V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky, outstanding Russian and European thinkers, sociologists, philosophers, economists, historians, naturalists, and fiction writers. Here you could get the forbidden works of A. I. Herzen, the “free Russian press”.
Serno-Solovyevich opened a joint book trade with the Kharkov bookseller and publisher N. P. Ballin, a socialist by conviction. Ballin's book trade was universal. Particular attention was paid to the wide dissemination of natural science literature, the works of Russian and Ukrainian progressive writers, to familiarize the Russian reader with the latest achievements in natural science, chemistry, physics, and geology.
It should also be noted that Serno-Solov'evich's store was connected with the progressive Moscow bookseller A. F. Cherenin. The subject matter of the books published by Cherenin is typical of the democratic book business of the 1860s. These are mainly natural and social sciences. In 1866, he published a "Collection of information on the book and literary business." In 1865-1866. Cherenin published the critical and bibliographic journal Knizhnik, a kind of mouthpiece for the democratic book business of the 1960s. 19th century
Serno-Solov'evich's book publishing activities also served propaganda purposes. He published in Russia and abroad the works of the poet M. L. Mikhailov, a collection of works by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, “Collection of stories in prose and verse”, “ The World History”F. Schlosser (edited by N. G. Chernyshevsky), “History of the 19th century” by G. G. Gervinus and others. In 1862, Serno-Solovyevich was arrested and, after a trial, exiled to Siberia for participating in revolutionary activities. The bookstore that belonged to him passed into the hands of A. A. Cherkesov, who led him in the same direction. Cherkesov's bookstore published books on natural science, medicine and social sciences, among them: E. Becher's "Working Question" with the appendix "Charter of the International Workers' Association" written by K. Marx, "Collected Works" by A. P. Radishchev (edited by P. A. Efremova). Cherkesov's bookstore widely popularized K. Marx's "Capital" for sale in the publication of N. P. Polyakov.
The bookselling enterprises of E. P. Pechatkin, N. L. Tiblen, I. O. Bakst and other "ideological" booksellers and publishers of the sixties, associated with the advanced social movement, had a similar character.
Tiblen produced mainly natural-science and philosophical literature. In 1862, he published the first complete edition of A. S. Griboyedov’s Woe from Wit with illustrations by M. S. Bashilov. Tiblen also published "Collections of works of new writers" (1868) and the progressive magazine "Modern Review".
Bakst published works on history, philosophy, works of fiction. He paid special attention to the publication of essays on the revolutionary movements in the West. Propaganda brochures for the people of I. A. Khudyakov (“Russian book”, “Stories about ancient people”) were printed in his printing house.
The son of the stationery manufacturer P. A. Pechatkin - E. P. Pechatkin was an active participant in the social movement of the sixties. Together with his brother V.P. Pechatkin, he had a bookstore and a bookbinding workshop. Pechatkin's publishing activity was of a progressive nature - he collaborated in the publication of the book by the underground organization of I. A. Khudyakov. He published Khudyakov’s “Self-Tutorial for Beginners to Learn to Read and Write”, “Essays and Stories” by G. I. Uspensky, “Collected Works” by G. Spencer, “Remarkable Criminal Cases. Verbatim reports, compiled by S. N. Tkacheva and others.
In the mid 1860s. N. P. Polyakov, “a man of a nihilistic direction, who lived in a circle of people who remained, according to his contemporaries, after Chernyshevsky, and who shared his views,” began book-selling and publishing activities. Polyakov was closely associated with a group of democratically minded publishers and booksellers - Tiblen, Neklyudov, Pechatkin, Evdokimov, Kozhanchikov. Together with Tiblen and Pechatkin, he founded in 1865 the Russian Book Trade, which existed until 1875. At the same time, he was engaged in publishing activities. Basically, Polyakov published books on social issues that interested progressive Russian society (works by N. A. Dobrolyubov, P. L. Lavrov, A. P. Shchapov, V. V. Bervi-Flerovsky). He was associated with the populist circle "Chaikovites" and published books, by mutual agreement, for propaganda purposes. He published the works of F. Lassalle, T. Hobbes, Voltaire, D. Diderot. In 1869, Polyakov published a book by N. Flerovsky (V. V. Bervi-Flerovsky) “The Condition of the Working Class in Russia”, which received an approving review from K. Marx. He also owns the publication of the first Russian translation of Capital (1872). Constant confiscations, fines, lawsuits undermined the material base of the publishing house, and in 1873 it was forced to stop its activities.
The bookseller and publisher D. E. Kozhanchikov (1821-1877) was closely associated with many leading figures of his time. In the early sixties, Kozhanchikov's bookstore was, according to contemporaries, “the most brilliant of all St. Petersburg stores. He enjoyed not only the sympathy of the entire educated public of new views, but almost the entire literary press of that time was grouped around him. Kozhanchikov also had bookstores in Kazan, Kharkov, Odessa and Warsaw. The bookselling and book publishing activity of Kozhanchikov was distinguished by an opposition to the government direction. His publications were dominated by books of a historical nature, works of progressive fiction. He published works by N. I. Kostomarov, F. I. Buslaev, A. Tocqueville, a number of ethnographic collections, books on the split of the church. From the works of fiction - the works of I. S. Turgenev, A. I. Ostrovsky, I. A. Goncharov, "Kobzar" by T. G. Shevchenko. In 1875, the bookstores of Cherkesov and Kozhanchikov were merged, and a collective administration was established.
Among the booksellers and publishers who began their activities in the 60s. XIX century, stands out F. F. Pavlenkov. According to N. A. Rubakin, “Pavlenkov was one of those fanatical publishers who made it their task to create a book in order to create a cadre of deeply honest ... creators of the new system, the struggle against the old system.” After graduating cadet corps and the Mikhailovsky Artillery Academy, Pavlenkov resigned in 1866 and took up publishing. He acquires (together with MP Nadein) a bookstore in St. Petersburg that belonged to the liberal journalist and publisher P. A. Gaideburov. Under the sign "Bookshop for out-of-towners" it began to function in March 1867. Having published a number of books of an educational nature, Pavlenkov in 1866 undertook the publication of the works of the democratic critic D. I. Pisarev. In 1868, Pavlenkov was arrested and exiled to Vyatka. Here he continues to publish books, publishes the collection "Vyatka Forget-Me-Not", which had a revealing character.
Pavlenkov was able to engage in regular publishing activities only from the beginning of the 80s. 19th century after returning from exile to Petersburg. He carried out many valuable educational series, published collected works of Russian writers, a lot of books on various fields of knowledge. One of Pavlenkov's most popular undertakings is the Life of Remarkable People series, published since 1899. This was the first such publication in Russia. The series consisted of books that were small in size and volume, modestly designed, each of which contained a biography of some outstanding figure in science, history, literature, and art. Prominent scientists, writers, teachers, publicists took part in compiling the biography. During the life of the publisher, 200 biographies were printed, with a circulation of over 1.5 million copies.
Pavlenkov laid the foundation for the publication of cheap one-volume works by classical writers. The “Illustrated Pushkin Library”, “Illustrated Lermontov Library” were publicly accessible. Pavlenkov called his “favorite brainchild” the Encyclopedic Dictionary compiled by him and published for the first time in 1899. Constantly increasing the circulation of publications, Pavlenkov sought to reduce their cost. This he achieved by the skillful organization of the publishing house, by reducing the cost of typesetting and designing publications. Before his death, he bequeathed the bulk of the money received from the liquidation of the company to be used to open free public reading rooms in the poorest places (villages, towns). In total, 2018 "Pavlenkovsky" reading rooms were opened, some of them continue to exist in our time.
Pavlenkov's successors, his friends and assistants N. A. Rozental, V. D. Cherkasov and V. I. Yakovenko continued publishing for some time. In 1905 they published the first collected works of A. I. Herzen in Russia.
Among the liberal-democratic publishers of the second half of the XIX century. belongs to L. F. Panteleev. A member of the student movement of the sixties, a member of the Land and Freedom, he was convicted and exiled in 1864. Its first editions appear in 1877. In the 30 years before the termination of his work in 1907, Panteleev published over 250 books. The main core of his publications was scientific literature. His publications on the natural sciences, books on sociology, history, logic, psychology, and philosophy enjoyed great popularity. He published works by leading Russian scientists - I. M. Sechenov, A. N. Beketov, V. A. Manasein, F. F. Erisman, M. M. Kovalevsky, a four-volume collection of works by N. A. Dobrolyubov, etc. Among translated editions were issued: ancient authors - Socrates, Apuleius, Tacitus; thinkers of the Renaissance and Enlightenment - B. Spinoza, C. Montesquieu, B. Pascal; representatives of the scientific thought of modern times - L. Morgan, D. Rnkcardo, W. Wundt, G. Maspero, T. Huxley, D. Maxwell; writers - A. Lessage, A. Mitskevich and others. Panteleev's publishing activity was of an oppositional nature. In 1907, in connection with the onset of reaction, he decided to stop it. The material part of the publishing house was transferred to the Literary Fund.
"Free Russian Press" and illegal printing houses. In the 50s. 19th century the Russian foreign "free press" was born, the beginning of which was laid by the outstanding writer A. I. Herzen. In 1853, the Free Russian Printing House was founded in London. She worked here until 1865, and then Herzen transferred her to Geneva. Herzen's assistant was his friend and like-minded poet N. P. Ogarev. The Free Russian Printing House printed the Polar Star collections, the Kolokol newspaper, various supplements to them, as well as the works of the Decembrists, A. N. Radishchev, revolutionary appeals that were intended for Russia, banned in Russia. The influence of these publications was great, even the top government officials were forced to listen to them. At this time, other emigrant printing houses also worked abroad - in London, Bern, Geneva, Leipzig. Their products also came to Russia and were distributed by revolutionary youth. Emigrant publications were persecuted, destroyed, the police and the gendarmerie subjected to repression the distributors of this literature, its active readers.
In the late 50s - early 60s. 19th century the first illegal publications appear inside Russia. They were issued by the Moscow Free Printing House; St. Petersburg secret printing houses - Velikorus, Pocket Printing House, printing house of the Land and Freedom Society. Their organizers were revolutionary-minded students, officers, and journalists. Underground leaflets were distributed in Kazan, Perm, Kyiv and other Russian cities. A number of proclamations were issued by a secret organization operating in the troops of the Russian army located in the western regions of the country.
In the early 70s. 19th century secret book printing was launched by revolutionary populist circles - "Tchaikovtsy", "Dolgushintsy", P. N. Myshkin. The activities of illegal printing houses became especially intense in the mid-1870s, when youth began to go mass “to the people” for propaganda socialist ideas and calling the peasants to revolt. It was at this time that the bulk of populist propaganda pamphlets and leaflets appeared. A significant part of the "literature for the people" was published abroad. Propaganda pamphlets were mostly written in the form of fairy tales, stories and religious teachings in a special "folk" language. Most publications had fictitious imprints and censored approval notes. The most significant illegal populist printing houses were; "Free Russian Printing House", "Petersburg Free Printing House", printing houses of secret societies "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". There were so-called "flying" printing houses, which were transferred from place to place for the purpose of secrecy.
Attempts to conduct printed propaganda were made by the first workers' organizations that arose in the 1870s: the South Russian Union of Workers and the Northern Union of Russian Workers. In the 1880s the first Russian Marxist, social-democratic organizations arise. The Emancipation of Labor group, headed by G. V. Plekhanov, launched publishing activities in Geneva. Inside Russia, the publication of Marxist literature was organized by the Society of Translators and Publishers at Moscow University, the Party of Russian Social Democrats group under the leadership of D. Blagoev, and the Marxist circle of N. E. Fedoseev in Kazan.
A new stage in the history of illegal printing begins in the 1890s. and is associated with the activities of the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. The Soyuz printed and distributed leaflets and brochures of a political propaganda nature. For this, manual duplicators were used - a hectograph and a mimeograph. In 1895-1896. there was a rather large illegal printing house of the Soyuz, called Lakhtinskaya (at the location near St. Petersburg).
Subjects and types of publications. Public upsurge in the 60s. 19th century affected both the overall growth of printed matter (in terms of circulation and titles) and the change in the subject matter of published literature. Although among the books published in the capitals, as before, a large place was occupied by textbooks, books of religious content, light fiction, there is still an increase in publications of serious socio-economic and natural science literature. The works of N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev, N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, leading Russian scientists N. I. Pirogov, D. I. Mendeleev , K. D. Ushinsky, A. P. Shchapov, N. I. Kostomarov, P. V. Pavlov and others. Meeting the needs of a new democratic reader, publishing houses publish works by Western European thinkers-economists, philosophers, sociologists, naturalists - Ch. Darwin, T. G. Huxley, C. Lyell, K. Focht, J. Moleschott, G. J. Bockl, F. Schlosser, G. G. Gervinus, D. S. Mill, whose work met with a sympathetic response in an advanced society . The publication of books on agriculture and technology increased somewhat.
A feature of the raznochinny democratic reader of the 1860-1870s. was the inclusion in the reading circle of illegal publications, the works of Herzen and Ogarev, publications of the Free Russian Printing House - "Polar Star", "Bells", etc. Revolutionary populism of the 1870s. developed an active illegal publishing activity. Some "ideological" publishers, as indicated, were associated with populist organizations and published books in agreement with the latter.
In the 1870-1880s, in connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of public publications for the people, for those engaged in self-education, increased. But at the same time, the publication of lubok books continued to grow, especially in Moscow.
By the end of the century, the share of translated literature had significantly decreased: up to 9% of the total book production in Russia, while at the beginning of the 19th century. translated literature accounted for half of all books published in Russian. The industrial boom of the late 1880s - early 1890s, the revolutionary movement of the working class, the activities of the first Marxist, Social Democratic organizations contributed to the growth in the production of books and other printed works, had a noticeable impact on the change in the book assortment. The following figures testify to the growth of book production: in 1887, 7,366 editions were published, in 1880 - 8,638, and in 1895 - 11,548, and their circulation almost doubled (18,540 thousand copies in 1887. and 35,512 thousand copies in 1895). Intensive growth in circulation of book production continues in the second half of the 1890s, reaching 56,331 thousand copies by 1901, while the number of titles decreased to 10,318.
Book layout. The mechanization of the printing process, the improvement of printing forms with the help of photomechanics determined the nature of the design of the book in the second half of the 19th century. If, on the one hand, there is a reduction in the cost of publications, the quality of paper and binding of mass printed products deteriorates, the standardization of typographic techniques increases and a book with cheap Western clichés becomes widespread, then, on the other hand, a “luxury” gift book arises, some publications are characterized by typographic sophistication (curly intricate letters, miniature book).
In a book from the 1860s Wood engraving is re-emerging. An outstanding master of this genre was E. I. Hohenfelden, who created a number of excellent engravings for the "Works of Derzhavin" in the publication of the Academy of Sciences. The artist A. A. Seryakov specialized in the field of tone engraving. Interesting engravings for the works of Russian writers were created by artists A. I. Lebedev M. S. Bashilov. In the 1880s the name of N. N. Karazin becomes known, who was the first Russian artist to work on wood with a brush. Known for his illustrations for gift editions of M. O. Wolf (“Native Echoes”, “Thought after Thought”), for the works of Russian writers. His work enjoyed European fame.
Since the 1860s the release of illustrated art albums is increasing. One of the most significant phenomena of book graphics is the "Album of Gogol's types" by the artist P. M. Boklevsky (1881).
In the 1890s phototype becomes widespread. In the technique of phototype, an illustrated collection of "Works" by M. Yu. Lermontov was published, released in 1891 by the Moscow publishing house of I. P. Kushnarev with illustrations by I. E. Repin, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Shishkin, I. K. Aivazovsky, V. D. Polenov, M. A. Vrubel and other outstanding painters and graphic artists.
Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the XIX century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers of Europe and North America, made scientific presentations, published articles in scientific journals.
Capitalism with its rise technical potential and the sphere of industrial production, which required an increase in the raw material base, led to profound shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that stirred the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the enormous social role of science also contributed to the "extraordinary success of the mental movement" (K.A. Timiryazev).
Academy of Sciences, Universities, learned societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the post-reform period, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-1960s, Sovremennik noted that "in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass the representatives of academic scholarship in their merits."
New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, and the Russian Technical Society (1866). A serious contribution to the development of the natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that, as a rule, existed at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a Physical and Chemical Society; Russian Technical Society; Russian historical society and etc.) .
major center mathematical research became Petersburg, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.
In the second half of the XIX century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, has achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, connected with the development of world science, have greatly raised its international prestige. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly meet Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.
A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of stability of equilibrium and motion mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.
It is also worth mentioning the first female professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of the solvability of the problem of rotation of a rigid body around a fixed point.
The ingenious scientist-chemist who created the periodic system chemical elements, was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved inner strength between several types chemical substances. The periodic system was the foundation in the study not organic chemistry and advance science. The work of D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.
Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.
Founder of Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which was recognized throughout the world.
From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.
The discoveries of A.S. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a “lightning detector” - a radio receiver that soon found practical application.
Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.
The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first studies in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, the founder of modern astronautics.
The works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.
A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft.
The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.
In 1863, I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) "Reflexes of the brain", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer scientific knowledge, Sechenov created a physiological school, from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 1970s, he began his career as a physiologist.
I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.
Russian natural scientists were staunch propagandists and continuers of Charles Darwin's teachings. Russian translation of his main work "The Origin of Species by natural selection”appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.
Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the doctrine of immunity, discovering in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.
In the development of Darwinism and natural-science materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did much to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science in the 19th century, which affirmed the materialistic worldview in biology.
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.
The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are connected with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made while traveling in Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania.
In the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, humanities scholars fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary criticism, and economics, creating important scientific research.
In the field of philology and linguistics, I.I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - the founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Slavonic language, the history of Old Russian literature. A prominent linguist, the founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, a foundation was laid for the study of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies on his life and work.
Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, the collection and study of oral folk art was expanding. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material contained in them. Vast work on collecting and studying folk art was done by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), who published in the 60s " Dictionary living Great Russian language”, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl has been reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)
Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history. In the 50-70s. the talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.
Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of a Marxist trend associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883, his first Marxist work, Socialism and the Political Struggle, dates back.
IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with an economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid great attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine against the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite a cardinal divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. clash historical views Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) eventually grew into irreconcilable ideological conflict.
Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe goes at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and points the way to the rest of humanity.
The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the "folk spirit" that permeates all aspects of collective life.
With all their ideological differences, Slavophiles and Westernizers unexpectedly converged on practical matters Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore, in the eyes of the tsarist government, were unreliable.
A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform period was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from about 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published) .
The development of science, achievements in the field of natural sciences had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left an imprint on the state of the school, influenced to some extent on the way of thinking, the level of public consciousness.
The 19th century for Russian literature is rightfully called golden. He gave us a lot of talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and become a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century was replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.
In the 1940s, a "natural school" appeared - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the "sitters" was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.
Since the second half of the 19th century, realism has been called critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two directions are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature, they reflect the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic-serf system, the truth of life makes the works of that time popular.
Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of that time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift towards revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular in Russia and abroad were novels and stories of the period of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws with which its development takes place. The heroes in the works talk about the imperfection of society, about conscience and justice.
One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works, he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and children”, “on the eve”, etc.)
A great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth was made by Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?
In the works of I. A. Goncharov, the morals of officials and landowners are shown.
Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader, make him show sympathy for the “humiliated and offended”.
Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works exposes officials and embezzlers of public funds, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.
L. N. Tolstoy in his work showed the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.
A.P. Chekhov's experience for fate Russian society found reflection in his creations, giving a writer whose talent makes one admire to this day.
The literature of the late 19th century has a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also enter the struggle for their ideals. The mood of the society of that time is also reflected in painting, introducing into the minds of people the idea of equality and good for the whole society.
- Planet Venus - message salary
Venus is the second planet in solar system. What are its features and why is it considered poisonous? All questions will have their answers.
9.1. Abolition of serfdom
On February 19, 1855, Alexander II ascended the throne, becoming emperor in the midst of the Crimean War, which was unsuccessful for Russia, the new emperor was aware of the need for deep reforms.
Reasons for the abolition of serfdom. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II (1855-1881), the eldest son of Nicholas I, ascended the Russian throne. It was a time of difficult trials for Russia - the failure of the Nikolaev system was revealed. The urgent need for deep socio-economic transformations and, above all, the elimination of serfdom became clear. The situation in the country was aggravated by the sharp intensification of the peasant movement. Peasant protest resulted in mass movements, involving simultaneously hundreds of thousands of peasants in dozens of provinces.
The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War revealed the technical and economic backwardness, the main reason for which was serfdom. The main lesson of the Eastern War was the realization that it was impossible to delay further in resolving the peasant question. The Peace of Paris in 1856 testified to Russia's loss of prestige and threatened to lose influence in Europe. Society, accustomed to waiting for everything from above, was waiting for a solution to problems from a progressive government.
Fig 1 Alexander II
The emperor began to receive notes and letters criticizing the vices of the existing order and proposals for reforms. These messages diverged in many lists, meeting with a lively response in various public circles in Russia. M.P. Pogodin, an apologist for conservatism, one of the ideologists of the theory of “official nationality”, M.P. Pogodin, strongly criticized the autocratic-serf system, and resolutely stated: “The former system has outlived its time ... Russia now needs a different system.” He suggested that Alexander II “declare a firm intention to free the peasants”, introduce glasnost and “freedom of printing”. A.I. Herzen also insisted on the liberation of the peasants from the power of the landlords in The Bell.
The position of the radicals grouped around the Sovremennik magazine was expressed by N.G. Chernyshevsky - in three published articles he raised the idea of the immediate release of the peasants without any ransom. Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom for the first time before representatives of the Moscow nobility in March 1856: “It is much better for this to happen from above than from below.” The government of Alexander II had to rise above the selfish interests of the ruling class - the nobility, the vast majority of which opposed any reforms.
The supporters of the reforms were the liberal-minded bureaucracy - progressive-minded, intelligent people, united by the similarity of views, reform programs and methods of their implementation. The liberal bureaucracy headed by N.A. Milyutin personified the creative potential of the autocratic system. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, the emperor's younger brother, invariably supported her. Ministries were the centers of formation of liberal bureaucracy.
Preparation of the peasant reform. The preparation of the peasant reform was concentrated in the Ministry of the Interior, headed by S.S. Lanskoy, deputy (comrade) - N.A. Milyutin. In January 1857, a Secret Committee was established, later renamed the "Main Committee on Landlord Peasants Leaving Serfdom." The editorial commissions became the "working" body under the Main Committee.
The fate of the Russian peasantry was also decided in the provincial committees, in which the leading positions were played by the local nobility, most of which opposed any reform in general. The landlords of the black earth provinces supported the option of freeing the peasants with the provision of small plots of land for use, for which they must bear corvée or pay dues; the landlords of the non-chernozem provinces offered to immediately provide the peasants with land as property for a ransom.
Abolition of serfdom. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the "Regulations on peasants leaving serfdom." The Manifesto on the Liberation of the Peasants, according to which 22.5 million peasants of both sexes in 45 European provinces of Russia immediately received personal freedom and civil rights. But the inequality remained - the communal system fettered the peasantry: without the consent of the secular gathering, the peasant could not move, could not dispose of the land, the peasants paid a poll tax (abolished by Alexander III), corporal punishment was retained for them. The preservation of the community responded to the desires of the peasantry itself and ensured a smoother transition from traditional to industrial society. According to the reform, allotment land was assigned not to households, but to the entire community, then the community distributed it among individual households according to the number of available souls.
"Regulations" determined the size of peasant land plots - the maximum, more than which the peasant could not demand from the landowners, and the minimum, less than which the landowner should not offer the peasant. The norms of allotments, the relationship between peasants and landlords were fixed in charters. They were checked by world mediators. They also resolved the emerging conflicts between landowners and peasants. If the allotment that the peasant used before the reform was more than the maximum norm, the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus (segments) to this norm. If, on the contrary, it is less than the lowest norm, the landowner is obliged to cut (cut) the land to the norm. On average, in Russia, the segments amounted to 20% of peasant lands. In 8 provinces, the allotments of the peasants increased by 18-20%, in 27 provinces they decreased, and only in 9 they remained the same or slightly increased.
Peasants received land for redemption, which was calculated according to the capitalized dues. With a real land value of 544 million rubles. the peasantry paid 867 million rubles, i.e. one and a half times more. The state acted as an intermediary between the state and the landlords, providing the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments, the community paid 20% to the landowner herself. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state in the form of redemption payments. In 1906 payments have been stopped.
From the day the Manifesto was promulgated, it was envisaged to introduce "peasant public administration" in the villages of the peasants. The peasant self-government in the state village, created in 1837-1841, was taken as a model. reform of P.D. Kiselev. On the basis of the community, the peasants formed a volost and rural society (gatherings) with elected elders and foremen. The gathering protected the interests of the peasants, also performing fiscal functions, while the volost ruled the court, guided by the norms of customary law.
The reform brought freedom to the serfs, clearing the way for the development of bourgeois relations, the modernization of the country, understood as the process of transforming a traditional society into an industrial one, laid the foundation for other bourgeois reforms. The peasant reform of 1861, despite its inconsistency and inconsistency, was ultimately the most important historical act of progressive significance. The reforms carried out by Alexander II met the requirements of the liberal public, the conservatives considered the reform too big a concession, and the radicals considered it insufficient.
9.2. Local government reforms.
In 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out. The new bodies of local self-government in the provinces and districts were all-class elected institutions - zemstvos. Elected to zemstvo administrative bodies - a meeting of vowels (deputies) - were held on the basis of a property qualification, according to curia (ranks). Zemstvo assemblies formed executive bodies - zemstvo councils. According to the “Regulations” on zemstvos, the district and provincial marshals of the nobility became chairmen of the county and provincial zemstvo assemblies. The chairmen of the councils were elected at zemstvo meetings, while the chairman of the county council was confirmed in office by the governor, and the governor - by the minister of internal affairs. Zemstvos hired zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians and other zemstvo employees who had professional training (the so-called “third element”).
The sphere of activity of the zemstvos was limited exclusively to economic issues. local importance– education, health care, organization of trade and industry, veterinary service. Zemstvos played a special role in the development of health care and education. By 1880 12 thousand were opened in the village. country schools. During this time, 2 million people received education in zemstvo schools. peasant children. Zemstvo schools were considered the best. The schools of the Ministry of Education also began to operate on the model of them. In addition, zemstvos, contrary to legislative prohibitions, turned into centers of social activity for the liberal nobility. The government had to reckon with the Zemstvo-liberal opposition.
Since 1870, the reform of city self-government began to be carried out. City dumas were formed on an elective basis. The electoral system was built on the principle of a property qualification, which led to the predominance of the propertied part of society in the city self-government bodies. City dumas, elected for 4 years, dealt exclusively with economic issues of urban importance. Dumas, in turn, elected permanent executive bodies - city councils, consisting of the mayor, his "comrade" (deputy) and several members
9.3. Judicial reform.
The most consistent of the reforms of the 1960s was judicial reform 1864, providing for the all-estate court, its independence from the administration, openness, publicity and competitiveness of the trial. The question of the guilt of the accused was decided by jurors appointed by the provincial zemstvo assemblies and city dumas on the basis of a property qualification.
According to the new judicial statutes, the preliminary investigation was transferred from the jurisdiction of the police to judicial investigators. Advocacy was introduced - sworn attorneys in the public service. Criminal and serious crimes were considered in district courts, petty criminal and civil cases - in the magistrate's court. The Senate became the highest court. Judicial statutes of 1864 for the first time in Russia introduced a notary. In the capital, provinces, counties, notary offices were created with a staff of notaries who certified transactions and formalized inheritance rights.
In judicial reform, the principles of bourgeois law were most consistently implemented. Nevertheless, the new judicial system retained the features of a class court - a spiritual court (consistory) for the affairs of clergy and military - for the military. The highest royal dignitaries - members of the State Council, senators, ministers, generals for the crimes committed were subject to the Supreme Criminal Court, because they were not subject to the jurisdiction of judicial districts and chambers. In 1872, a Special Presence of the Governing Senate was created to consider cases of political crimes, the law limited the publicity of court hearings and their coverage in the press.
9.4.Financial reform.
Carrying out in the 60s of the XIX century. a series of financial reforms was caused by the breakdown of finances during the Crimean War, the need to centralize them, and bring the tax system in line with the changes that have taken place in the socio-economic sphere. A significant role in the preparation of the financial reform was played by the state controller V.A. Tatarinov, A.D. Guryev, the future Minister of Finance M.Kh. Reitern.
A special role in the new banking system of the empire belonged to the State Bank established in 1860. It became the bank of banks, an influential body of control over finances and money circulation. The State Bank played a significant role in lending to industry and trade, and had the exclusive right to issue banknotes, carried out at the request of the government.
The financial independence of ministries and departments was liquidated, a single nationwide budget and a single nationwide cash desk were introduced. The only responsible manager of all income and expenses was the Ministry of Finance. The budget (list of income and expenses), which has lost its secret, since 1862. published in print. The activity of the Ministry of Finance was accountable to the State Control. The provincial control chambers, accountable only to the state comptroller, checked the expenditures of all local institutions on a monthly basis.
9.5. tax reform.
The tax commission prepared a state tax on land in the amount of 0.25 to 10 kopecks. from the tithe (depending on the value of the land). The system of ransoms for salt, tobacco, wine, etc., was abolished, accompanied by numerous abuses and extortion of tax-farmers. In response to the wave of mass protests against wine farming that swept across the country, from January 1863. an excise system was introduced: the sale of alcoholic products was declared free, but subject to excise duty in favor of the state.
The main burden of taxes was borne by the taxable population. The peasants paid the poll tax introduced by Peter the Great; replaced by a real estate tax. The poll tax, quitrent and redemption payments in the 60s and 70s accounted for over 25% of state revenues. More than half of the expenditures in the state budget went to the maintenance of the army and the administrative apparatus. The budget deficit was regularly repaid with foreign loans. A third of the expenses were spent only on its maintenance. The state spent only 0.1% of the state budget on education, medicine, social charity.
9.6. Education reform.
The needs of the growth of industry, trade, transport, agriculture, the introduction of machine technology into these branches constantly demanded the expansion of public education. To this end, the state has developed a school reform.
According to the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" of 1864, the principle of formal equality was introduced in secondary education for people of all classes and religions. Classical gymnasiums provided humanitarian education, in real ones special attention was paid to the exact sciences. Those who graduated from classical gymnasiums were given the right to enter universities without exams. Graduates of real gymnasiums could enter mainly technical universities. The first four steps of the classical gymnasium corresponded to the pro-gymnasium, giving the right to their graduates to enter the 5th grade of the gymnasium. High tuition fees made it possible to study mainly for children of the privileged and wealthy classes.
In 1863 The University (“Golovnin”) charter was approved - the most liberal of all university charters in pre-revolutionary Russia, which granted universities a fairly wide autonomy. The positions of rectors, vice-rectors, deans became elective, with their subsequent approval by the Minister of Public Education. The management of the life of universities and faculties belonged to the councils. Universities had their own censorship. Charter of 1863 did not allow women to enter universities. But the government had to reckon with the requirements of the time and it allowed the opening of private higher courses for women, the most famous of them are the Higher Women's Courses of Professor V.I. . The latter had great prestige in the educational environment, as they gave the most thorough higher education.
9.7. Military reform.
The defeat in the Crimean War showed that the Russian army could not withstand more modern European ones. Under the leadership of D.A. Milyutin, twenty years old (1861 - 1881), while serving as Minister of War, a military reform was carried out, which established the all-word conscription of men who had reached the age of 20, reduced the term of active service to 6 (instead of 25), in the navy - up to 7 years. The term of service depended on the educational qualification: those who graduated from elementary school served 3 years, gymnasium - 1.5 years, university graduates - 0.5 years. In the army itself, the privates were taught to read and write. The rearmament of the army was actively carried out. A network of specialized military educational institutions has been set up to train officers.
Operational control of troops on the ground was carried out by the created 15 military districts. As a result of the reform, the size of the army was reduced - if by the end of the Crimean War there were 2.2 million people under arms, then by 1858. the army numbered up to 1.5 million people and it was supposed to be further reduced, its combat capability increased.
Reforms 1860-70 were the result of a compromise between liberals and conservatives. In Russia, conditions were created for the development of capitalist relations, the accelerated modernization of the country's economy, however, the transformations had little effect on the socio-political sphere - autocracy, landlordism, class division of society, and remnants of serfdom were preserved.
9.10. Counter-reforms Alexander III.
After the death of Alexander II on March 1, 1881, Alexander III (1881-1894) came to the throne. Fearing an assassination attempt by terrorists, he spent the first years of his reign in Gatchina under heavy guard.
The internal political course of Alexander III was expressed in limiting the reforms of the 1860s and 70s. and therefore called "counter-reforms". The inspirers of this course were the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and editor of Moscow News M.N. Katkov.
Rice. 2 Alexander III
Published in August 1881 security order public order and public peace made it possible to declare any locality in a state of emergency and each of its inhabitants could be arrested, subjected to a military court and even exiled without trial for 5 years. The local administration could close educational institutions, trade and industrial enterprises, suspend the activities of zemstvos and city dumas, and close the press. This "temporary" order was in effect until 1917.
The new "Temporary Rules on the Press" (1882) established strict supervision of newspapers and magazines. The new university charter of 1884 abolished the autonomy of the universities, introduced by the education reform of 1863. Previously, the elective positions of the rector and deans became appointed, while taking into account their political reliability. In 1885 uniforms were reintroduced for them as "an essential means of supervising students". Tuition fees have increased fivefold. In 1882 - 1883. most of the higher women's courses were closed, which actually led to the elimination of higher women's education. Student unrest 1887 - 1893 were student youth's response to reactionary measures in the field of higher education. The Minister of Public Education, I.D. Delyanov, issued a circular on "cook's children", forbidding the admission of "children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, petty shopkeepers, etc." to the gymnasium. of people".
The “Regulations on Zemstvo District Chiefs” (1889) restored the power of the landowners over the peasants, which they had lost as a result of the great reform. The world court was abolished, the functions of which were transferred to zemstvo chiefs. The "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in the zemstvos, while sharply reducing the representation of the peasants. According to the new "City Regulations" of 1892, the electoral rights of citizens were limited by raising the property qualification for voters.
Scheme 1 Economic development of Russia inXIXin.
§ 34. RUSSIAN SOCIETY IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
NOBILITY AND OFFICIALS. One high-ranking official remarked: “The line of the nobility is so boundless with us that one end touches the foot of the throne, and the other is almost lost in the peasantry.” Observation for the second half of the XIX century. very characteristic. By 1897, the total number of nobles had almost doubled. But its composition was blurred due to people from other classes.
In the post-reform years, landownership of the nobility decreased quite significantly. This process affected the landlords of the non-Chernozem provinces especially noticeably. By the beginning of the XX century. only 30 - 40% of the nobles were provided with land.
The sources of income for the nobility increasingly became the public service, interest on shares (as they said then, “coupon clipping”), and entrepreneurship.
At the beginning of the XX century. 1894 noblemen owned 2090 enterprises with at least 15 workers. Go to entrepreneurial activity the nobility was helped by the capitals amassed in pre-reform times or as a result of a redemption operation. The right to own land and its subsoil also helped.
In general, after the reform, the first estate had a hard time. It lost the free serf labor of the peasants. The nobles were deprived of the exclusive right to produce alcoholic beverages and other benefits. The new conditions forced a mass of landowners to adapt to the market, but it was difficult for them to compete with the rural and urban bourgeoisie. In general, the nobility found it difficult to find a place in the new conditions.
Another class of Russian society, the bureaucracy, was gaining more and more strength. As before, different layers were distinguished in it depending on the place of service (ministerial, provincial, county) and on the class established by the Table of Ranks.
There was a peculiar contradiction in the position of the bureaucracy: the official himself was helpless before the throne and society, but the bureaucratic machine as a whole remained omnipotent. The role of bureaucracy in the country has been growing year by year. Its numbers also grew.
PEASANT AND PROLETARIAT. The peasantry, having found itself, like the local nobility, in difficult conditions, proved to be much more flexible. social force. Almost half of the peasants worked not only on their own farm, but also additionally to feed their families. In the countryside, there was a rapid stratification of the once more or less single estate into the rural bourgeoisie (kulaks), the middle peasants and the poorest stratum.
The main sign of the rural bourgeois was the high level of marketability of his economy. The market brought significant and stable profits. By the end of the XIX century. the kulaks accounted for one-fifth of the households and provided about half of the agricultural output, twice as much as the landlords. The kulaks looked with envy at the poorly used landowners' lands, actively participating in the all-peasant struggle for their redistribution.
Peasant hut
The position of the middle peasant, who managed to keep the economy in order, was on the whole better than that of the skilled worker. The affairs of the middle peasant could go even more successfully, but he was oppressed by the increasing lack of land, taxes and dependence on the community.
Speaking about the poor households, it should be noted that the allotment became economically unprofitable for them. He did not even provide the villagers with the necessary products, fettered them, limiting their ability to move and making it difficult to earn money "on the side." But the peasants still held on to their allotment: the hard work of the otkhodnik did not guarantee sufficient income, and there was hope in their souls for a new, “fair” redistribution of land. In addition, when the owner left, the life of the family was upset for a long time, or even forever. Therefore, the preservation of even an unprofitable allotment was expedient in its own way, primarily from a psychological point of view. Little help to the peasants and resettlement to the outskirts of the empire. The poor, and it made sense for her to move, rarely had enough material opportunities. State assistance was often insufficient.
THE LARGEST CITIES OF RUSSIA in 1863 and 1897
GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION. 1862 - 1897
The peasants were the main source of education for the working class. This is not surprising, given that the rural poor made up about a third of all households.
The position of the village handicraftsmen was also very unstable. "Proletarianization" also affected the workers of the former serf manufactories, as well as people from many philistine families. The rapid development of industry required a rapid increase in the number of workers. In just 15 years (1865 - 1879), the ranks of the industrial proletariat grew 1.5 times. By the beginning of the 80s. There were about one million workers.
The proletariat of Russia had certain peculiarities in those years. The working man was still firmly connected with the land, with the village, where his family often remained. At the same time, he represented the peculiarity of his new position very clearly. Factories and factories in Russia differed very much large size. At one enterprise sometimes thousands of people worked. High level the concentration of workers in large enterprises contributed to their rallying. They more and more clearly felt the closeness of their position and interests.
BOURGEOISIE AND OTHER SPLIES OF THE POPULATION. The post-reform bourgeoisie grew at the expense of people from the nobility, farmers, merchants, tenants. Many of them enjoyed the moral and material support of the government. A particularly prominent role in the formation of the bourgeoisie was played by employees of trading firms, foreign entrepreneurs, founders of trading companies, engineers, and technicians. However, the main source of its growth remained merchants and peasants who managed to put together large capitals.
To Moscow for work
Bank collapse. Artist V. E. Makovsky
In post-reform Russia, however, individual capital no longer played its former role. Entrepreneurship, having acquired a significant size, required such large investments that private individuals simply did not have them. Joint-stock companies and partnerships came to the fore, and the connection between commercial and industrial enterprises increased.
Since that time, it is legitimate to talk about the presence in Russia of the "old" and "new" bourgeoisie. The "old" bourgeoisie dominated long-established industries. Here, changes in the composition of business owners occurred most often at the family level, as a result of the division of property, marriages, and inheritance.
The "new" bourgeoisie - the recent peasants - founded their own business and quickly lost the features of national origin, trying to correspond to the new situation.
Industrial development has increased the demand for professionally trained specialists in both the technical and humanitarian fields.
The owner of the Trekhgornaya manufactory in Moscow I. Ya. Prokhorov
As before, the intelligentsia, in essence, remained "all-class". It represented the nobility, the clergy, the children of peasants and raznochintsy. Hence, probably, her more acute sense of the time, the sharpness of her reaction to injustice and political lack of rights. The irreconcilability of the intelligentsia to the existing system by the end of the 19th century. intensified.
LIFE OF THE MAIN LAYERS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY After the reform of 1861, an increasing number of nobles settled in the cities for permanent residence (mainly in St. Petersburg and Moscow). First of all, this applies to landlords who have sold or mortgaged their estates. The resulting capital was lived by them in the capitals, because the title of nobility still required a certain way of life. Nobles rented apartments or bought houses in aristocratic areas, maintaining the appearance of a "noble" existence.
Attempts of the first estate to engage in commerce or trading activities are noticeable - to open shops, workshops, fashion salons, restaurants, boarding houses. Very often, these undertakings failed because of their lack of experience and business acumen of the former landowners, which made them uncompetitive, and also because the noble arrogance prevented them from entering the circle of entrepreneurs, becoming “their own” in it. But the title of a nobleman helped its owner to take a position in the city duma and to a large extent determine the life of the townspeople.
In the countryside, only the owners of thousands of acres of land, who received huge capital for them, could lead the old way of life.
Arrival of the governess to the merchant's house. Artist V. G. Perov
The life of the middle and petty nobility drew closer and closer to the life of the prosperous peasantry. The former landowner's "nests" dilapidated and fell into disrepair - their owners huddled in outhouses for servants. At the same time, the process of revival of many former estates was underway due to the appearance of new owners in them. It is difficult to name any surname from among the commercial and industrial elite, which would not have acquired in the 1860s - 1890s. landowner's estate.
The life of the post-reform merchant class seems to have changed little in comparison with previous decades. The dwelling, clothes, food of the average merchant remained basically traditional, inherited from their fathers and grandfathers. Merchant houses in the provinces were easily recognizable and differed from the mansions of the nobility and the houses of the townspeople. Thick brick or log walls, small windows, blind fences with locked gates symbolized the isolation from the life of "others". In fact, the merchants took an ever more active part in public life city, and engaged in city management, and patronage, and charity.
In the second half of the XIX century. lined up a new generation of the bourgeoisie - the second and third generations of commercial and industrial dynasties. They made up the highest stratum of the urban third estate, which, in terms of lifestyle and intellectual demands, was close to the best representatives of the Russian nobility. Business acumen made the commercial and industrial elite related to Western businessmen. Hospitals, schools, houses of charity, museums, libraries were built on her donations in cities.
In the post-reform era, the number and importance of the intelligentsia increased sharply. The city government, and judicial institutions, and trading firms, and credit societies, and zemstvo institutions needed it. Great was the demand for engineers, doctors, lawyers, teachers. Earnings of the average intellectual at that time amounted to 1000 - 1200 rubles. per year, which made it possible to buy books, subscribe to newspapers and magazines, rent a modest apartment, spend a vacation in an inexpensive resort abroad. The intelligentsia also grew more and more into village life, becoming zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists or statisticians. Settling at schools or hospitals, the intellectual quickly "easier": started a household plot, dressed in a semi-peasant dress, forgot his city habits.
Skating on Palm Sunday on Red Square. Artist B. Rossinsky
The innovations of the post-reform development hardly touched the Russian countryside. Peasants still covered the huts with straw, iron roofs were rare. The rural house had the usual size and accommodated 6 - 7 tenants. In winter, due to the lack of a warm barn, young cattle were taken here. Of course, the dwellings of wealthy peasants differed markedly from the huts of the poor. Urban furniture appears in them, necessarily samovars, cattle were kept in a warm barn in winter. In general, the huts were poorly ventilated in order to save heat, and the mustiness and poor lighting of the room affected the well-being of its inhabitants. The high mortality of peasants was also provoked by frequent epidemics, the village was “mowed down” by measles and smallpox, diphtheria and scarlet fever. The death of children happened not only because of diseases and difficult living conditions, but also due to an oversight on the part of parents - high rates of child mortality fall on the village suffering.
Not only housing, but also household utensils with clothing fundamental changes to late XIX in. have not endured. Purchased chintz pressed, but did not make homespun fabrics disappear. At the holidays in the village, the Russian costume dominated; in working time women's sundress gave way to a skirt with a jacket-shirt over.
The working and living conditions of workers in the cities gradually improved. In terms of standard of living, the position of the workers was homogeneous. Skilled workers - metalworkers, foundry workers, welders - had earnings of 30 - 40 rubles. per month; textile workers, food workers - 20 - 25 rubles. Most of the earnings (40 - 50%) went to pay for housing and food. The bulk of the workers lived in the barracks or rented a bed in the so-called corner apartments, where corners were rented out in common rooms.
Reading in a peasant family
It had a bad effect on the health of workers and their nutrition. The singles used either the factory canteen or the landlady's dinners. An indispensable part of the menu was millet porridge or kulesh on bacon and cabbage soup; meat was usually eaten 2-3 times a week.
The leisure of factory workers remained monotonous. Many preferred to sleep off after hard work, others spent their hours of rest in taverns and taverns. However, proletarians appeared who attended Sunday schools, self-education circles, and libraries. It was from this thin layer of workers that a genuine “labor aristocracy” was developed - people who aspired to participate in the socio-political life of the country.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1) The number of nobility in the 60s - 90s. increased. Can it be argued on this basis that his social position was stable? Why?
2) What has changed in social structure Russia after the reform?
3) Describe the position of the post-reform peasantry. Why is it impossible without taking into account its differentiation?
4) What is the "old" and "new" bourgeoisie?
5) What features were characteristic of the position of the proletariat?
6) Having considered the diagram on p. 193, what was the significance of the growth of cities and urban population for the Russian economy.
EVENT - CONTEMPORARY
POST-REFORM VILLAGE
Comparing the present (90s - L. L.) I see a big difference between the peasantry and the one I found in 1870. Firstly, its overall solvency has significantly decreased, and cash costs have increased against the previous one: an abyss of items that were mined at home in the seventies are bought: homemade bast shoes, linen, canvas and other fabrics have been replaced by purchased products and a need has arisen for purchased household trifles previously unfamiliar to the peasantry. and household chores. Undoubtedly, more money appeared in the peasant turnover, but the economic and domestic culture of the rural man in the street rose very little from this phenomenon. The huts are just as cramped, dark and cold in winter ... having won only one thing - they all drown in white: the yards are just as untidy and dirty ... the cultivation of the land is still mostly poor, careless; just as inexperienced in spring and autumn, vast pastures are grassed and clogged with horses and cattle; improvement is noticed only in an increase in the amount of fertilized land and in the cash of the peasants ... improved tools.
From the memoirs of N. V. Davydov “From the Past”
1) What has changed in the life of the peasantry in the post-reform years?
2) What changes do you consider positive?
FACTORY WORKERS
During the year I had to work at the factory in almost all its departments.<…>With the exception of the stoker and edged, in all other departments of the factory, work was carried out day and night, and the workers alternated: one week day and another night. Ordinary workers received salaries from eight to ten rubles a month, and boys, girls and women from five to seven rubles. per month. Work in the factory itself ... was not particularly difficult, but each department had its own inconvenience; casts and presses are very wet; in self-drawing and edged it is not safe, because it is easy to get under a knife or into a gear; and in the bleaching room and steam room ... unbearable; the caustic and suffocating gas unbearably hurt the eyes, produced an incessant sharp cough and took away the breath.
From "Notes of a Lost Man" by N. I. Sveshnikov
Was the work of workers in the factory safe? Justify your answer.
LIFE OF MERCHANTS
Until the sixties of our century, reading, thinking and artistic-creating Moscow was exclusively a master's, aristocratic.<…>In the last twenty years, since the beginning of the sixties, the everyday world of Zamoskvorechye and Rogozhskaya started to move: children began to be taught; the young fell not only to the commercial academy, but also to the university, the daughters spoke English and sang Chopin's nocturnes. Heavy, stupid tyrants degenerated into businessmen.<…>There is no way to compete with some businessmen who have already risen to the lordly tone and habits.<…>A millionaire industrialist, a banker and a barn owner not only occupy public places, they make their way into directors, into vowels, into representatives of various private institutions ... they begin to support mental and artistic interests with their money.
From "Letters about Moscow" by the writer P. D. Boborykin
1) What changes have taken place in the life of the Zamoskvoretsky merchants, according to the observations of P. D. Boborykin?
2) Why do merchants “begin to support intellectual and artistic interests with their money”?
A MYSTERY FROM A CONTEMPORARY
S. Cherikover in the book “Petersburg” (late 1870s - early 1880s) writes: “They have now attacked the offices, departments, all sorts of positions in the main departments, in banks, in joint-stock companies.<…>Little by little they settled here and live, conspicuous everywhere, making up a significant part of the population of St. Petersburg. What social class is the author talking about?
MYSTERY FROM THE HISTORIAN
V. S. Polikarpov in the book “The History of Morals in Russia from Alexei the Quietest to Nicholas II” writes: “He likes a “useful” tragedy or an understandable and colloquial play. He does not like opera, because behind the music he does not understand the words of the aria, and ballet, since the latter is a silent action.
What segment of the Russian population are we talking about?
BET?
(Topics for discussion)
1) Why didn’t prosperity come to the Russian village after the reform of 1861?
2) The nobility in post-reform Russia: could the "cherry orchard" be saved?