It is impossible to find two people identical in their mental properties. Each person differs from others in many features, the unity of which forms his individuality.
In the psychological differences between people, an important place is occupied by the so-called dynamic features of the psyche. As you know, people differ markedly from each other in the strength of their response to environmental influences, in the energy they show, in the pace and speed of mental processes. Such features essentially characterize the mental activity of the individual, his motor skills, and emotional manifestations. So, for one person, passivity is more characteristic, for another - tireless initiative, one is characterized by the ease of awakening feelings, and the other - composure, one is distinguished by sharp gestures, expressive facial expressions, the other - restraint of movements, very little mobility of the face.
Of course, the dynamic manifestations of a person may depend on the requirements of the situation, on educated attitudes and habits, and so on. But the mental differences in question, act under otherwise equal conditions: in the same circumstances, with a relative equality of motives of behavior. These individual features are manifested even in the years of childhood, they are distinguished by special constancy, they are found in various spheres of behavior and activity. Many experimental studies have shown that the basis of this kind of dynamic manifestations is the individual natural, innate properties of a person.
The dynamic features inherent in the individual are internally interconnected and constitute a kind of structure. An individually unique, naturally conditioned set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche is called the temperament of a person.
Temperament- these are individually unique, extremely stable mental properties due to the simultaneous action of several psychophysical mechanisms that give behavior a certain direction and a certain range of formal dynamic properties of the motor, emotional and perceptual subsystems. It determines the mental pace and rhythm, the speed of the emergence of feelings, their duration and stability, the focus on certain contacts with objects and people, on interest in oneself or in other people. In the dynamic features of the psyche, both features of aspirations, actions, and experiences are found. The sphere of manifestations of temperament is general mental activity and emotionality.
The term "temperament" goes back to the views of ancient science on the nature of individual psychological differences. Ancient Greek medicine, represented by its largest representative Hippocrates (5th century BC), believed that the state of the body depends mainly on the quantitative ratio of "juices" or liquids present in the body. Blood, bile, black bile and mucus (phlegm) were considered such “juices” necessary for life, and it was assumed that their optimal ratio was necessary for health. Roman physicians, working several centuries later, began to use the word temperamentum, which means "proper ratio of parts", from which the term "temperament" was derived to denote "proportion" in mixing fluids. Gradually, in ancient science, the idea was recognized that not only the bodily functions, but also the mental characteristics of people are an expression of their temperament, i.e. depend on the proportion in which the main "juices" are mixed in the body. The Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen was the first to give a detailed classification of different types of temperament. Subsequently, representatives of ancient medicine reduced the number of temperament types to four. Each of them was characterized by the predominance of any one liquid.
The mixture of fluids in the body, characterized by the predominance of blood, was called the sanguine temperament (from the Latin word "sangvis" - blood); mixing, in which lymph predominates - phlegmatic temperament (from the Greek word "phlegm" - mucus); mixing with a predominance of yellow bile - choleric temperament (from the Greek word "chole" - bile) and, finally, mixing with a predominance of black bile - melancholic temperament (from the Greek words "melainachole" - black bile).
sanguine- a person with noticeable mental activity, quickly responding to surrounding events, striving for a frequent change of impressions, experiencing failures and troubles relatively easily, lively, mobile, with expressive facial expressions and movements. Phlegmatic person - a calm person, with stable aspirations and mood, with constancy and depth of feelings, with uniformity of actions and speech, with a weak external expression of mental states. Choleric - a very energetic person, fast and impulsive, prone to violent emotional outbursts and sudden mood swings, with rapid movements. melancholic - an impressionable person, easily hurt, with deep feelings, but outwardly weakly responsive to the environment, with restrained movements and muffled speech.
Each type of temperament has its own ratio of mental properties, primarily a different degree of activity and emotionality, as well as certain features of motor skills. A certain structure of dynamic manifestations characterizes the type of temperament. It should be noted that each person has manifestations in various proportions of all four types of temperament. And only a more vivid expression of properties of any type allows us to say that a given person has a certain type of temperament.
During the many centuries that have passed since ancient science, various new hypotheses have been put forward, seeking to explain the cause of the differences in the dynamic manifestations of the psyche. In the history of the study of this problem, three main systems of views can be distinguished.
The most ancient of them is the humoral theory (from the Latin humor - moisture, juice), as mentioned above, connects the cause of individual differences with the role of certain body fluids. In modern times, ideas about the special significance of blood have become widespread. Thus, the German philosopher I. Kant (late 18th century), who made a great contribution to the systematization of psychological ideas about temperaments, believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of blood. Close to this point of view is the idea of the Russian teacher, anatomist and physician P.F. Lesgaft, who wrote (at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries) that the properties of the circulatory system underlie the manifestations of temperament. In particular, the thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the structure and shape of the heart, etc., which are associated with the speed and strength of blood flow and, as a result, a measure of the excitability of the body and the duration of reactions in response to various stimuli. Long-standing ideas about the importance of body fluids have received partial confirmation in modern endocrinological studies, which have shown that such properties of the psyche as one or another dynamics of reactivity, sensitivity, emotional balance, to a large extent depend on individual differences in the functioning of the hormonal system.
At the turn of the XIX and early XX centuries. the so-called somatic concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the properties of temperament and physique. The works of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer (20s of the 20th century) were widely known, in which they substantiate the notion that differences in the types of body structure (some features of growth, fullness, proportions of body parts) also indicate certain differences in temperament. The American scientist W. Sheldon (40s of the 20th century) also put in a direct connection the bodily features that act in varying degrees of development of various tissues of the body, and the features of temperament. Somatic theories should not be overly contrasted with humoral theories. Both the type of body structure and the dynamic properties of the psyche can be the result of the same cause - the result of the action of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.
The most important milestone on the path of studying the sources of differences in temperament was the appeal of I.P. Pavlov to the study of the properties of the brain. The great physiologist developed (in the 20-30s of the XX century) the doctrine of the types of the nervous system or types of higher nervous activity. He identified three main properties of the nervous system:
1) the strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, which depends on the performance of nerve cells;
2) the balance of the nervous system, that is, the degree of correspondence between the excitatory force and the inhibitory force;
3) mobility nervous processes, that is, the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa.
The balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition gave grounds to distinguish four main types of the nervous system. Namely: strong, balanced, mobile - lively type; strong, balanced, inert - calm, but inactive type; strong, unbalanced with the advantage of excitation over inhibition - excitable, unrestrained type; weak type.
This typology of the nervous system by I.P. Pavlov associated with temperament. Using the terminology of Hippocrates' temperaments, he wrote that a sanguine person is an ardent, balanced, productive type, but only when he has a lot of interesting things that excite him. Phlegmatic is a balanced, persistent, productive worker. Choleric is a bright fighting type, pugnacious, easily and quickly excited. Melancholic is an inhibitory type of nervous system. For him, every phenomenon in life becomes a inhibitory agent, he is distrustful, he sees the bad and dangerous in everything. Choleric and melancholic temperaments of I.P. Pavlov considered them as extreme, in which adverse situations and living conditions can cause psychopathological manifestations - neurasthenia in a choleric person and hysteria in a melancholic. In the golden mean, according to Pavlov, there are sanguine and phlegmatic temperaments - their balance is a manifestation of a healthy, truly vital nervous system.
We will take into account that the classification of temperament types is largely conditional. The question of the diversity of temperaments has not yet been finally resolved in science. In fact, there are much more types of temperament (as well as types of the nervous system) than four. Many people, although close in their individual manifestations to one of the main types, still cannot be quite definitely assigned to this particular type. In the case when a person discovers features of different temperaments, they speak of a mixed type of temperament.
The approach to differences in the dynamic side of the psyche from the side of properties such as the nervous system marked the beginning of a new stage in the study of the physiological foundations of temperament. In the works of psychologists B.M. Teplova, V.D. Nebylitsyn (50-60s) refined and enriched ideas about the properties of the type of higher nervous activity of a person. New properties of the nervous system were discovered. One of them is lability. This property determines the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process, in contrast to mobility, which characterizes the speed of change of one process by another. It is in the functional features of the brain, its cortex and subcortex, in the properties of types of nervous activity (regulating the accumulation and expenditure of energy) that modern science sees the immediate causes of individual differences in temperament (studies by V. S. Merlin, J. Strelyau and others). At the same time, in last years the point of view is gaining ground, according to which the basis of temperament is the general constitution of the body (covering the biological foundations of the psyche of different levels), in which a particularly significant place belongs to the brain mechanisms (V.M. Rusalov).
Character
character called a set of stable individual characteristics of a person, which develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing typical behavior for an individual. The individual features that form the character of a person relate primarily to the will (for example, decisiveness or uncertainty, timidity) and feelings (for example, cheerfulness or depression), but to a certain extent also to the mind (for example, frivolity or thoughtfulness). Manifestations of character are complex formations and in some cases practically cannot be separated into categories of volitional, emotional or intellectual processes (for example, suspicion, generosity, generosity, vindictiveness, etc.).
The character is not innate, but the features of the natural organization of a person are reflected both in the process of its formation and in its manifestations. The type of nervous system, the characteristics of the body and the functioning of other systems (cardiovascular, endocrine, etc.) influence the character. From a natural-scientific point of view, character is an alloy of temperament and life impressions of a person.
Temperament leaves an imprint on the dynamic manifestations of character. Features of temperament can contribute to or hinder the development of individual character traits. For example, it is more difficult for a melancholic than for a choleric person to form decisiveness and initiative. Temperance develops with difficulty in a choleric person.
The nature of the human personality is always multifaceted. Individual features or aspects can be singled out in it, which, however, do not exist in isolation, separately from each other, but are connected together, forming a more or less integral character structure.
Among the character traits, some act as the main, leading, setting the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations. Along with them, there are secondary features, which in some cases are determined by the main ones, while in others they may not be in harmony with them. In life, there are more integral characters and more contradictory. The existence of integral characters makes it possible to single out certain types of characters, endowed with common features, among a huge variety of characters.
Character traits cannot be identified with beliefs, outlook on life and other features of the personality orientation. One kind and cheerful person may be highly moral and decent, and the other - also good-natured and cheerful - but at the same time does not disdain any, including unscrupulous, actions to achieve their goals.
The main quantitative properties of character are integrity, activity, hardness, stability and plasticity.
Integrity associated with the presence or absence of contradictory features in its structure. A holistic character is one in which there is consistency in its relationship to various aspects of reality and there are no contradictions in interests, aspirations, and actions.
Activity manifested by the degree of resistance to external circumstances and the energy with which a person overcomes obstacles. In this regard, they speak of a strong and weak character.
Hardness determined by the perseverance of the individual in the conscious upholding of their views and decisions. Excessive hardness of character develops into stubbornness.
Sustainability there is the ability to maintain the basic properties of character with an insignificant change in the situation. Character is always something very stable and difficult to change.
Plastic manifested in the ability to change under the influence of a radically changed situation.
The qualitative parameters of character are manifested in actions and deeds, in the extent to which the subject is actively involved in joint activities. In this regard, the character turns out to be dependent both on the content of the activity, on the successful or unsuccessful overcoming of difficulties, on the distant or immediate prospects in achieving the main life goals. In addition, character depends on how a person relates (on the basis of his previously established features) to his failures and successes, to public opinion and a number of other circumstances. Thus, the most important moment in the formation of character is how a person relates to the environment and to himself. These relationships are at the same time the basis for the classification of the most important character traits.
The character of a person is manifested, firstly, in the way he treats other people: relatives and friends, work and study comrades, acquaintances and little acquaintances, etc. Stable and unstable affection, adherence to principles and unscrupulousness, sociability and isolation, truthfulness and deceit, tact and rudeness reveal a person's attitude towards other people.
Secondly, the attitude of a person towards himself is indicative of the character: pride and self-esteem or humiliation and self-doubt. For some people, selfishness and egocentrism (placing oneself at the center of all events) come to the fore, for others - selflessness in the struggle for a common cause.
Thirdly, character is revealed in a person's attitude to work. So, among the most valuable character traits are conscientiousness and diligence, seriousness, enthusiasm, responsibility for the assigned work and concern for its results.
Fourthly, character is manifested in a person's attitude to things: not only attitude to property in general, but also careful or careless handling of one's things, clothes, shoes, books, teaching aids, etc.
B.C. Merlin highlighted the differences between the properties of temperament and character traits.
1. Temperament is genetically determined, it reflects the properties of the nervous system and is innate. Character is formed on the basis of lifetime relationships in the process of socialization.
2. Temperament can be defined as stable and unchanging. However, it can be masked by character, age characteristics, professional skills, motivation, etc. Character is characterized by flexibility, variability and adaptability.
3. Temperament characterizes the dynamic side of behavior. It cannot be evaluated in terms of social desirability (“good”, “negative”, etc.). Character can be judged. It reflects not the dynamic, but the content side of behavior.
4. Each property of temperament is manifested in every behavioral act. Character traits are more specific, often they are situationally determined.
5. The properties of temperament are manifested automatically, first of all, with a decrease in consciousness control (for example, in stressful situations). Character traits depend on the cultural and social environment, on education. It is possible, however, second-order automatism in the form of habits.
6. Temperament is associated with the emotional sphere of a person, and character to a greater extent - with the volitional sphere.
-3-INTRODUCTION
Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, termination. The properties of temperament can only be conditionally attributed to the number of the personal qualities of a person, they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and are innate. Nevertheless, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his personality, therefore it is impossible to completely separate temperament from personality. It acts as a link between the body, personality and cognitive processes.
Personality structure - a system of ideas about a personality that generalizes the procedural - hierarchical substructures of a personality with the subordination of lower substructures to higher ones, including substructures of abilities and character superimposed on them.
Temperament (from Lat. Temperamentum - the proper ratio of features, from tempero - I mix in the proper state) - a characteristic of an individual from the side of the dynamic features of his mental activity, i.e. tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity that make up this activity of mental processes and states.
Temperament - the quality of personality, formed in personal experience of a person on the basis of the genetic conditionality of his type of nervous system and to a large extent determines the style of his activity. Temperament refers to the biologically determined substructures of personality. There are four main types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.
GENERAL CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT.
When talking about temperament, they mean many mental differences between people - differences by depth, intensity of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace, energy of actions and other dynamic, individually stable features of mental life, behavior and activity. Nevertheless, temperament remains a largely controversial and unresolved issue today. However, with all the variety of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being.
Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature, therefore, the properties of temperament are the most stable in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. The most specific feature of temperament is that various
temperament properties this person are not randomly combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization, structure.
The properties of temperament include individual characteristics that:
1) regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;
2) characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
3) have a stable and permanent character and remain in development over a long period of time;
4) are in a strictly regular ratio, characterizing the type of temperament;
5) are due to the general type of the nervous system.
Using certain features, it is possible with sufficient certainty to distinguish the properties of temperament from all other mental properties of a person.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF TEMPERAMENT.
Analysis of the internal structure of temperament presents significant difficulties due to the lack of a single content and a single system of external manifestations in temperament (in its usual psychological characteristics). Attempts of such an analysis lead to the allocation of three main leading components of temperament related to the areas of the individual's general activity, his motor skills and his emotionality. Each of these components, in turn, has a very complex multidimensional structure and various forms of psychological manifestations.
Of particular importance in the structure of temperament is that of its component, which is designated as the general mental activity of the individual. The essence of mental activity lies in the desire of the individual for self-expression, effective development and transformation of external reality; Of course, the direction, quality and level of implementation of these tendencies is determined by other personality traits: its intellectual and characterological features, the complex of its relationships and motives. The degree of activity extends from lethargy, inertia and passive contemplation at one pole to the highest degree of energy, powerful swiftness of action and constant upsurge at the other.
The group of qualities that make up the first component of temperament is closely adjacent to the group of qualities that make up the second - motor, or motor - component, in which the leading role is played by qualities associated with the function of the motor (and special speech motor apparatus). Among the dynamic qualities of the motor component, one should single out such as speed, strength, sharpness, rhythm, amplitude and a number of other signs of muscle movement. The combination of muscular and
speech motor skills constitute that facet of temperament, which is easier to observe and evaluate than others and therefore often serves as the basis for judging the temperament of their carrier.
The third main component of temperament is "emotionality", which is an extensive complex of properties and qualities that characterize the features of the emergence, flow and cessation of various feelings, affects and moods. The main characteristics of "emotionality" are impressionability, impulsiveness and emotional lability. Impressibility expresses the affective susceptibility of the subject, his sensitivity to emotional influences, his ability to find ground for emotional reaction where such ground does not exist for others. The term "impulsiveness" denotes the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of actions and actions without their preliminary reflection and conscious decision to carry them out. Emotional lability is usually taken to mean the speed with which a given emotional state ceases or one experience is replaced by another.
The main components of temperament form in the acts of human behavior that kind of unity of motivation, action and experience, which allows us to talk about the integrity of the manifestations of temperament and makes it possible to relatively clearly limit temperament from other mental formations of the personality - its orientation, character, abilities, etc.
TEMPERAMENTS OF FEELING.
1. Sanguine temperament of a person of a cheerful disposition.
The way a sanguine person feels can be recognized by the following manifestations. This is a carefree person, full of hope; to every thing he gives for a moment great importance, and after a minute he stops thinking about her. He honestly promises, but does not keep his word, because. he hadn't thought deeply enough before about whether he could contain it. He is good-natured enough to help another, but he is bad
The debtor always demands a delay. He is a good conversationalist, he jokes, he is ready not to attach much importance to anything in the world, and all people are his friends.
Usually he is not an evil person, but a sinner, not easily reformed. True, he repents greatly, but soon forgets his repentance (which never turns into sorrow for him). His work soon tires him, but he tirelessly occupies himself with the fact that in essence there is only a game. For the game is always associated with change, and endurance is not his part.
2. The melancholic temperament of a person of a gloomy disposition.
A person disposed towards melancholy (not a melancholic, for this already means a state, and not just a disposition towards a state), attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, finds reasons for fear everywhere and pays attention, first of all, to difficulties. He will hardly make a promise, for not
may not fulfill it, but doubts whether he is able to fulfill it. And all this with him is explained not by moral reasons (for here we are talking about sensual motives), but by the fact that the opposite gives him trouble, and that is why he becomes preoccupied, distrustful, full of doubts and little receptive to fun. However, when this disposition of the spirit becomes habitual, it contrasts with the disposition of the spirit of a philanthropist, which is more characteristic of a sanguine person, at least by inducement, for he who himself must do without joy is unlikely to wish it to another.
TEMPERAMENTS OF ACTIVITY.
3. Choleric temperament of a quick-tempered person.
They say about him that he is hot, flares up quickly, like straw, but with the pliability of others, he soon cools down. There is no hatred in his anger, and he loves the other the more, the sooner he yields to him. His activity is fast, but short-lived. He is active, but reluctant to take on business precisely because he does not have endurance; that is why he willingly becomes a leader who manages affairs, but does not want to manage them himself. Therefore, his dominant passion is ambition; he willingly takes on public affairs, not wanting to be loudly praised. He willingly takes others under his protection and is seemingly magnanimous, not out of love, but out of pride, for he loves himself more. He keeps order and seems smarter than he is. He likes to dispose of funds; he is polite, but loves ceremonies, tight. Puffed up in
He is well behaved and willingly has with him some flatterer who serves as a target for his wit, and is more worried when his proud claims are rebuffed. A little caustic wit is enough to instantly disappear the halo of importance. In a word, the choleric temperament is the most unfortunate of all temperaments, because more than others it causes resistance to itself.
4. Phlegmatic temperament of a cold-blooded person.
Phlegm means the absence of affect, not inertia (lifelessness),
And therefore, a person who does not have phlegm cannot be called a phlegmatic person and, under this nickname, be included in the category of lazy people.
Phlegm as a weakness is a tendency to inactivity, unwillingness to get down to business, even if the urges for this are very strong. Impulse insensitivity is rather useless, and his tendencies are directed only towards satiety and sleep.
Phlegm as a force is the ability to move and not easily and not quickly, but for a long time. He who has a good dose of phlegm in his blood heats up slowly, but keeps warm for a long time. He does not get angry easily, but at first hesitates whether he should be angry.
The cold-blooded has nothing to regret that he has a completely ordinary share of reason, but at the same time he is naturally gifted with this phlegm; although it lacks brilliance, it proceeds from principles and not from instincts. Its lucky
temperament replaces wisdom for him, and even in everyday life he is often called a philosopher. With his temperament, he surpasses others, without hurting their vanity. He has an unbending but prudent will and knows how to adapt the will of others to his own.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT.
At present, science has enough facts to give a complete psychological characteristics all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, to compile the psychological characteristics of traditional 4 types, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:
Sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.
Reactivity is characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (critical remarks, an offensive word, a sharp tone, even a sound).
Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration).
The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what human activity depends on to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (mood, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.
Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.
Extraversion and introversion determine what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise in this moment(extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).
Considering all the listed properties, J. Strelyau gives his psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament.
Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time, his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. For an insignificant reason, he laughs, and an insignificant fact can make him angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he
does not notice weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work without getting tired. Able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestations of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with people, quickly gets used to new requirements and situations. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future ( extrovert).
In a sanguine person, feelings easily arise, are easily replaced. The ease with which new temporal connections are formed and remade in a sanguine person, the great mobility of the stereotype are also reflected in the mental mobility of sanguine people, revealing a certain tendency to instability.
Choleric. Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence the greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, there may be difficulties in switching attention ( extrovert).
Phlegmatic person. It has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, just like speech. He is not resourceful, with difficulty switching attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions ( introvert).
Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Hypersensitivity with great inertia, it leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause tears in him, he is excessively touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes ( introvert).
TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER.
Temperament must be strictly distinguished from character. Temperament in no way characterizes the content side of the personality (worldview, views, beliefs, interests, etc.), does not determine the value of the personality or the limit for this person's achievements. It is related only to the dynamic side of activity.
Although temperament cannot determine the relationship of the individual, her aspirations, interests, ideals, i.e. of all the richness of the content of the inner life of a person, however, the characteristic of the dynamic side is essential for understanding the complex mode of behavior and character of a person. The extent to which a person shows balance in behavior, flexibility, dynamism, expansiveness in reactions, speaks of the qualitative characteristics of the personality and its capabilities, which in a certain way affect labor activity individual. Thus, temperament is not something external in the character of a person, but organically enters into its structure. Life experiences, upbringing and training on the natural basic fabric of temperament - a type of higher nervous activity - gradually weave patterns.
The attitude of the individual, his convictions, aspirations, consciousness of necessity and duty allow him to overcome some impulses, to train others in order to organize his behavior in accordance with social norms.
Temperament does not determine the path of development of specific character traits; temperament itself is transformed under the influence of character traits. The development of character and temperament in this sense is an interdependent process.
Introduction ………………………………………………………….3
General concept of temperament……………………………………3
The main components of temperament…………………………..4
Temperaments of feeling…………………………………………...5
Temperaments of activity…………………………………….6
Psychological characteristics of temperament types……….7
Temperament and character……………………………………………9
References…………………………………………………10
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook for students of higher ped. textbook establishments. In 3 books - Book 1. M .: VLADOS, 1997 - 688s.
General psychology. /Comp. E.I. Rogov. M.: VLADOS, 1995.
Psychology of individual differences. / Ed. Yu.B. Gippenreider, V.Ya. Romanova. M.: Ed. - at Moscow State University, 1982.
Psychology for students. / Ed. E.N. Rogov. M.: March, 2004.
The problem, which will be discussed in this lecture, has occupied mankind for more than 25 centuries. Interest in it is associated with the evidence of individual differences between people. The psyche of each person is unique. Its uniqueness is connected both with the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, and with the unique composition of social ties and contacts. The biological conditioned substructures of personality include, first of all, temperament. When they talk about temperament, they mean many mental differences between people - differences in depth, intensity, stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace, energy of actions and other dynamic, individually stable features of mental life, behavior and activity. Nevertheless, temperament remains a largely controversial and unresolved issue today. However, with all the diversity of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament- the biological foundation on which the personality as a social being is formed. Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature, therefore, the properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. The most specific feature of temperament is that the various properties of the temperament of a given person are not randomly combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization that characterizes 3 temperaments.
So under temperament one should understand the individual-peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which, being equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and characterize the type of temperament in interconnection.
Before proceeding to consider various kinds and features of temperament, it should immediately be noted that there are no better and worse temperaments - each of them has its positive aspects, and therefore the main efforts should be directed not to its correction, but to the reasonable use of its merits in specific activities. Man has long made attempts to identify and realize the typical features of the mental warehouse various people, trying to reduce all their diversity to a small number of generalized portraits. Such generalized portraits from ancient times were called types of temperaments. Such typologies were practically useful, since they could be used to predict the behavior of people with a certain temperament in specific life situations.
Typologies of temperament
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (VXVIII century BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperaments. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the 4 main "juices of the body" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile - which are part of it. Based on his teachings, the most famous doctor of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen (II century BC), developed the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise “De temperamentum” (Latin “proportionality”, “correct measure”) . According to his teaching the type of temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body. They were allocated temperaments, which in our time are widely known: sanguine(from lat. sanguis - blood), phlegmatic(from Greek phlegma - phlegm), choleric(from the Greek chole - bile), melancholic(from Greek melas chole - black bile). This fantastic concept has had a huge impact on scientists for many centuries.
A variety of typologies of temperaments arose. Of greatest interest are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them are the typologies of E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon and others.
In psychological science, most constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism. The main drawback of such theories is that they underestimate, and sometimes simply openly ignore, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation psychological properties individual.
In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. Communication theory of some common properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by IP Pavlov and developed in the works of his followers.
IP Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing. According to I.P. Pavlov, the properties of the nervous system form physiological basis temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the general type of the nervous system. Types of the nervous system, established in animal studies, I. P. Pavlov proposed to extend to humans.
Each person has a very specific type of nervous system, the manifestations of which, i.e. features of temperament, constitute an important aspect of individual psychological differences. Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. They are not only noticeable in the external manner of behavior, but seem to permeate all aspects of the psyche, essentially manifesting themselves in cognitive activity, the sphere of feelings, motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of mental work, speech features, etc.
To compile the psychological characteristics of traditional 4 types, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any psychological reaction.
Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a sharp tone - even a sound).
Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration).
The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what human activity depends to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (moods, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.
Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and bone his behavior is.
Rate of reactions characterizes the speed of various mental reactions and processes, the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the mind.
extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).
Emotional excitability It is characterized by how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and with what speed it occurs.
Considering all the listed properties, J. Strelyau gives the following psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament:
sanguine
A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time, his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. On an insignificant occasion, he laughs out loud, and an insignificant fact can make him very angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity, and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests, aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and environment. Without effort, not only switches from one job to another, but also responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.
Choleric
Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is not curbed, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is rather an extrovert.
Phlegmatic person
The phlegmatic person has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are not expressive and slowed down, as well as speech. He is not resourceful, with difficulty switching attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions, an introvert.
melancholic
A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic and persistent, gets tired easily and is not very efficient. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention, and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholics are introverts.
Temperament and activity
The productivity of a person's work is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. So, the special mobility (reactivity) of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires a change in objects of communication, occupation. A false impression may be created that inert people have no advantages in any kind of activity, but this is not true: it is they who are especially easy to carry out slow and smooth movements. For psychological and pedagogical influence, it is necessary to take into account the possible type of human temperament. R. M. Granovskaya's advice: it is useful to control the activity of a choleric person as often as possible; harshness and incontinence are unacceptable in working with him, since they can cause a negative response. At the same time, any act of his must be exactingly and fairly evaluated. At the same time, negative assessments are necessary only in a very energetic form and as often as necessary to improve the results of his work or study. A sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him.
Phlegmatic need to be involved in active activities and interest. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be quickly switched from one task to another. With regard to the melancholic, not only harshness, rudeness, but also simply an elevated tone, irony are unacceptable. About an act committed by a melancholic, it is better to talk with him alone. He requires special attention, you should praise him in time for his successes, determination and will. negative evaluation should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative impact in every possible way. melancholic- the most sensitive and vulnerable type. You have to be extremely gentle and kind with him.
It can be considered already firmly established that the type of temperament in a person is innate, on which particular properties of his innate organization it depends, has not yet been fully elucidated. Congenital features of temperament are manifested in a person in such mental processes that depend on upbringing, social environment and the ability to control their reactions. Therefore, a specific reaction to a situation can be determined both by the influence of the characteristic differences of the nervous system, and be the result of training and professional experience. However, the limits of possible development are determined by the innate properties of the nervous system. Professional selection helps to identify applicants with the most suitable for a given specialty.
Four types of temperament
temperament (lat. Temperamentum - proper ratio of parts) - a stable association of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis of character development; in general, from a physiological point of view temperament - a type of higher nervous activity of a person.
Temperament - these are individually peculiar properties of the psyche, reflecting the dynamics of a person's mental activity and manifesting themselves regardless of his goals, motives and content. Temperament changes slightly during life, and, in fact, not even temperament changes, but the psyche, and temperament is always stable.
Four temperaments in the form of visual emoticons (phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, melancholic) are shown in fig. 7.
The magic of numbers in the Mediterranean civilization led to the doctrine of four temperaments, while in the East a five-component "system of the world" developed. The word "temperament" and its equal in meaning Greek word"Krasis" (Greek khraots; - "fusion, mixing") was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. By temperament, he understood both the anatomical and physiological and individual psychological characteristics of a person. Hippocrates, and then Galen, explained temperament, as a feature of behavior, by the predominance of one of the “vital juices” (four elements) in the body:
- the predominance of yellow bile ("bile, poison") makes a person impulsive, "hot" - choleric;
- the predominance of lymph ("phlegm") makes a person calm and slow - phlegmatic;
- the predominance of blood ("blood") makes a person mobile and cheerful - sanguine;
- the predominance of black bile (“black bile”) makes a person sad and fearful - melancholic.
Rice. 7. Four temperaments
This system still has a profound influence on literature, art and science.
A truly turning point in the history of the natural science study of temperaments was the teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the types of the nervous system (types of higher nervous activity) common to humans and higher mammals. I.P. Pavlov proved that the physiological basis of temperament is the type of higher nervous activity, determined by the ratio of the main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the nervous system. The type of the nervous system is determined by the genotype, i.e. hereditary type. I.P. Pavlov identified four clearly defined types of the nervous system, i.e. certain complexes of the basic properties of nervous processes.
The weak type is characterized by the weakness of both excitatory and inhibitory processes - melancholic.
A strong unbalanced type is characterized by a strong irritable process and a relatively strong inhibition process - choleric, "unrestrained" type.
Strong balanced mobile type - sanguine, "live" type.
Strong balanced, but with inert nervous processes - phlegmatic, "calm" type.
Strength - the ability of nerve cells to maintain normal performance with a significant tension in the processes of excitation and inhibition, the ability of the central nervous system to perform certain work without the need to restore its resources. A strong nervous system is able to withstand a large load for a long time and, conversely, a weak nervous system cannot withstand a large and prolonged load. It is believed that people with a stronger nervous system are more resilient and stress-resistant. The strength of the nervous system in excitation is manifested in the fact that it is relatively easy for a person to work in adverse conditions, a short rest is enough for him to restore strength after tiring work, he is able to work intensively, does not get lost in an unusual environment, and is persistent. The inhibitory power of the nervous system is manifested in the ability of a person to restrain his activity, for example, not to talk, to show calmness, self-control, to be restrained and patient.
The balance of nervous processes reflects the ratio, the balance of excitation and inhibition. In this case, balance means the same severity of nervous processes.
The mobility of the nervous system is expressed in the ability to quickly move from one process to another, from one activity to another. Persons with a more mobile nervous system are distinguished by the flexibility of behavior, they quickly adapt to new conditions.
A description of the features of different temperaments can help to understand the features of a person’s temperament, if they are clearly expressed, but people with pronounced features of a certain temperament are not so common, most often people have a mixed temperament in various combinations. Although, of course, the predominance of traits of any type of temperament makes it possible to attribute a person's temperament to one or another type.
Temperament and human abilities
A person with any type of temperament can be capable and incapable - the type of temperament does not affect a person’s abilities, it’s just that some life tasks are easier to solve for a person of one type of temperament, others for another. Depends on the temperament of a person:
- the speed of occurrence of mental processes (for example, the speed of perception, the speed of thinking, the duration of concentration, etc.);
- plasticity and stability of mental phenomena, the ease of their change and switching;
- pace and rhythm of activity;
- the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, activity of the will):
- the focus of mental activity on certain objects (extraversion or introversion).
From the point of view of psychologists, four temperaments - just one of the possible systems for assessing psychological characteristics(there are others, for example, "introversion - extraversion"). Descriptions of temperaments are quite different for different psychologists and, apparently, include a fairly large number of factors.
Attempts were made to bring the scientific and experimental base under the theory of temperaments (IP Pavlov, G.Yu. Aizenk, B.M. Teplov, etc.), however, the results obtained by these researchers are only partially compatible with each other. Of interest is the study of T.A. Blumina (1996), in which she made an attempt to compare the theory of temperaments with all known at that time (more than 100) psychological typologies, including in terms of methods for determining these types.
In general, classification by temperament does not meet modern requirements for factor analysis of personality and is currently more interesting from a historical point of view.
Modern science sees in the doctrine of temperaments an echo of the ancient classification of four types of mental response in combination with intuitively noticed types of physiological and biochemical reactions of the individual.
At present, the concept of four temperaments is supported by the concepts of "inhibition" and "excitation" of the nervous system. The ratio of "high" and "low" levels for each of these two independent parameters gives a certain individual characteristic of a person, and, as a result. - a formal definition of each of the four temperaments. On emoticons (see Fig. 7) you can interpret a smile; as the ease of inhibition processes, and frowning eyebrows - as a manifestation of the ease of excitation.
The work of scientists on the human genome creates the conditions for revealing the functions of human genes that determine temperament through hormones (serotonin, melatonin, dopamine) and other biochemical mediators. Biochemistry and genetics make it possible to establish and formalize the psychological phenotypes of people, noticed even by doctors of antiquity.
The original concept of temperament is presented in the books by J. Feldman Level Theory and Human Model (2005) and Philosopher on the Beach (2009). They consider the situation “a person in a stream of tasks of the same type”. It turns out that a person is included in the solution gradually, the number of errors and the time to solve one problem gradually decrease. Then they say that "working capacity is growing" or "warming up is growing." Then comes the maximum (plateau), then the warm-up drops to zero (refusal of the decision, rest). It is believed that for each person such a curve is repeated periodically, this is his individual characteristic. If randomly selected people are placed on the same task flow, their warm-up curves fall into four groups. These four types of warm-up curves correspond exactly to the four temperaments:
- rapid rise - high and short plateau - rapid decline (choleric);
- moderately fast rise - moderately high and short plateau - moderately fast decline (sanguine);
- slow rise - low and long plateau - slow decline (phlegmatic);
- a very slow rise - a high spike in the middle and a return to a low point - and then a slow decline to zero (melancholic).
So, temperament is the most general formal-dynamic characteristic of individual human behavior.
NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
university Russian Academy Education
Faculty of Psychology
Department of Psychology
Graduate work
The influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style characteristics of communication in adulthood
Tkachenko Elena Viktorovna
"Eligible for Defense"
2006
Dean of the Faculty of Psychology
___________________________
Signature
Head of the Department Moskalyuk V.Yu.
Signature
supervisor
Moskalyuk V.Yu.
Signature
Reviewer___________________
Signature
Vorkuta 2006
Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 3
1.1. Psychodynamic (Temperamental) Features
personality. Theoretical review……………………………..……………… 8
1.1.1. Physiological basis of temperament………………..………….. 13
1.1.2. The social nature of temperament……………………..………….. 17
1.2. Methodological approaches to the study of temperament………. 23
Chapter 2. The problem of communication in adulthood. Features, styles
Communications …………………………… .. ………………………………… ... 33
2.1. Psychology of adulthood………………………………………….. 42
Chapter 3. Experimental part. Study of the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on style characteristics in adulthood…………………………………………………………………………………. .............. 51
3.1. Research methods and techniques………………….………………….. 51
3.2. Organization and conduct of research……………………………... 63
3.3. Analysis and interpretation of results……………….…………………. 64
Conclusion……………………………………………………..……………... 71
References…………………………………………..……………….. 73
Applications
Introduction
Since ancient times, man has thought about his nature, and what he is, what place he occupies in the world, what are the limits of his capabilities, whether he is able to become the master of his fate or is doomed to be its blind instrument. Today, the problem of man is in the center of attention of many sciences, it forms the basis and subject of interdisciplinary research.
The psychology of personality became an experimental science in the first decades of this century. Its formation is associated with the names of such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, G. Allport, R. Cattell and others. However, theoretical research in the field of personality psychology was carried out long before that time, and in the history of relevant research, at least three periods can be distinguished: philosophical and literary, clinical, and actually experimental.
Currently, there is a strong opinion that a person is not born as a person, but becomes. Most psychologists and sociologists agree with this. However, their points of view on what laws the development of the personality is subject to differ significantly. These differences relate to the understanding of the driving forces of development, in particular the meaning of society and the various social groups for the development of personality, patterns and stages of development, the presence of specifics and the role of personality development crises in this process, opportunities for accelerating development and other issues.
In everyday and scientific language, along with the term “personality”, such terms as “person”, “individual”, “individuality” are very often encountered. Do they refer to the same phenomenon, or are there some differences between them? Most often, these words are used as synonyms, but if you approach strictly the definition of these concepts, you can find significant semantic shades. Man is the most general, generic concept, leading its origin from the moment of the isolation of Homo sapiens. An individual is a single representative of the human race, a specific carrier of all social and psychological traits of humanity: mind, will, needs, interests, etc. The concept of "individual" in this case is used in the sense of "concrete person". With such a formulation of the question, both the features of the action of various biological factors (age characteristics, gender, temperament) and the differences in the social conditions of human life are not fixed. However, it is impossible to completely ignore the effect of these factors.
The needs, interests, ideals, attitudes and values of the individual determine what a person wants, his abilities - what he can. But there is still the question of what he is - what are the basic, core, most essential properties of a person that determine his general appearance and his behavior. This is a question of character. Closely connected with the orientation of the personality, the character of a person at the same time has his temperament as its premise. The temperament of an adult is associated with the type of nervous system, although the latter is determined by heredity, it is not absolutely unchanged. With age, as well as under the influence of systematic training, education, life circumstances, nervous processes can weaken or intensify, their switchability can accelerate or slow down.
The concept of “personality” is introduced to highlight, emphasize the non-natural (“supernatural”, social) essence of a person and an individual, thus, the emphasis is on the social principle. Personality - the integrity of the social properties of a person, a product of social development and the inclusion of an individual in the system social relations through activity and communication.
Carrying out joint activities, people enter into communication with each other, establish psychological contact, which, according to the famous Russian psychologist B.D. Parygin, “a complex and multifaceted process that can act at the same time as a process of interaction between individuals, and as an information process, and as an attitude of people to each other, and as a process of mutual influence on each other, and as a process of empathy and mutual understanding each other ”(V.D. Parygin. The basis of socio-psychological theory. M., "Thought", 1971).
Rather conventionally, the diversity of communication can be reduced to two main types. The first group includes contacts organized in various forms. professional activity where it is necessary to coordinate the efforts of its participants to solve certain common tasks. Such communication can be called business, or role-playing. Here people act in relation to each other within the framework of those or other socially accepted and professionally revealed roles.
The second type of communication includes cases when people come into contact not to solve the problems of any activity, but to clarify the relationships that have developed between them, such as sympathy and antipathy, trust and distrust, respect and contempt.
Unlike business communication, such communication can be called personal, because here people emotionally respond not to the professional knowledge and skills of other people, but to their moral qualities, which, as a rule, manifest themselves in one way or another in relation to other people (egoism - altruism), to joint activity (responsibility - irresponsibility), to oneself (critical - non-critical).
At present, it is no longer necessary to prove that interpersonal communication is completely necessary condition being of people, that without it it is impossible for a person to fully form a single mental function or mental process, not a single block of mental properties, a person as a whole.
Since communication is the interaction of people and since it always develops mutual understanding of each other, certain relationships are established, a certain mutual conversion takes place (in the sense of the behavior chosen by the people participating in communication in relation to each other). And interpersonal communication turns out to be such a process, which, provided that we want to comprehend its essence, should be considered as a system of a person - a person in all the multidimensional dynamics of its functioning (other types of communication can be called: communication of an individual with various communities of people, communication of these communities among themselves).
aim Our work is to study the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style of communication in adulthood.
Object of study is a person in adulthood.
Subject of study- the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the choice of communication style in adulthood.
Hypothesis: we proceed from the assumption that psychodynamic characteristics (temperament) influence the choice of communication style in adulthood.
Relevance: Research on adulthood is inferior in scope to research on preschool or adolescence. Insufficiently studied is the influence of temperament on the style of communication. Research in this area in the light of socio-economic and political events in the country and in the world is of particular relevance. The institutionalization of science today is acquiring the scale of integration interaction between representatives of various countries. Communication at the level of the scientific international community confronts its individual representatives not only with linguistic, confessional and cultural problems, but also with the problems of organizing direct communication, in which the ability of the interlocutors to vary communication programs or general mental activity, their quick speech or natural expression.
To achieve the set goal and test the hypothesis put forward, we solved two main tasks :
1. Familiarization with the literature on the research topic.
2. The study of psychodynamic characteristics (temperament) and communication styles of people of mature age.
Practical value work is that
1. the results and materials of this work can be used in the practice of a practical psychologist working at an enterprise, in an organization; in preparation for lectures and practical training in special disciplines and disciplines of specialization.
2. This work expands and deepens the existing understanding of psychodynamic features (temperament).
Work structure: the work consists of an introduction, three chapters, conclusion, list of references, applications.
Chapter I
1.1. Psychodynamic (temperamental) personality traits. Theoretical review
Interest in the problem of temperament is associated with the evidence of individual differences between people. The psyche of each person is unique. Its uniqueness is connected both with the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, and with the unique composition of social ties and contacts.
As a rule, temperament is attributed to biologically determined personality substructures. When they talk about temperament, they mean many mental differences between people - differences in depth, intensity, stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace, energy of actions and other dynamic, individually stable features of mental life, behavior and activity. Nevertheless, temperament remains a controversial and unresolved issue today. However, with all the variety of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being [Nebylitsyn, 23].
Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior of a predominantly innate nature, therefore, the properties of temperament are the most stable and constant compared to other mental characteristics of a person. The most specific feature of temperament is that the various properties of a particular person are not randomly combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization [Nebylitsyn, 23]. Thus, temperament should be understood as individual-peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and, in interconnection, characterize the type of temperament.
Temperament (from Lat. Temperamentum - the proper ratio of parts) - a characteristic of an individual from the side of his dynamic mental activity, i.e. pace, speed, rhythm, intensity, constituting the activity of mental processes and states. [V.D. Nebylitsyn, 23]
Speaking of temperament, they usually mean, first of all, the dynamic side of the personality, expressed in impulsiveness and the pace of mental activity [Rubinshtein S.L., 23]. It is in this sense that we usually say that such and such a person has a large or small temperament, given his impulsiveness, the swiftness with which his desires manifest themselves, etc. Temperament is dynamic response mental activity of the individual [Rubinstein S.L., 23] .
The lack of necessary knowledge did not allow for a long time to give a truly scientific basis for the doctrine of temperaments, and only studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans, conducted by I.P. Pavlov, established that the physiological basis of temperament is a combination of the basic properties of nervous processes.
For temperament, the strength of mental processes is indicative. At the same time, not only their absolute strength at one time or another is essential, but also how much it remains constant, i.e. the degree of dynamic stability [Rubinshtein S.L., 23]. With significant stability, the strength of reactions in each individual case depends on the changing conditions in which the person finds himself, and is adequate to them: a stronger external irritation causes a stronger reaction, a weaker irritation - a weaker reaction. In individuals with greater instability, on the contrary, a strong irritation can - depending on the very variable state of the personality - cause either a very strong or a very weak reaction; in the same way, even the slightest stimulus can sometimes cause a very strong reaction. A very significant event, fraught with the most serious consequences, can leave a person indifferent, and in another case, an insignificant occasion will give a violent outbreak: the reaction in this sense is completely inadequate to the “irritant”.
The mental activity of one and the same force may differ in varying degrees of intensity, depending on the relationship between the force of the given process and the dynamic possibilities of the given individual. Mental processes of a certain intensity can be carried out easily, without any tension for one person at one moment and with great tension for another person or for the same person at another moment. These differences in tension will affect the nature of either an even and smooth, or a jerky course of activity.
An essential expression of temperament is also the speed of mental processes. From the speed or speed of the flow of mental processes, one must distinguish between their pace (the number of acts in a certain period of time, depending not only on the speed of each act, but also on the size of the intervals between them), and the rhythm (which can be not only temporary, but also forceful). ). When characterizing temperament, one must keep in mind not only average speed course of mental processes. For temperament, the amplitude of fluctuations characteristic of a given person is also indicative, from the slowest to the most accelerated rates. Along with this, the way the transition is made from slower to faster rates, or, conversely, from faster to slower ones, is of significant importance: for some, it occurs, more or less smoothly and smoothly increasing or decreasing, for others - as would be jerky, uneven and jerky. These differences can intersect: significant transitions in speed can be made in a smooth and uniform increase, and on the other hand, relatively less significant changes in absolute speed can be made in choppy shocks. These features of temperament are reflected in all the activities of the individual, in the course of all mental processes.
The main manifestation of temperament is often sought in the dynamic features of a person's "reactions" - in the strength and speed with which he effectively responds to irritations. Indeed, the central links in the diverse manifestations of temperament are those that express the dynamic features not of individual mental processes, but of a specific activity in the diverse interconnections of various aspects of its mental content. However, the sensorimotor reaction can in no way serve as either an exhaustive or adequate expression of a person's temperament. For temperament, impressionability man and his impulsiveness .
The temperament of a person is manifested primarily in his impressionability , characterized force and sustainability the effect that an impression has on a person. Depending on the characteristics of temperament, the impressionability of some people is more, for others less significant, for some it is as if someone, according to Gorky, "ripped off all the skin from the heart", before they are sensitive to every impression; others - "insensitive", "thick-skinned" - very weakly react to the environment. For some, the influence - strong or weak - that makes an impression on them spreads with great speed, for others with very low speed, into the deeper layers of the psyche. Finally, for different people, depending on the characteristics of their temperament, the stability of the impression is also different: for some, the impression - even a strong one - turns out to be very unstable, while others cannot get rid of it for a long time. Impressibility is always individually different for people. different temperament affective sensitivity . It is significantly associated with emotional sphere and is expressed in the strength, speed and stability of the emotional reaction to impressions [Rubinshtein, 23].
Temperament is reflected in emotional excitability - in the strength of emotional excitement, the speed with which it covers the personality - and the stability with which it persists. It depends on the temperament of a person how quickly and strongly it lights up and how quickly it then fades away. Emotional excitability manifests itself, in particular, in a mood elevated up to exaltation or a decrease up to depression, and especially in a more or less rapid change of mood, directly related to impressionability [Rubinshtein, 30].
Another central expression of temperament is impulsiveness , which is characterized by the strength of excitations, the speed with which they (excitations) take possession of the motor sphere and go into action, the stability with which they retain their effective force [Rubinshtein, 30]. Impulsivity includes the impressionability that determines it, and emotional excitability in relation to the dynamic characteristics of those intellectual processes that mediate and control them. Impulsivity is that aspect of temperament by which it is connected with striving, with the origins of the will, with the dynamic force of needs as incentives for activity, with the speed of the transition of impulses into action.
Temperament finds a particularly visual expression for itself in the strength, as well as the speed, rhythm and pace of all psychomotor manifestations of a person - his practical actions, speech, expressive movements. The gait of a person, his facial expressions and pantomimes, his movements, fast or slower, smooth or impetuous, sometimes an unexpected turn or movement of the head, the manner of looking up or downcast, viscous lethargy or slow smoothness, nervous haste or powerful impetuousness of speech reveal to us some kind of aspect of personality, that dynamic aspect of it, which makes up its temperament [Rubinshtein, 30]. At the first meeting, with a short, sometimes even only fleeting contact with a person, we often immediately get a more or less vivid impression of the temperament of a particular person from these external manifestations.
Since antiquity, it has been customary to distinguish four main types of temperaments: choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic. Each of these four temperaments can be defined by the ratio of impressionability and impulsiveness as the main psychological properties of temperament. The choleric temperament is characterized by strong impressionability and great impulsiveness; sanguine - weak impressionability and great impulsiveness; melancholic - strong impressionability and low impulsiveness; phlegmatic - weak impressionability and low impulsiveness. Thus, this traditional classical scheme of temperaments naturally follows from the ratio of the main features by which we define temperament, while acquiring the corresponding psychological content. The differentiation, both of impressionability and impulsiveness in terms of strength, speed and stability, outlined above by us, opens up possibilities for further differentiation of temperaments.
1.1.1. Physiological basis of temperament
The physiological basis of temperament is the neurodynamics of the brain, that is, the neurodynamic ratio of the cortex and subcortex. Brain neurodynamics are in internal interaction with the system of humoral, endocrine factors. A number of researchers (Pende, Belov, partly Kretschmer and others) were inclined to make both temperament and even character dependent primarily on these latter. There is no doubt that the system of endocrine glands is included among the conditions affecting temperament. So, the congenital absence of the thyroid gland or a painful decrease in its activity (its hypofunction in myxedema) leads to a delay in mental functions, to sluggish, monotonous movements. Significantly affects the dynamics of mental manifestations and increased incretion of the thyroid gland. Further, excessive work of the cerebral appendage often entails a slowdown in reactions and a decrease in impulsivity; the intense activity of the pancreas causes physical weakness and thus causes a certain lethargy.
It would be wrong, however, to isolate the endocrine system from the nervous system and turn it into an independent basis of temperament, since the humoral activity of the endocrine glands itself is subject to central innervation. There is an internal interaction between the endocrine system and the nervous system, in which the leading role still belongs to the nervous system.
For temperament, in this case, the excitability of the subcortical centers, with which the features of motility, statics and autonomics are associated, is undoubtedly essential. The tone of the subcortical centers and their dynamics influence both the tone of the cortex and its readiness for action. Due to the role they play in the neurodynamics of the brain, the subcortical centers influence temperament. The subcortex and the cortex are inextricably linked with each other. Therefore, one cannot separate the first from the second. Ultimately, it is not the dynamics of the subcortex in itself that is of decisive importance, but the dynamic relationship between the subcortex and the cortex, as IP Pavlov emphasizes in his theory of the types of the nervous system.
I. P. Pavlov based his classification of types of the nervous system on three main criteria, namely: strength, balance and cortical lability .
“The significance of the strength of nervous processes,” Pavlov wrote, “is clear from the fact that in the environment there are (more or less often) extraordinary, extraordinary events, irritations of great strength, and, naturally, it often becomes necessary to suppress, delay the effects of these irritations on demand. other, just as or even more powerful external conditions. And nerve cells must endure these extraordinary stresses of their activity. From this follows the importance of balance, the equality of the strength of both nervous processes. And since the environment surrounding the organism constantly, and often strongly and unexpectedly, fluctuates, both processes must, so to speak, keep pace with these fluctuations, that is, they must have high mobility, the ability to quickly, at the request of external conditions, give way, give advantage of one stimulus over another, stimulus over inhibition and vice versa" .
Based on these main features, Pavlov, as a result of his studies on animals by the method of conditioned reflexes, came to the allocation of four main types of the nervous system, namely:
1) strong, balanced and mobile - live type.
2) strong, balanced and inert - calm, slow type
3) strong, unbalanced with a predominance of excitation over inhibition - an excitable, unrestrained type.
4) weak type.
The division of the types of the nervous system into strong and weak does not lead to a further symmetrical division of the weak type, as well as the strong one, according to the other two signs of balance and mobility (lability), because these differences, which give a very significant further differentiation in the strong type, in the weak turn out to be practically insignificant and do not give a really significant differentiation.
IP Pavlov connects the types of nervous systems outlined by him with temperaments.
Pavlov compares the four groups of nervous systems and the types of temperaments corresponding to them, to which he arrived in the laboratory, with the ancient classification of temperaments, which comes from Hippocrates. He is inclined to identify his excitable type with choleric, melancholic with inhibitory, two forms of the central type - calm and lively - with phlegmatic and sanguine.
The main evidence in favor of the differentiation of the types of the nervous system that he establishes, Pavlov considers different reactions during very difficult meetings of irritable and inhibitory processes.
In one of his latest studies, I. P. Pavlov writes: “Ignoring gradations and taking only extreme cases - the limits of fluctuation: strength and weakness, equality and inequality, lability and inertness of both processes, we already have eight combinations, eight possible complexes basic properties of the nervous system, its eight types. If, however, we add that predominance in case of imbalance may belong, generally speaking, either to the irritable or to the inhibitory process, and in the case of mobility also inertness or lability may be a property of one or the other process, the number of possible combinations already extends to 24 ”(Last messages on higher nervous activity, issue III, page 7, 1935). Giving this classification scheme, obtained from all possible combinations of basic features, Pavlov immediately correctly adds: “However, only careful and possibly wide observation should establish the presence, frequency and sharpness of certain real complexes of basic properties, real types of nervous activity.”
Pavlov's doctrine of the types of nervous activity is essential for understanding the physiological basis of temperament. Its correct use involves taking into account the fact that the type of nervous system is a strictly physiological concept, and temperament is concept psychophysiological , and it is expressed not only in motor skills, in the nature of reactions, their strength, speed, etc., but also in impressionability, emotional excitability, etc. etc. [Rubinshtein, 23]
The mental properties of temperament are undoubtedly closely related to the bodily properties of the body - both innate features of the structure of the nervous system (neuroconstitution) and functional features (muscular, vascular) of the tone of organic life. However, the dynamic properties of human activity are not reducible to the dynamic features of organic life activity; for all the importance of the innate characteristics of the organism, in particular its nervous system, for temperament, they are still only the starting point of its development, inseparable from the development of the personality as a whole.
I. P. Pavlov correctly noted, who in general, apparently, attached too much importance to the type of the nervous system and its innate properties in behavior, that “the image of human and animal behavior is determined not only by the innate properties of the nervous system, but also by those influences that fell and constantly fall on the organism during its individual existence, that is, it depends on constant education or training in the broadest sense of these words. Temperament - not a property of the nervous system or neuroconstitution as such; he is a dynamic aspect personality, characterizing the dynamics of her mental activity . This dynamic side, which makes up temperament, is interconnected with all other aspects of a person's life and is mediated by all the specific content of her life and activity; therefore, the dynamics of a person's activity cannot be reduced to the dynamic features of his life activity, which is itself conditioned by the relationship of the individual with those around him. This is clearly revealed in the analysis of any side, any manifestation of temperament.
1.1.2. The social nature of temperament
No matter how significant a role the organic bases of sensitivity, the properties of the peripheral receptor and central apparatus play in the susceptibility of a person, the susceptibility of a person cannot be reduced to them. Impressions that are perceived by a person are usually caused not by isolated sensory “irritants”, but by phenomena, objects, persons that have a certain objective meaning and cause on the part of a person one or another attitude towards themselves, due to his tastes, affections, beliefs, character, worldview. Because of this, the very sensitivity or impressionability turns out to be mediated and selective. Man is not equally impressionable in relation to every impression. Very impressionable towards one, he may not be at all impressionable towards another; in life one constantly has to observe how a sharp impressionability or sensitivity in a person is replaced by dull insensitivity or even combined with it. Moreover, the ease with which an impression is postponed, and the stability with which it is preserved, are determined, of course, not by its sensory qualities alone and by the characteristics of the receptor apparatus that perceives it, but by everything that determines the significance of an impression for a person. Therefore, impressionability is mediated and transformed by needs, interests, tastes, inclinations, etc. - the whole attitude of a person to the environment and depends on the entire life path of the individual.
In the same way, a change in emotions and moods, states of emotional upsurge or decline in a person depends not only on the tone of the body's vital activity. Changes in tone also affect the emotional state, but the tone of life activity is mediated and conditioned by the relationship of the individual with the environment and, therefore, by the entire content of her conscious life. Everything that has been said about the mediation of impressionability and emotionality throughout the entire conscious life of a person applies even more to impulsivity, since impulsivity includes both impressionability and emotional excitability and is determined by their relationship with the power and complexity of the intellectual processes that mediate and control them.
Human actions are also irreducible to organic life activity, since they are not just motor reactions of the body, but acts that are aimed at certain objects and pursue certain goals. Therefore, they are mediated and conditioned in all their mental properties, including dynamic ones that characterize temperament, a person’s attitude to the environment, the goals that he sets for himself, the needs, tastes, inclinations, beliefs that determine these goals. Therefore, it is in no way possible to reduce the dynamic features of a person's actions to the dynamic features of his organic life activity, taken in itself; the very tone of his organic life activity can be conditioned by the course of his activity and the turnover that it receives for him. The dynamic features of activity inevitably depend on the specific relationship of the individual with his environment; they will be one in conditions adequate for him and others in inadequate ones. Therefore, it is fundamentally unjustified to attempt to give a doctrine of temperaments based only on a physiological analysis of nervous mechanisms out of proportion in animals with the biological conditions of their existence, in humans - with the historical conditions of his social existence and practical activity. Fundamentally unjustified are also attempts to determine temperament by the dynamic properties of a “natural” reaction, by studying the “natural” way people react to external stimuli through chronoscopic measurement of speed and dynamoscopic measurement of the intensity of reactions, without any consideration of a person’s attitude to what he is doing. This method of studying temperament belongs at best to the same stage in the development of psychological science as the study of memory on the material of incoherent syllables. This is a milestone in the history of science. The path of modern science and its future development goes in a different direction.
The dynamic characteristic of mental activity does not have a self-sufficient, formal character; it depends on the content and specific conditions of activity, on the attitude of the individual to what he does, and to the conditions in which he finds himself. The pace of activity of a particular person will obviously be different in the case when its direction is forced to run counter to his inclinations, interests, skills and abilities, with the peculiarities of his character, when he feels himself in the environment he needs, and in the case when he captured and carried away by the content of his work and feels that he is in an environment consonant with him.
Even the dynamics of a person's expressive movements is not determined only by the innate organic features of temperament, the tone of organic life activity. It is determined by the whole way of life of a person, in which the tone of organic life is included as a dependent moment.
Liveliness, turning into playful playfulness or swagger, regularity, even slowness of movements, taking on the character of sedateness and majesty in facial expressions, in pantomime, in posture, gait, habits of a person, are due to the most diverse conditions up to the mores of the social environment in which a person lives, and the social position he occupies. The style of the era, the lifestyle of certain social strata to a certain extent determine the pace, in general, the dynamic features of the behavior of representatives of this era and the corresponding social strata.
Coming from the epoch, from social conditions, the dynamic features of behavior do not, of course, remove individual differences in the temperament of different people and do not abolish the significance of their organic features. But, being reflected in the psyche, in the minds of people, social moments themselves are included in their internal individual characteristics and enter into an internal relationship with all their other individual characteristics, including organic, functional ones. In the real way of life of a particular person, in the dynamic features of his individual behavior, the tone of his life activity and the regulation of the dynamic features of his behavior, which comes from social conditions (the pace of social and industrial life, customs, everyday life, decency, etc.), form an indecomposable unity sometimes opposite, but always interconnected moments.
The regulation of the dynamics of behavior, proceeding from the social conditions of life and human activity, can sometimes affect only external behavior, without affecting the personality itself, its temperament; wherein internal features of a person's temperament can also be in conflict with the dynamic features of the behavior that he externally adheres to. But, in the end, the features of behavior that a person adheres to for a long time cannot but leave, sooner or later, their imprint - although not mechanical, not mirror, and sometimes even compensatory-antagonistic - on the internal structure of the personality, on its temperament [ Rubinstein, 23].
Thus, in all its manifestations, temperament is mediated and conditioned by all real conditions and the specific content of human life. Speaking about the conditions under which the temperament in an actor’s performance can be convincing, Vakhtangov wrote: “for this, the actor in rehearsals must mainly work to ensure that everything that surrounds him in the play becomes his atmosphere, so that the tasks of the role become his tasks. , then the temperament will speak "from the essence." This temperament from the essence is the most valuable, because it is the only one that is convincing and without deceit. The temperament from "essence" is the only convincing one on the stage because such is the temperament in reality: the dynamics of mental processes is not something self-sufficient; it depends on the specific content of the personality, on the tasks that a person sets for himself, and on his needs, interests, inclinations, character, on his “essence”, which is revealed in the variety of the most significant relationships for him with others. Temperament is an empty abstraction outside the personality, which is formed while making its life path [Rubinshtein, 23].
Being a dynamic characteristic of all manifestations of personality, temperament in its qualitative properties of impressionability, emotional excitability and impulsiveness is at the same time the sensual basis of character.
Forming the basis of character properties, temperament properties, however, do not predetermine them. Being included in the development of character, the properties of temperament undergo changes, due to which the same initial properties can lead to different properties of character, depending on what they are subordinated to from the behavior of beliefs, volitional and intellectual qualities of a person. So, on the basis of impulsivity as a property of temperament, depending on the conditions of upbringing and the whole life path, various volitional qualities of character can be developed: in one case, on the basis of the great impulsivity of a person who has not learned to control his actions by thinking about their consequences, thoughtlessness can easily develop, unrestraint, the habit of chopping from the shoulder, acting under the influence of passion; in other cases, on the basis of that impulsiveness, determination will develop, the ability to go towards the goal without unnecessary delay and hesitation. Depending on the life path of a person, on the whole course of his socio-moral, intellectual and aesthetic development, impressionability as a property of temperament can in one case lead to significant vulnerability, painful vulnerability, hence to timidity and shyness; in the other, on the basis of the same impressionability, greater spiritual sensitivity, responsiveness and aesthetic susceptibility can develop; in the third, sensitivity in the sense of sentimentality. the formation of character on the basis of the properties of temperament is essentially connected with the orientation of the personality.
Eventually: temperament - dynamic characteristic of personality in all its active manifestations and sensual basis of character . Being transformed in the process of character formation, the properties of temperament turn into character traits, the content of which is inextricably linked with orientation personality.
1.2. Methodological approaches to the study of temperament
One of the most reliable methodological ways psychological research consists in the systematic comparison and coordination of physiological and psychological research.
In psychological studies of temperament, this methodological path is especially fruitful. The neurophysiological foundations of temperament have been studied to a greater extent than the neurophysiological foundations of any mental process or personality trait. General types of the nervous system is one of the most developed areas of the physiology of higher nervous activity. Here we can rely on theory, supported by a large number of experimental facts and to a greater extent verified by practical application. Recently, the theory of general types of temperament and the methods of their study have been very widely developed in relation to a person (B. M. Teplov, N. A. Rokotova, A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky). We have at our disposal a rich arsenal of methodological techniques for studying the general types of the human nervous system. The physiological study of the general types of the nervous system also opens up new methodological paths for the experimental psychological study of temperaments.
To find out whether the properties of temperament represent psychological properties, i.e., whether they have a specific psychological characteristic, as mentioned above, it is necessary to find out whether there is a one-to-one or many-valued relationship between the properties of temperament and the properties of the general type of higher nervous activity. For this, obviously, a comparison of both is necessary. The question of the role of antenatal and postnatal factors in the formation of temperament properties also requires such a comparison. It is necessary to find out whether properties of a general type or their manifestations can change and to what extent, depending on what external conditions they change. In this way, we are able to partially substantiate the assumption about the variability of the properties of temperament or their manifestations, as well as about the causes and conditions on which these changes depend. Confirmation of these assumptions requires psychological research.
Comparing the general type or its individual properties with personality relationships, individual manifestations of these relationships, character traits, with modes of action, etc., we can establish those hypothetical patterns of connection between temperament and personality traits that should guide psychological research.
So, the main methodological way in the study of temperament is to compare the data of physiological and psychological studies.
What should be the main methodological principles of such a comparison (V. S. Merlin, 1957)? Objective external manifestations of mental activity are at the same time objective manifestations of the physiological activity of the cortex. hemispheres. Each conditioned reaction is at the same time an indicator of both a physiological conditioned reflex mechanism and a certain mental manifestation. Therefore, the comparison of the physiological and mental cannot consist in comparing some external manifestations with others, for example, motor - with secretory or speech - with motor and secretory. It is not external manifestations that should be compared with each other, but those internal processes that we judge by these external manifestations, that is, mental processes and neurophysiological processes. The juxtaposition of the physiological and the psychic is accomplished by means of a double interpretation of external manifestations that partially or completely coincide in both cases. At the same time, the method and nature of the psychological interpretation of external manifestations differ significantly from the method and nature of the physiological interpretation.
With a physiological interpretation, external manifestations act as signs, symptoms of certain neurophysiological processes. Thus, for example, an increase in salivation to a given stimulus is a sign of increased excitation or a weakening of inhibition, and a decrease in salivation is a sign of the opposite course of nervous processes. With a psychological interpretation, external manifestations can also act as a sign, a symptom of the mental activity that is expressed in them. So, for example, redness or blanching can be a sign of an emotional reaction. But, in addition, in the psychological interpretation, external manifestations also play a different, completely specific role. The actions and deeds of a person are the implementation of certain goals, images, ideas, concepts. What used to exist only ideally - in the mind of a person, then is realized really, materially - in actions, deeds and products of activity. Actions, deeds, products of activity are more or less approximate copies of the corresponding images, concepts, desires, etc. Therefore, by actions, deeds and products of activity, we judge not only the presence of some kind of desire, feeling, idea, etc. ., but, above all, about the specific content of these desires, images, concepts, ideas, feelings. The interpretation of the content of mental activity is the main, initial and determining one in psychological interpretation. Qualitative features of certain mental processes acquire concrete significance only in connection with a certain psychological content.
External manifestations, if they are considered only as symptoms, as an expression of the psychic, are very ambiguous.
Based on the teachings of IP Pavlov, we take the general type of the nervous system as the main physiological basis of temperament. At the same time, the general type is understood as a constitutional type of the nervous system, as “a certain set of basic properties of nervous processes - irritable and inhibitory” (PS Kupalov, 1954, p. 5). This, however, by no means excludes the assumption that the manifestations of temperament may depend on such physiological conditions that lie outside central system, for example from individual properties endocrine system or from the general constitution of the body.
Based on the study of I. P. Pavlov, individual mental characteristics should, first of all, be systematically compared with the general type of the nervous system and its properties. What is the most appropriate to compare with what?
From the point of view of Cattell's factorial concept, the notion of a type is generally wrong. . Between the individual personality traits, there is generally no one-to-one necessary connection. The connection between the traits is multi-valued, probabilistic. Therefore, Cattell does not use the concept of type at all when studying temperament and personality. He uses the concept of a factor. By a factor, he understands a certain symptom complex of properties that are highly and reliably correlated with each other.
From the point of view of the factorial concept, the general types of higher nervous activity, according to Hippocrates, are pre-scientific, everyday concepts, since they were obtained without any statistical justification. Naturally, from this point of view, comparison with the general type of the nervous system as a whole or with the type of temperament is completely unjustified.
The situation is completely different if we understand the general type of the nervous system and the type of temperament according to Pavlov. According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, there is a natural and necessary unambiguous connection between individual properties of a general type. Therefore, there is no need to justify the connection between some properties of a general type only by statistical correlation. The regularity and necessity of this connection are also established in a physiological experiment.
Comparison of individual mental properties of temperament with the general type of higher nervous activity as a whole is especially necessary when an individual mental feature does not depend on any one physiological property of the type, but on several. So, for example, I.M. Paley, comparing restraint with the general types of the nervous system, showed that it depends not only on the strength of inhibition, but also on the strength of excitation.
Such a comparison is also necessary in order to generally distinguish the properties of temperament from other individual mental characteristics. We proceed from the premise that the physiological basis of temperament is a general type of nervous system. Therefore, if a given mental feature does not depend on the type of the nervous system as a whole, then it cannot be a manifestation of temperament. In this way, in the works of L.B. Ermolaeva - Tomina and A.I. Ilina was shown various disguises of temperament.
The establishment of an unambiguous dependence on the general type of the nervous system as a whole is very important, even if we admit that we do not yet fully know all the physiological properties that make up the type, and the specific role of each individual property. An unambiguous dependence on the general type as a whole is also of very important practical importance, especially when the activity imposes rigid, quite unambiguous requirements on a person. This was very well revealed in the selection of candidates for space flights. In this case, adaptation to activity is possible only through the selection of the appropriate type.
Comparison with the general type of the nervous system as a whole or with temperament as a whole, however, is not enough to resolve a number of issues in the theory of temperament. Between the individual physiological properties of the type and individual mental characteristics, there may be a multi-valued relationship. Several different psychological characteristics may depend on one physiological property of a type, and vice versa, a certain mental characteristic may depend on several different physiological properties of a type. In such cases, the task is to establish what is the degree of probability of a particular connection, i.e. in establishing not an apodictic, but a stochastic (probabilistic) connection. This can only be achieved by comparing individual physiological properties with individual individual mental characteristics and by statistical processing of the material obtained. Such statistical processing is possible only with mass testing of individual physiological characteristics. In such cases, factorial analysis is quite legitimate and appropriate. At the same time, however, it must be borne in mind that by statistical processing we establish only the degree of probability of a connection between the studied phenomena, and not a causal relationship between them. Causal dependence can only be discovered by analyzing specific experimental conditions.
Temperament studies have been and are being carried out by both domestic and foreign psychological schools. The teachings of Hippocrates - Galen, until now set forth in almost every textbook of psychology, were shared by many researchers. Most of them are characterized by a magical predilection for the number four, to which many temperaments are reduced, which in ancient concepts was justified by the teachings of Empedocles about the four elements.
The influence that the teachings of ancient doctors and philosophers had on the further study of temperaments can be judged at least by the fact that until the middle of the 18th century. almost all researchers saw the anatomical and physiological foundations of temperament in the structure and function of the circulatory system. This idea was preserved in the era of scientific psychology. Thus, the well-known researcher of temperaments, the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, believed that the four basic properties of temperament he established - sensitivity to stimuli, mood, pace of mental activity and psychomotor - are due to the chemical composition of the blood. Also known is the chemical theory of temperament of the 30s of our century, belonging to W. McDougall, which is directly adjacent to the ancient humoral concept. The Japanese psychologist T. Furukova in the same period expressed the opinion that the main method for diagnosing temperament is to determine chemical composition blood.
In parallel with endocrine concepts, since the middle of the XVIII century. developed theories of temperament associated with some properties of the nervous system. So, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, which are important for psychology, argued that the main factors in differences in temperament are the strength and excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes.
This idea was accepted by A. Haller's student, G. Vrisberg, who connected temperament directly with the characteristics of the nervous system. So, he believed that the basis of the choleric-sanguine temperament is a large brain, "strong and thick nerves" and high excitability of the senses. . The idea of connecting the characteristics of temperament with certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system in various forms appears in the teachings of many philosophers and physicians of the 18th and 19th centuries. It received partial experimental confirmation, mainly in the typology of I.P. Pavlova; experiments have unequivocally shown that certain properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament.
Under the influence of anthropologists, who drew attention to differences in body structure, and psychiatrists, who emphasized individual differences in predisposition to mental illness, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. a concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the physique and the properties of temperament. This concept, which spread primarily among Italian, French and German researchers (A. Di Giovanni, L. L. Rostand, G. G. Carus), received the most complete expression from the French physician Claude Seago. In the 1920s, he created a typology based on the idea that the human body and its disorders depend on the environment and innate predispositions.
Each body system has a specific external environment that affects this system. Thus, air is the source of respiratory reactions; food entering the digestive system forms a source of food reactions; motor reactions take place in the physical environment; social environment causes various brain reactions. Based on this, K. Seago distinguishes - depending on the predominance of one of the systems in the body - four main body types: respiratory, digestive, muscular and cerebral.
The predominance of any one system over the others leads to a specific reaction of the individual to certain changes in the environment, due to which each of the body types corresponds to certain features of temperament.
The views of K. Seago, as well as some other concepts of that time, linking the physique with the mental characteristics of the body, had a significant impact on the formation of modern constitutional theories that have become widespread in the psychology of temperament.
Regardless of these hypotheses about physical foundations temperament, the conviction became stronger and stronger that its properties are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy costs of the body - with the methods of accumulating and expending energy and the quantitative characteristics of the processes. Therefore, most researchers of temperament paid attention, first of all, to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their formal aspect, that is, their strength (intensity) and flow in time.
A classic example of such an approach is the typology of temperaments, W. Wundt, the creator experimental psychology. He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect, which was expressed in the following thesis: temperament for emotions is the same as excitability for sensations. Based on this understanding, W. Wundt singled out two bipolar properties of temperament, namely strength and speed changes emotions , emphasizing the importance of the energy characteristics of the individual (Table 1).
Table 1
Classification of temperaments
(according to Wundt)
We find in W. Wundt an extremely important, in our opinion, idea that each temperament has its positive and negative sides, and this, in particular, means that proper education involves the use of the merits of this temperament and, at the same time, leveled the negative impact that it can have on the behavior of the individual.
It is hardly possible to recount here the entire exceptionally rich and long history of thought and research on temperament. In the framework of the study, temperament is considered as a set of formally dynamic characteristics. It is characterized by the following hallmarks:
1. Natural conditioning and high correlation with the properties of the nervous system;
2. Ontogenetic primacy;
3. Sustainability over a long period of human life;
4. Formal nature and independence from the content of specific forms of activity;
5. Universality of manifestation in all spheres of activity and life;
6. Acts as a way of distributing energy in the surrounding world in relation to people and activities.
Rusalov V.M. In accordance with the distinctive features of temperament, within the framework of the functional concept of Anokhin P.K., he developed a structural model of temperament that implements ideas about the nature and structure of temperament. The proposed model describes four fundamental properties of temperament: ergicity, plasticity, speed (they form a block of activity characteristics), and emotionality.
Chapter summary: Since the middle of the XVIII century. developed theories of temperament associated with some properties of the nervous system: A. Galler, G. Vrisberg. The idea of a connection between the characteristics of temperament and certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system in various forms appears in the teachings of many philosophers and doctors of the 18th and 19th centuries. It received partial experimental confirmation, mainly in the typology of I.P. Pavlov, whose experiments unequivocally showed that some properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament.
A significant contribution to the study of this issue was made by the works of I.P. Pavlov, B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsin (1976), M.V. Bodunov (1977), V.M. Paley, L.B. Ermolaeva - Tomina and many others.
Chapter 2. The problem of communication in adulthood.
Features, styles of communication.
At present, it is no longer necessary to prove that interpersonal communication is an absolutely necessary condition for the existence of people, that without it it is impossible for a person to fully form a single mental function or mental process, not a single block of mental properties, a person as a whole.
Communication is the interaction of people. In it, mutual understanding of each other is always developed by them, certain relationships are established, a certain mutual circulation takes place (in the sense of the behavior chosen by the people participating in communication in relation to each other). In this regard, interpersonal communication turns out to be such a process, which, if we want to comprehend its essence, should be considered as a person-person system in all the multidimensional dynamics of its functioning. Other types of communication can be named: communication of a person with various communities of people, communication of these communities among themselves.
The main functions of interpersonal (friendly) communication are:
1. Therapeutic. In communicating with friends, negative feelings caused by family or professional conflicts will largely be reacted. Friends are needed here to listen and support a partner. Therefore, at least one of the members of the pair must have the ability to listen to the other.
2. Compensating. This function need to be diluted with the previous one, although in many ways they are similar. Here, in communication with a partner, compensation for non-sexual needs unsatisfied in marriage takes place. Through communication with a partner, the need for recognition, sympathy, respect is met, which is not the case in marriage.
3. The possibility of structuring time through friendly communication. At the same time, it takes on the character of joint entertainment, holidays.
4. Developing. Through close relationships there is a mutual exchange of feelings, experiences, information, etc. Communication in this case is a fairly significant source of development for both members of the couple.
In the interaction of people, each person constantly finds himself in the role of an object and a subject of communication. As a subject, he gets to know other participants in communication, shows interest in them, and maybe indifference or hostility. As a subject solving a certain problem in relation to them, he influences them. At the same time, he turns out to be an object of knowledge for everyone with whom he communicates. It turns out to be an object to which they address their feelings, which they try to influence, to influence more or less strongly. At the same time, it should be specially emphasized that this stay of each participant in communication simultaneously in the role of an object and a subject is characteristic of any type of direct communication between people.
A person's personality is formed in the process of communicating with people. If in the initial period of life a person is not free to choose for himself the people who make up his immediate environment, then in adulthood he himself can to a large extent regulate the number and composition of the people who surround him and with whom he communicates. Thus, a person provides himself with a certain stream of psychological influences from this environment.
With age, there is a significant change in the nature of the reasons forcing a person to enter into direct communication with other people. So, if in the time period of life of 15-23 years there is a significant increase in contacts, which were based on the need to satisfy a cognitive need, then there is a noticeable decrease in them. The most intense period of direct communication falls on the age of 23-30 years. After this age, a person's social circle decreases, i.e. the number of subjectively significant people who were in the circle of direct communication is decreasing.
Changes in the subjective significance of other people for a person, as a rule, are determined, on the one hand, by her position in relation to herself in the system of needs, on the other hand, by the attitude towards her from the people who make up her social circle. These attitudes of other people towards him, which are significant to varying degrees for a person, influence not so much his leading needs, but rather the subordinate tendencies to protect his “I”, manifested in the search for and in the implementation of ways of behavior that affirm this “I”.
The problem that needs further solution is to find out how the specific composition of people who form a person's social circle in different years of his life affects the formation of personality.
To solve this problem, it is necessary to consider not only the general conditions that make other people significant for a person and increase the degree of his susceptibility to their influences. It is important to establish how these conditions should change from age to age, depending on the sex of a person, his profession and individual personality traits, so that he maintains a high degree of susceptibility to the influence of certain people. It is also necessary to find out what the circle of communication should be for each specific person at each stage of his life in order for the formation of his personality to proceed most successfully. Finally, it is important to understand how to create such a circle of communication for a person so that not only subject-practical activity, but also his interaction with other people can be consciously and purposefully used for the optimal development of his personality.
The study of communication style was undertaken mainly in domestic psychology and, as a rule, from the standpoint of the activity approach. It is not surprising that the first stylistic characteristic taken as the subject of research in our country at the end of the 60s was the concept of an individual style of activity. According to one of its first researchers E.A. Klimov, an individual style of activity is “an individual-peculiar system of psychological means that a person consciously or spontaneously resorts to in order to best balance his (typologically determined) individuality with objective external conditions activity." This definition emphasizes the instrumental function of style and its twofold dependence on individuality and environment.
In the structure of the individual style of activity of V.S. Merlin identified three main components: style of operations, style of action or reaction and goal-setting style, however, in empirical studies, the third component was practically not studied, and the main emphasis was placed on the first two. Particularly well analyzed was the operational style, which manifests itself in a different ratio indicative, performing and control operations .
The next step in the development of the stylistic approach to individuality was the introduction of V.S. Merlin of the concept of an individual style of communication [Merlin V.S. Individual style of communication // Psychological journal. - 1982. - T 3. - 24]. The style of communication began to be considered by him as a special case of the style of activity with the allocation of the same components. All characteristics of the activity style described above were automatically transferred to the communication style. It also began to be considered as a system-forming factor of individuality, in which the properties of all its levels are reflected: from physiological to socio-psychological.
Communication styles can be considered as an independent phenomenon that has its own specifics in comparison with activity styles, as well as to distinguish between the styles of role-playing (professional) communication and interpersonal communication, since the goals, form and content of these two types of communication are very different. Further, it would be appropriate to single out within each of these communication styles in accordance with the communication components proposed by G.M. Andreeva, communicative, interactive and social-perceptual styles of communication. Studies of these styles have been going on for a long time, however, without the use of these names. The relationship between communication styles can be represented as a diagram (Fig. 1).
An example of the study of interactive style is the work of I.L. Rudenko. The group of style characteristics, unlike the first two, does not depend much on the object of evaluation and can claim the concept evaluative style .
Studies of such style features social perception, as the stability of assessments, their variability (which was determined by the variety of gradations used when assessing psychological properties on scales) and the amount of identification of oneself with other people and other people among themselves, showed that there are large individual differences in the degree of their severity, and they are stable and manifest themselves when evaluating different people at different times.
The communicative style, which can be understood as stable individually - peculiar methods and methods of transmitting and perceiving information in the process of communication, is also being studied by social psychology and psycholinguistics. One of the components of communicative style is language style, which is defined as “a kind of language used in a typical social situation”(in everyday life, in the professional sphere, etc., manner of speaking (style of speech), preferences in choosing means for specific purpose(informative, evaluative, prescriptive, etc.). These characteristics of speech hold great diagnostic possibilities for the psychologist.
V.V. Latynov identified five styles of speech behavior. These styles (Fig. 2) echo the interaction styles of I.L. Rudenko. This is not surprising, since, having taken a certain position in relation to the interlocutor, a person draws up his speech in accordance with it. The style of communication of each person, therefore, is made up of his interactive, communicative and socio-perceptual styles.
Recently, domestic psychologists have been trying to systematize different stylistic characteristics in order to better correlate them. In particular, V.A. Tolochek proposes to divide all the style characteristics of a person into four groups based on two criteria: the nature and type of activity.
V.A. Libin, claiming to build a unified concept of human style, builds style levels hierarchically: from predominantly biologically determined to socially determined:
1. Lifestyle.
2. Styles of behavior (styles of communication and interpersonal interaction, motivational and emotional, styles of coping); activity styles ( individual styles, activities and leadership).
3. Cognitive styles, styles of thinking.
4. Motor and perceptual styles.
As you move from the fourth to the first level, the influence of social factors in the determination of these styles increases and the influence of biological ones decreases. This scheme is very reminiscent of the personality structure of K.K. Platonov.
For us, two circumstances are important here: firstly, the fact that the author also breeds styles of activity and communication, referring the latter to behavioral styles, and, secondly, the predominantly social determination of communication styles, which does not exclude, however, some influence of natural factors. (for example, features of the properties of the nervous system). We offer a different picture of the relationship between the style characteristics of a person, based on three types of orientation of human behavior: on other people, on objective activity and on oneself. It can be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 3).
This scheme can be interpreted as follows. Each person deals with three worlds: the world of objects, in which, for simplicity of judgment, one will also have to include the world of nature, the world of people and one's own inner world. Interaction with objects in each of these worlds leads to the formation of stable techniques and methods of behavior of varying degrees of generalization. The styles of activity correlate most simply with the objective world and the styles of communication with the world of people.
As for the cognitive and emotional styles of decision-making, they are included in the outer loop of regulation of relations between the inner and outer worlds. They are nonspecific and universal, since they provide the floor of information from the environment and the preparation of responses. But inner world also requires reflection and influence on it by the individual. Therefore, these styles have a two-way orientation from outside and inside the personality.
Since communication is one of the main types of human activity, it not only reveals the most significant characteristics of them as objects and subjects of communication, but depending on how it proceeds, what requirements it imposes on their cognitive processes, emotional-volitional sphere and how much in general corresponds to the ideal of communication that each of them has, in different directions affects the further formation of their personality and most clearly - on such blocks of properties in it, in which its attitude towards other people and towards itself is expressed. The changes that take place in them under the influence of one way or another (with a positive or negative result for the goals of each participant) of unfolding communication, in turn, more or less strongly affect such basic personality properties, in which its attitude to various social institutions and communities of people, to nature, to work.
2.1. Psychology of adulthood
Interest in the problems of the psychology of adulthood arose only in the 30s of the twentieth century and was associated mainly with the search for an answer to the question: "Do we teach adults?"
The absence of a genetic approach to the consideration of the psyche of adults hindered the development of problems of age-related variability in the adult state. For a long time, the point of view prevailed, according to which in maturity there is little that changes in the mental sphere of a person. An adult person was considered to be in a state of "mental petrification". Man's adulthood is tantamount to a halt in development, petrification; the goal of childhood is to push as far as possible the moment when our being stops developing, when it freezes, takes a certain shape, like a piece of iron cooled by a blacksmith" [Claparede E. Psychology of the child and experimental pedagogy. - St. Petersburg, 1911.]. So he said Swiss psychologist E. Claparede The position of E. Claparede dominated psychology for a long time.
There are quite a lot of periodizations of age stages, in this regard, in relation to mature age, the question of its boundaries within the framework of one or another approach to the periodization of age development is relevant. Periodizations of development in childhood and adolescence are developed in the most detailed and meaningful way - these are the origins, the time of the formation of mental functions, personal formations. It is generally accepted, as some authors believe, that in maturity there will no longer be qualitative changes in the development of psychological processes. An adult already has creative thinking, arbitrary semantic memory, arbitrary attention, developed forms of speech, including writing. So is it worth talking about this age in detail?
Maturity is the longest period of life for most people. Its upper limit is defined differently by different authors: from 50-55 to 65-70 years . According to E. Erickson, maturity covers the time from 25 to 65 years, i.e. 40 years of life.
Maturity is considered to be the time of the full flowering of the personality, when a person can realize his full potential, achieve greatest success in all areas of life. This is the time of fulfillment of one's human destiny - both in professional or social activities, and in terms of the continuity of generations.
In maturity, as in youth, the main aspects of life are professional activities and family relationships. But if in youth it is, first of all, mastering the chosen profession and choosing a life partner, then in maturity the main thing is the realization of oneself, the full disclosure of one's potential in professional activities and family relationships. Not by chance E. Erickson considers the main problem of maturity to be the choice between productivity and inertia.
The concept of productivity according to Erickson is creative, professional productivity, as well as a contribution to education and affirmation in the life of the next generation. Productivity, according to Erickson, is about caring "for the people, the results, and the ideas in which the person is interested." Inertia, according to the author, leads to preoccupation with oneself, with one's personal needs.
The most important feature of maturity is the awareness of responsibility for the content of one's life to oneself and to other people.
The development of the personality of a mature person requires getting rid of unjustified maximalism, characteristic of youth and partly youth, balance and versatility of the approach to life problems, including the issues of their professional activities. The accumulated experience, knowledge, and skills are of great value to a person, but they can create difficulties for him in perceiving new professional ideas, hinder the growth of his creative abilities. Past experience, in the absence of reasonable flexibility and versatility, can become a source of conservatism, rigidity, rejection of everything that does not come from oneself.
Some people live another "unscheduled crisis" for 40 years (sometimes earlier and later). This is like a repetition of the crisis of 30 years, the crisis of the meaning of life, if the crisis of 30 years did not lead to a proper solution of problems. The crisis of 40 years is often caused by the aggravation of family relations. Children, as a rule, grow up and begin to live their lives, some close relatives and relatives of the older generation die. The loss of direct participation in the lives of children contributes to the final understanding of the nature of the marital relationship. It often happens that apart from the children of the spouses, nothing significant for both of them connects. In the event of a crisis of 40 years, a person again has to rebuild his life plan, develop a new "I - concept". This crisis can seriously change a person's life up to a change of profession and the creation of new family.
If in youth the central age neoplasm is family relationships, including motherhood and fatherhood, and professional competence, then in maturity, on their basis, an already united formation arises. It integrates the results of the development of both neoplasms of the previous period and is called productivity.
The crisis of 40 years speaks of another important new formation of maturity: adjustments in the life plan and the changes in the "I - concept" associated with them.
The Swiss psychologist E. Claparede believed that, reaching the peak of his professional productivity in maturity, a person stops his development, stops in improving his professional skills, creativity, etc. Then comes a decline, a gradual decrease in professional productivity: all the best that a person could do in his life is left behind, on the already traveled segment of the path. Also considered not only E. Clapared, but also a number of researchers.
Within the period of maturity, we single out "akme" - the peak, when many people begin to decline in vital energy and activity.
The transition from progress to regress is associated by different authors and researchers with different ages. This age most often covers the period from 40 to 50 years. Involutionary processes in the development of mental functions are associated with incipient biological aging. In contrast to the above, the work of B.G. Ananiev and his students showed that the process of development of mental functions in adulthood is complex and ambiguous. The students of Dr. A. Chervonenko proved by their life example that if you engage in energy exercises, then at the age of 40-50 years you can discover unlimited abilities and, contrary to the research of E. Claparede's vital activity and energy at the age of 40-50 years can increase many times over.
The peak time of professional productivity depends on the necessary optimal ratio of the level of skill, knowledge, experience, on the one hand, and functional and physical training- with another. The time and duration of "akme" is also influenced by the individual and personal characteristics of a person. For representatives of very many professions, the peak of productivity, after which its decline occurs, is uncharacteristic. These are actors, teachers, doctors - specialists, etc. Here, professional skill does not have a rigid dependence on the level of physical and functional dependence. But for a number of professions, the age type of productivity is determined by the very nature of the work. These are test pilots, ballet dancers. They reach "akme" at the very beginning of their maturity. In professions such as surgeons, the "acme" air traffic controller may move into middle, sometimes into the second half of maturity.
Of particular interest is the problem of "akme" for people of creative professions - scientists, writers, poets, composers, artists. Some have a surge in the early period of adulthood, and then the creative productivity turned off, as it were, and amazing works were no longer written. Others, such as P.I. Tchaikovsky - carried his flowering of creativity through his whole life.
The highest level of productivity, preserved until the end of life, distinguishes the work of many outstanding scientists, writers, poets, composers, artists and representatives of other creative professions. These are: Leonardo da Vinci, M.V. Lomonosov, I. Goethe. IN AND. Vernadsky, A.P. Chekhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, C. Dickens, A. Einstein, M.M. Prishvin and others.
Maturity is a time of productivity in all areas of life. One of the most important tasks of an adult is to raise his children. The productivity of this process depends, first of all, on the attitude towards the child, on the manifestation of parental love. In psychology, three variants of love are considered:
Unconditional love
Conditional love
Rejection
AT unconditional love A child is loved regardless of whether he is handsome or ugly, capable or incapable. But this love is not enough for personal growth. Conditional love- untrue love. A child is loved only when he meets the requirements and expectations of his parents (when he is obedient, does not cause trouble, studies well, etc.). Such love gives rise to insecurity, anxiety, feelings of inferiority in the child, and reduces the level of self-esteem. Rejection the child arises not only in prosperous families. The reasons are different. For example, they were expecting a son, and a daughter was born. The mother is beautiful and her daughter is the ugly duckling.
Children feel both the insincerity of conditional love and rejection. And this necessarily affects the relationship in the family between the two generations. Alienation, isolation, leaving "on the street" begins, as a rule, from adolescence.
Features of the relationship between parents and children are determined not only on an emotional basis, but also on the style of education. The relationship between parents and children also depends on the child, his personal characteristics. The individual characteristics of children must be taken into account in the process of education and upbringing. If parents do not take into account his individual characteristics, education is inadequate. Features of the child's personality leave an imprint on family relationships.
When the youngest child leaves the parental home, the parents left alone, deprived of their usual connections and worries, are forced to some extent to reconsider their relationships and lifestyle.
Relations in the family become more complicated when an adult child brings his wife (husband) to the parental home. Here, the ideal case is when the system of old relationships is rebuilt in time, there are no serious conflicts, no "games", parents "let go" of their children without losing mutual warm feelings.
The problem of adulthood is also the problem of the correlation of three interrelated, but not coinciding ages:
Chronological (passport);
Physical (biological);
Psychological.
Psychological age characterizes the subjective component of the perception of one's own age: how a person feels and realizes himself. Psychological age - age identification, which can be of varying degrees of awareness - is an aspect of self-consciousness associated with ideas about time. It affects physical age in many ways. The time perspective expands with age. In maturity, changes in time perspective are associated with a different sense of the flow of time, which can subjectively speed up and slow down, shrink and stretch.
With age, the value of time changes, "personal time" becomes more and more significant, thanks to the development of self-awareness, awareness of the finiteness of one's existence and the need to realize one's capabilities over a not so long life. Psychological time is filled with events, future goals and motives deployed in the present activity. The time that contained many impressions, achievements, events, etc. is perceived as fast-flowing, and, having become a psychological past, it seems to be continuous.
Psychological age depends on the time perspective that has developed in a person; outside of it, he does not exist.
In youth, the likelihood of matching psychological age chronologically very large. If a socially significant goal is not achieved (education, marriage), the psychological age may lag behind the chronological one.
In maturity, psychological age to a much greater extent depends on the individual characteristics of a person, on the direction of his personality, the specifics of life goals and their implementation. In maturity, there are three options for the correlation of psychological age with chronological:
Adequacy;
backlog;
Advance.
The advancing of psychological age of chronological age in maturity usually means premature aging. Premature aging is often associated with misfortune - the loss of a loved one, a serious illness, a natural and social disaster. Love, creative achievement can lead to movement in the opposite direction - towards psychological youth.
Psychological age retardation may occur in the case of a symbiotic relationship between a mother and an only child. Mature according to passport age, people with pronounced features of infantilism lag behind in psychological age.
In active, creative people, the preservation of a sense of youth is associated with real productive work in the present and significant plans for the future. If a person "gives himself to the cause to which he has devoted himself," his psychological past, no matter how great it may be, is always less than the psychological future. The process of creativity is endless and new perspectives open up before a person.
AT this case there is every reason to talk about more high level maturity.
No wonder the East says: "Wisdom knows no age."
The boundary separating maturity and late maturity is retirement, the end of active professional activity. Consequently, in the transitional phase between maturity and late adulthood, we are again faced with the last crisis period noted by psychologists - the crisis of retirement.
Unfortunately, our Russian reality is such that it gets worse with retirement financial situation person. Not everyone can afford such pleasure - not to work. A large number of pensioners continue to work.
Chapter summary: Since communication is one of the main activities of people, it not only reveals the most essential characteristics of them as objects and subjects of communication. Depending on how it proceeds, what requirements it imposes on their cognitive processes, the emotional-volitional sphere, and how generally it corresponds to the ideal of communication that each of them has, communication in different directions affects the further formation of their personality and most clearly on such blocks. properties in it, in which its attitude towards other people and towards itself finds expression. And the changes that occur in people under the influence of one way or another (with a positive or negative result for the goals of each participant) of unfolding communication, in turn, more or less strongly affect such basic personality properties, in which its attitude to various social institutions is expressed. and communities of people, to nature, to work.
It is necessary to correctly evaluate the role of communication in a timely manner in order to stimulate the optimal emotional mood of the individual, to maximize the manifestation of his socially approved inclinations and abilities, and, finally, to form it as a whole in the direction necessary for society, it is necessary because communication as a value in the system of values that most people have very high place.
Chapter III . EXPERIMENTAL PART. STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHODYNAMIC PECULIARITIES
PERSONALITY (TEMPERAMENT)
ON STYLE CHARACTERISTICS IN MATURE AGE
3.1. Research methods and techniques
To establish the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style characteristics of communication, it is necessary: to conduct a study of temperament types; determine the style of communication; identify statistically significant relationships between indicators based on the results of the methods used.
The following methods were used to determine the psychodynamic characteristics of the personality and to identify the style of communication:
1. Questionnaire G. Eysenck to determine temperament
2. Method V.M. Rusalova (diagnosis of temperament structure)
3. Methodology for diagnosing interpersonal relationships T. Leary
The data obtained were subjected to statistical processing using comparative, factorial (Statistica 6.0 program - Sta.bas - Analysis - Breakdown & one - wayANOVA module) and correlation (Statistica 6.0 program - Sta.bas - Analysis - Correlationmatrices module) analyzes.
Questionnaire G. Eysenck to determine temperament.
This questionnaire is designed to determine the type of personality temperament using a two-factor model - extraversion and neuroticism. In order to determine the type of temperament of the subject in the two-factor model of G. Eysenck, an adapted version of his questionnaire (57 questions) was used (see Appendix No.). Each proposed question should be answered with “Yes” (+) or “No” (-). There is no mean value for the answer. The answer form is presented in Appendix No.
Processing of results. The processing of test results should begin with determining the reliability of the answers of the subjects. If the answers match those indicated in the "Key", then each of them is assigned 1 point. If the sum of points on the indicator of sincerity of answers is 5 or 6, then the results obtained are questioned. If the total score is more than 7, then the test data is considered unreliable and further processing of the results is not performed. If the score is from 0 to 4 - the answers are reliable.
The sum of points is calculated according to the indicator extraversion - introversion. Points for answers for this indicator are awarded in the same way as for the indicator of "sincerity of answers" (1 point is assigned for each answer that matches the indicator of extraversion in the "key" of the questionnaire.
According to the extraversion factor (extraversion - introversion), the subjects can be divided into two groups. If, according to the indicator of extroversion, the subject scored less than 12 points, then he is more likely to be introversion. If the total score is more than 12, then the subject is characterized by extraversion. Scores from 0 to 12 reflect the severity of introversion, from 12 to 24 - extraversion.
In terms of neuroticism, points are calculated in a similar way. If the total score is less than 12, the subjects are classified as representatives of emotional stability (stability). With a total score of more than 12, the subjects are classified as emotionally unstable personality types. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the reliability of test results, as generally recognized by psychologists, most often does not exceed 0.8 (ie, 80%).
The methodology contains 4 scales: extraversion - introversion, neuroticism, psychotism and a specific scale designed to assess the sincerity of the subject, his attitude to the examination.
Graphical results of the method for each subject are presented in Appendix 4.
1. Extraversion - introversion . Characterizing typical extrovert, the author notes his sociability and outward orientation of the individual, a wide circle of acquaintances, the need for contacts. He acts on the spur of the moment, impulsive, quick-tempered, carefree, optimistic, good-natured, cheerful. Prefers movement and action, tends to be aggressive. Feelings and emotions do not have strict control, prone to risky actions. You can't always rely on him.
Typical introvert- This is a calm, shy, introverted person, prone to introspection. Restrained and distant from everyone except close friends. Plans and considers his actions in advance, distrusts sudden urges, takes decisions seriously, likes everything in order. Controls his feelings, he is not easily pissed off. Possesses pessimism, highly appreciates moral norms.
2. Neuroticism. Characterizes emotional stability or instability (emotional stability or instability). Neuroticism, according to some reports, is associated with indicators of the lability of the nervous system. Emotional stability is a trait that expresses the preservation of organized behavior, situational focus in normal and stressful situations. It is characterized by maturity, excellent adaptation, lack of great tension, anxiety, as well as a tendency to leadership, sociability. Neuroticism is expressed in extreme nervousness, instability, poor adaptation, a tendency to quickly change moods (lability), feelings of guilt and anxiety, anxiety, depressive reactions, absent-mindedness, instability in stressful situations. Neuroticism corresponds to emotionality, impulsivity; unevenness in contacts with people, variability of interests, self-doubt, pronounced sensitivity, impressionability, a tendency to irritability. The neurotic personality is characterized by inadequately strong reactions to the stimuli that cause them. Individuals with high scores on the neuroticism scale in adverse stressful situations may develop neurosis.
3. Psychoticism . This scale indicates a tendency to antisocial behavior, pretentiousness, inadequacy of emotional reactions, high conflict, non-contact, self-centeredness, selfishness, indifference. According to Eysenck, high scores on extraversion and neuroticism are consistent with a psychiatric diagnosis of hysteria, and high scores on introversion and neuroticism are consistent with anxiety or reactive depression. Neuroticism and psychotism in the case of the severity of these indicators are understood as a "predisposition" to the corresponding types of pathology.
High scores on the scale of extraversion - introversion correspond to the extraverted type, low - introverted.
Average indicators on the scale of extra-, introversion: 7-15 points.
Average scores on the neuroticism scale: 8-16.
Mean scores on the psychotism scale: 5-12.
If on the scale of sincerity the number of points exceeds 10, then the results of the survey are considered unreliable and the subject should answer the questions more frankly.
Drawing on data from the physiology of higher nervous activity, Eysenck hypothesizes that the strong and weak types, according to Pavlov, are very close to the extraverted and introverted personality types. The nature of intro- and extraversion is seen in the innate properties of the central nervous system, which ensure the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition.
Thus, using survey data on the scales of extra-, introversion and neuroticism, it is possible to derive personality temperament indicators according to Pavlov’s classification, who described four classical types: sanguine (according to the main properties of the central nervous system, it is characterized as strong, balanced, mobile), choleric (strong , unbalanced, mobile), phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert), melancholic (weak, unbalanced, inert). On the graph (see figure) you can see how the types of temperament correlate with the scales of the questionnaire. There is also a brief description of each type of temperament. As a rule, one should talk about the predominance of certain traits of temperament, since they are rare in life in their pure form.
Sanguine - quickly adapts to new conditions, quickly converges with people, sociable. Feelings easily arise and change, emotional experiences, as a rule, are shallow. Facial expressions are rich, mobile, expressive. He is somewhat restless, needs new impressions, does not regulate his impulses enough, does not know how to strictly adhere to the developed routine of life, the system at work. In this regard, he cannot successfully carry out a task that requires an equal expenditure of effort, a long and methodical effort, perseverance, stability of attention, and patience. In the absence of serious goals, deep thoughts, creative activity, superficiality and inconstancy are developed.
Choleric - characterized by increased excitability, actions are intermittent. He is characterized by sharpness and swiftness of movements, strength, impulsiveness, vivid expression of emotional experiences. Due to imbalance, carried away by business, he is inclined to act with all his might, to be exhausted more than he should. Having public interests, temperament manifests in initiative, energy, adherence to principles. In the absence of spiritual life, the choleric temperament often manifests itself in irritability, affectivity, intemperance, irascibility, inability to self-control under emotional circumstances.
Phlegmatic - characterized by a relatively low level of activity of behavior, new forms of which are developed slowly, but are persistent. It has slowness and calmness in actions, facial expressions and speech, evenness, constancy, depth of feelings and moods. Persistent and stubborn "worker of life", he rarely loses his temper, is not prone to affects, having calculated his strength, brings the matter to the end, is even in relationships, moderately sociable, does not like to talk in vain. Saves energy, does not waste it. Depending on the conditions, in some cases, a phlegmatic person can be characterized by "positive" features - endurance, depth of thought, constancy, thoroughness, etc., in others - lethargy, indifference to the environment, laziness and lack of will, poverty and weakness of emotions, a tendency to fulfill just habitual actions.
Melancholic - his reaction often does not correspond to the strength of the stimulus, there is a depth and stability of feelings, with their weak expression. It is difficult for him to concentrate on something for a long time. Strong influences often cause a prolonged inhibitory reaction in a melancholic (hands down). He is characterized by restraint and muffled motor skills and speech, shyness, timidity, indecision. Under normal conditions, a melancholic is a deep, meaningful person, can be a good worker, successfully cope with life's tasks. Under adverse conditions, it can turn into a closed, timid, anxious, vulnerable person, prone to difficult internal experiences of such life circumstances that do not deserve it at all.
For convenience in working with the questionnaire, an answer form for the subjects (Appendix No. 1) and a key for calculating the results (Appendix No. 2) were used.
The data of the results of the study according to the Eysenck method were entered in the table (Appendix No. 3).
Methodology V.M. Rusalova (diagnosis of the structure of temperament).
Temperament Structure Questionnaire (OST) used to diagnose the properties of the "subject-activity" and "communicative" aspects of temperament.
The OST has 105 questions. Each belongs to one of 9 scales. 8 scales contain 12 questions each, and the 9th scale (social desirability of answers) contains 9 questions.
OST contains the following scales:
1. Subject ergicity – includes questions about the level of need for the development of the objective world, the desire for mental and physical labor.
High values (HI) (9–12 points) on this scale mean a high need for mastering the objective world, a thirst for activity, a desire for intense mental and physical labor, and ease of mental awakening.
Low values (NZ) (3-4 points) mean passivity, low level of tone and activation, unwillingness of mental stress, low involvement in the process of activity.
2. Social ergicity – contains questions about the level of need for social contacts, about the desire for leadership.
VZ - communicative ergicity, the need for social contact, the thirst for the development of social forms of activity, the desire for leadership, sociability, the desire for a high-ranking occupation, mastering the world through communication.
NZ - an insignificant need for social contacts, avoidance of socially active forms of behavior, isolation, social passivity.
3. Plastic – contains questions about the degree of ease or difficulty of switching from one subject to another.
VZ - the ease of switching from one type of activity to another, a quick transition from one form of thinking to another in the process of interaction with the objective environment, the desire for a variety of forms of objective activity.
NZ - a tendency to monotonous work, fear and avoidance of various forms of behavior, viscosity, conservative forms of activity.
4. Social plasticity – contains questions aimed at determining the degree of ease or difficulty of switching in the process of communication from one person to another, the tendency to a variety of communication programs.
VZ - a wide range of communicative programs, automatic inclusion in social connections, ease of entering into social contacts, ease of switching in the process of communication, the presence of a large number of communicative blanks, communicative impulsiveness.
NZ - difficulty in selecting forms of social interaction, low level of readiness to enter into social contacts, the desire to maintain monotonous contacts.
5. Pace or Speed
–
includes questions about speed
motor-motor acts in the performance of objective activities.
VZ - a high pace of behavior, a high speed of performing operations in the implementation of objective activities, motor-motor speed, high mental speed when performing specific tasks.
NZ - slowness of action, low speed of motor-motor operations.
6. social pace – includes questions aimed at identifying the speed characteristics of motor speech acts in the process of communication.
VZ - speech-motor speed, speed of speaking, high speeds and capabilities of the speech-motor apparatus.
NZ - poorly developed motor speech system, speech slowness, slow verbalization.
7. Emotionality – includes questions evaluating emotionality, sensitivity, sensitivity to failures in work.
OT - high sensitivity to the discrepancy between the intended and expected, planned and the results of real action, feelings of insecurity, anxiety, inferiority, high anxiety about work, sensitivity to failure
NZ - a slight emotional response to failures, insensitivity to the failure of the case, calmness, self-confidence.
8. social emotionality - includes questions related to emotional sensitivity in the communicative sphere.
VZ - high emotionality in the communicative sphere, high sensitivity to failures in communication.
NZ - low emotionality in the communicative sphere, insensitivity to the assessments of comrades, lack of sensitivity to communication failures, self-confidence and communication situations.
9. "K" - control scale (scale of social desirability of answers) includes questions on frankness and sincerity of statements.
VZ - an inadequate assessment of one's behavior, the desire to look better than it really is.
NZ - adequate perception of one's behavior.
It is believed that one or another property of temperament is highly developed in the subject if he received 9 or more points on it; poorly developed - if it received 4 or less points. If the number of points is from 5 to 8, then this property of temperament is considered moderately developed.
The conclusion about the dominant type of temperament is made on the basis of a comparison of the indicators obtained for different properties of temperament with the typical combinations of these properties given below, corresponding to different types of temperament.
sanguine- average developed indicators for all properties.
Choleric- high rates of energy, tempo and emotionality with medium or high rates of plasticity.
Phlegmatic person- low indicators for all properties of temperament.
melancholic- low rates of energy, plasticity, tempo with medium or high rates of emotionality.
Graphical results of the method for each subject are presented in Appendix 8.
For convenience in working with the questionnaire, an answer sheet for the subjects (Appendix No. 5) and a key for calculating the results (Appendix No. 6) were used.
The data of the results of the study according to the method of Rusalov were entered in the table (Appendix No. 7).
Methodology for diagnosing interpersonal relationships T. Leary.
The technique was created by T. Leary, G. Leforge, R. Sazek in 1954 and is intended to study the subject's ideas about himself and the ideal "I", and also to study relationships in small groups. With the help of this technique, the predominant type of attitude towards people in self-esteem and mutual evaluation is revealed.
In the study of interpersonal relationships, two factors are most often distinguished: dominance-submission and friendliness-aggressiveness. It is these factors that determine the overall impression of a person in the processes of interpersonal perception.
As a result, scores are calculated for each octant using a special "key" to the questionnaire. The points obtained are transferred to the discogram, while the distance from the center of the circle corresponds to the number of points for this octant (from 0 to 16). The ends of the vectors are connected and form a personality profile.
T. Leary's scheme is based on the assumption that the closer the test results are to the center of the circle, the stronger the relationship between these two variables. The sum of scores for each orientation translates into an index dominated by the vertical (dominance-submission) and horizontal (friendliness-hostility) axes. The distance of the obtained indicators from the center of the circle indicates the adaptability or extreme nature of interpersonal behavior.
The questionnaire contains 128 value judgments, of which 16 items are formed in each of the 8 types of relationships, ordered by ascending intensity. The methodology is designed in such a way that judgments aimed at clarifying any type of relationship are not arranged in a row, but in a special way: they are grouped by 4 and repeated through an equal number of definitions. During processing, the number of relationships of each type is counted.
Graphical results of the method for each subject are presented in Appendix 12.
For convenience in working with the questionnaire, an answer sheet for the subjects (Appendix No. 9) and a key for calculating the results (Appendix No. 10) were used.
The data of the results of the study according to the method of T. Leary were entered in the table (Appendix No. 11).
3.2. Organization and conduct of the study
The main objective of our study was to study the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style of communication in adulthood.
Base of the study: preschool educational institution No. 2.
Features of the sample: the total number of participants - 40 people, of which: men - 20, women - 20. The age composition of the subjects - 25 - 60 years.
The form of the study is individual.
The subjects were given:
Answer forms for the methods used in the study;
Texts of V.M. Rusalova, G. Eysenck, T. Leary.
The study was carried out in several stages:
Stage 1 - testing of respondents according to the method of T. Leary.
Stage 2 - testing of respondents according to the method of G. Eysenck
Stage 3 - testing of respondents according to the method of V.M. Rusalova
Stage 4 - processing of the obtained results, which was carried out in two stages:
Stage 1 - primary processing of protocols (answer forms), i.e. scoring, which allowed us to identify the severity of the studied qualities.
Stage 2 - quantitative and qualitative analysis obtained data, which included data processing using correlation and factor analysis to identify the reliability of differences between the indicators in the two groups of mature age subjects.
3.3. Analysis and interpretation of results
Having made the primary processing of the answer forms according to the methods of G. Eysenck and V.M. Rusalov, we received data that allow us to determine the type of temperament of each subject, and using the method of T. Leary, to identify the predominant style of communication.
An analysis was carried out that allows dividing all the subjects into conditional groups, taking into account the severity of psychodynamic (temperamental) properties.
In accordance with the value of indicators on the scales of activity and emotionality (according to Rusalov), we can distinguish (Table 2):
table 2
| subjects | With | X | F | M | H | VA | ON THE | VE | NE | TS | TX |
| 1 | + | ||||||||||
| 2 | + | ||||||||||
| 3 | + | ||||||||||
| 4 | + | ||||||||||
| 5 | + | ||||||||||
| 6 | + | ||||||||||
| 7 | + | ||||||||||
| 8 | + | ||||||||||
| 9 | + | ||||||||||
| 10 | + | ||||||||||
| 11 | + | ||||||||||
| 12 | + | ||||||||||
| 13 | + | ||||||||||
| 14 | + | ||||||||||
| 15 | + | ||||||||||
| 16 | + | ||||||||||
| 17 | + | ||||||||||
| 18 | + | ||||||||||
| 19 | + | ||||||||||
| 20 | + | ||||||||||
| 21 | + | ||||||||||
| 22 | + | ||||||||||
| 23 | + | ||||||||||
| 24 | + | ||||||||||
| 25 | + | ||||||||||
| 26 | + | ||||||||||
| 27 | + | ||||||||||
| 28 | + | ||||||||||
| 29 | + | ||||||||||
| 30 | + | ||||||||||
| 31 | + | ||||||||||
| 32 | + | ||||||||||
| 33 | + | ||||||||||
| 34 | + | ||||||||||
| 35 | + | ||||||||||
| 36 | + | ||||||||||
| 37 | + | ||||||||||
| 38 | + | ||||||||||
| 39 | + | ||||||||||
| 40 | + | ||||||||||
| total person | 7 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
| Percentage |
1. "pure" temperaments (sanguine - C, choleric - X, melancholic - M, phlegmatic - F).
2. indefinite temperaments (H) (indicators on the scale of activity and emotionality are close to zero values).
3. high and low active (VA, HA), high and low emotional (VE, NE) temperaments.
4. "medium", with a tendency to one of the temperaments (values that "tend" to high) (TS, TX, TF, TM).
In accordance with the methodology of G. Eysenck, the following scales can be distinguished:
1. neuroticism (N) - emotional stability (ES).
2. extraversion (sanguine (C), choleric (X) - introversion (phlegmatic (F), melancholic (M), ambivert (A).
| subjects | X | With | F | M | H | EU | BUT |
| 1 | + | ||||||
| 2 | + | ||||||
| 3 | + | ||||||
| 4 | + | ||||||
| 5 | + | ||||||
| 6 | + | ||||||
| 7 | + | ||||||
| 8 | + | ||||||
| 9 | + | ||||||
| 10 | + | ||||||
| 11 | + | ||||||
| 12 | + | ||||||
| 13 | + | ||||||
| 14 | + | ||||||
| 15 | + | ||||||
| 16 | + | ||||||
| 17 | + | ||||||
| 18 | + | ||||||
| 19 | + | ||||||
| 20 | + | ||||||
| 21 | + | ||||||
| 22 | + | ||||||
| 23 | + | ||||||
| 24 | + | ||||||
| 25 | + | ||||||
| 26 | + | ||||||
| 27 | + | ||||||
| 28 | + | ||||||
| 29 | + | ||||||
| 30 | + | ||||||
| 31 | + | ||||||
| 32 | + | ||||||
| 33 | + | ||||||
| 34 | + | ||||||
| 35 | + | ||||||
| 36 | + | ||||||
| 37 | + | ||||||
| 38 | + | ||||||
| 39 | + | ||||||
| 40 | + | ||||||
| total person | 4 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 3 | 6 |
| Percentage | 10% | 17,5% | 12,5% | 17,5% | 20% | 7,5% | 15% |
Based on the results of the two methods, the following table can be made:
Comparing the results obtained in the summary table, we can draw the following conclusion: the prevailing types of temperament according to two methods - sanguine and melancholic.
Analysis of the results according to T. Leary's methodology made it possible to divide the subjects into groups, taking into account the severity of a particular style of communication: average values (SP) and high values (VP).
To conduct a comparative analysis of data using three methods, we divided the sample of subjects into two groups. Group No. 1 included subjects who had an ambivert type of temperament (subjects whose values of both scales were in the range from 8 to 16 inclusive, as well as those subjects whose value of at least one of the scales turned out to be 12), in total – 19 people (Table 3); group 2 included the rest of the subjects who had different types of temperament, a total of 21 people (table 4).
Calculations of Student's t-test for independent samples showed no significant differences between the groups (see Appendix No. 14).
Was held comparative analysis trends using the following scales:
1. Age
2. Type of temperament
3. Neuroticism
6. Selfish
7. Aggressive
8. Suspicious
9. Subordinate
10. Dependent
11. Friendly
12. Altruistic
13. Ergicity (subject area)
14. Plasticity (subject area)
15. Pace (subject area)
16. Activity (subject area)
17. Emotionality (subject area)
18. Ergicity (social sphere)
19. Plasticity (social sphere)
20. Pace (social)
21. Activity (social sphere)
22. Emotionality (social sphere)
The factor analysis (Statistica 6.0 - module Sta.bas - Analysis - Breakdown&one - wayANOVA) showed that psychodynamic features do not affect the style of communication. We have received data that indicate that age has an impact on the suspicious type of attitude towards others (see Appendix 15).
Thus, we cannot talk about an unambiguous connection between temperament and communication style. This is confirmed by the correlation analysis data.
The final stage was the correlation analysis (Statistica 6.0 - module Sta.bas - Analysis -Correlationmatrices)
| AUTHOR | EGOIST | AGGRESS | SUSPECT | SUBSCRIBE | DEPENDENT | FRIENDLY | ALTR | |
| AGE | -0,2427 | -0,13575 | -0,02002 | -0,1088 | -0,24899 | -0,22756 | -0,0856 | -0,11063 |
| TEMPERATURE | -0,1997 | -0,02113 | -0,06684 | -0,02146 | -0,06552 | -0,07235 | 0,085511 | 0,149095 |
| NEUROT | 0,017544 | -0,02797 | 0,021718 | 0,084649 | 0,377225 | 0,237375 | 0,11852 | 0,277464 |
| E_I | 0,415387 | 0,275431 | 0,262911 | 0,326737 | -0,06727 | 0,14267 | -0,04355 | 0,076305 |
| ERG_PR | 0,073006 | 0,001547 | -0,0368 | -0,07656 | -0,37525 | -0,21965 | -0,44565 | -0,18862 |
| PLAST_PR | 0,322711 | 0,267014 | 0,122185 | -0,00781 | -0,24748 | -0,17733 | -0,18205 | 0,008372 |
| TEMP_PR | 0,316889 | 0,095713 | 0,049647 | -0,08192 | -0,35785 | -0,05443 | -0,21397 | -0,16391 |
| ACT_PR | 0,281116 | 0,142105 | 0,053566 | -0,06512 | -0,3811 | -0,17149 | -0,32276 | -0,13424 |
| EMOC_PR | 0,115187 | -0,02267 | 0,158623 | 0,011536 | 0,375526 | 0,174164 | 0,119588 | 0,231506 |
| ERG_SOC | 0,369493 | 0,262433 | 0,250188 | 0,16721 | -0,22665 | -0,04307 | -0,06261 | -0,08694 |
| PLASTSOTS | 0,017282 | 0,041992 | -0,08582 | 0,048726 | -0,23445 | -0,15752 | -0,06471 | 0,023607 |
| TEMP_SOC | 0,081192 | -0,11918 | -0,20275 | -0,15914 | -0,36551 | -0,13999 | -0,13034 | -0,10683 |
| ACT_SOC | 0,196619 | 0,067881 | -0,03144 | 0,012887 | -0,36667 | -0,15146 | -0,11529 | -0,07636 |
| EMOC_SOC | 0,090799 | 0,006571 | 0,134733 | 0,089441 | 0,461857 | 0,258284 | 0,108736 | 0,152424 |
Significant correlations were obtained on the scale "authoritarianism - submission". The choice of an authoritarian style of communication correlates with high scores on the scales of extraversion - introversion (according to Eysenck), object plasticity (according to Rusalov), tempo in the subject area (according to Rusalov), social ergicity (according to Rusalov). The choice of a subordinate communication style correlates with high scores on the scales of neuroticism (according to Eysenck), objective emotionality (according to Rusalov), social emotionality (according to Rusalov) and low scores on the scales subjective ergicity (according to Rusalov), tempo in the subject area (according to Rusalov) , subject activity (according to Rusalov), pace in the social sphere (according to Rusalov), social activity (according to Rusalov).
In addition, statistically significant relationships with some properties of temperament were revealed for two communication styles. So, suspiciousness is positively associated with such a property of temperament as extraversion - introversion (according to Eysenck), and friendliness is negatively associated with object ergicity (according to Rusalov) and objective activity (according to Rusalov).
Chapter summary: In this chapter, we tried to experimentally prove the proposed hypothesis. To do this, we first determined the type of temperament using the following methods: “G. Eysenck's questionnaire for determining temperament”, “Methodology of V.M. Rusalov (diagnosis of the structure of temperament)”, then we determined the style of communication using the “Methodology for diagnosing interpersonal relations by T. Leary”.
Based on the result obtained, we concluded that psychodynamic characteristics (temperament) do not affect the style of communication, but age affects the suspicious type of attitude towards others, which indicates a partial confirmation of the hypothesis put forward.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the theoretical study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Temperament is inextricably linked with mental activity. The main manifestation of temperament is often sought in the dynamic features of a person's "reactions" - in the force and speed with which he effectively responds to irritations. Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of the mental activity of an individual.
2. Maturity is the longest and most significant period in a person's life, when he must reveal his potential, realize himself in all areas, fulfill his destiny. In this sense, maturity is the goal of development, the achievement of prosperity, but this goal does not necessarily imply its end. This is the achievement of prosperity, which may be followed not by wilting, but by further development.
3. The style of communication must be analyzed as a holistic formation, in which two main substructures are clearly distinguished - motivational-semantic, revealed in the form of orientation in communication (values, motives, goals of communication), and operational, represented by a stable system of techniques, methods, means of communicative behavior . The style of communication as a unity of these components is formed as a result and process of interaction, mutual knowledge, relationships between participants in communication. The leading role is played by the orientation of the personality in communication, in the content of which it is necessary to give the dominant importance to the value-semantic criteria of communication. Orientation in communication is an expression of the value attitude of a person to a person in general, to another as a partner in communication and to himself; is revealed in the motives, goals, means and methods of communication.
The purpose of this work was to study the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style of communication in adulthood.
To achieve this goal and test the hypothesis put forward (psychodynamic characteristics (temperament) affect the choice of communication style in adulthood), a theoretical analysis of special psychological literature devoted to the study of the psychodynamic personality traits (temperament), characteristics of adulthood, and characteristics of communication styles in adulthood was carried out. ; selected methods for conducting pilot study the influence of psychodynamic personality traits (temperament) on the style of communication in adulthood (Methodology for diagnosing interpersonal relationships T. Leary, questionnaire
G. Eysenck on the definition of temperament, the method of V.M. Rusalova (diagnosis of the structure of temperament).
Based on the results of the experimental study, we cannot speak of an unambiguous relationship between temperament and communication style. This is confirmed by the data of factor and correlation analysis.
Factor analysis did not reveal significant relationships between temperament factors and communication styles. Thus, temperament is not a fundamental factor determining the characteristics of communication in adulthood. At the same time, the results of the correlation analysis showed the existence of such a relationship for individual communication styles. Significant correlations were obtained on the scale "authoritarianism - submission". The choice of an authoritarian style of communication correlates with high scores on the scales of extraversion - introversion (according to Eysenck), object plasticity (according to Rusalov), tempo in the subject area (according to Rusalov), social ergicity (according to Rusalov). The choice of a subordinate communication style correlates with high scores on the scales of neuroticism (according to Eysenck), objective emotionality (according to Rusalov), social emotionality (according to Rusalov) and low scores on the scales subjective ergicity (according to Rusalov), tempo in the subject area (according to Rusalov) , subject activity (according to Rusalov), pace in the social sphere (according to Rusalov), social activity (according to Rusalov).
In addition, according to two communication styles (scales "aggressiveness - friendliness", "suspicion - altruism"), statistically significant relationships with some properties of temperament were revealed. So, suspiciousness is positively associated with such a property of temperament as extraversion - introversion (according to Eysenck), and friendliness is negatively associated with object ergicity (according to Rusalov) and objective activity (according to Rusalov).
Also, within the framework of the correlation analysis, we can say that data were obtained that indicate that age affects the suspicious type of attitude towards others. For our study, this is important, since the boundaries of adulthood are defined quite broadly. The obtained data complement the overall picture of the factors influencing the choice of communication style.
Based on the findings, it can be argued that the purpose of the study has been achieved. The hypothesis was partially confirmed: a connection was found between some features of temperament and a certain style of communication (in this case, the scale "authoritarianism - submission"), as well as a connection between three properties of temperament with two components of different scales: suspicion (the scale "suspiciousness - altruism") and friendliness ( scale "aggressiveness - friendliness").
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39. Getting used to a stimulus by changing the threshold of sensation is:
1) adaptation;
2) synesthesia.
3) sensitization;
40. The stage of an act of will associated with the formation of a sequence of actions leading to the achievement of goals:
1) struggle of motives
2) awareness of the task
Decision-making
4) execution of an action
41. The focus of excitation dominant in the central nervous system, which is characterized by the ability to accumulate excitation in itself and inhibit the work of other nerve centers, is:
1) variational
Dominant
3) cardinal
42. What property of temperament is characterized by spontaneity, involuntary action:
1) sensitivity;
2) introversion;
3) reactivity;
4) rigidity.
43. The condition of occurrence involuntary attention is not:
1) novelty of the stimulus
3) human interest
Fatigue man
44. The appropriation by a person in the process of socialization of external norms, rules, attitudes, in which their true awareness and acceptance does not occur, is:
1) compensation
2) intellectualization
introjection
45. The law, the essence of which is that the dependence of the effectiveness of the activity on the level of motivation is characterized by a curvilinear function, therefore, there is some optimum motivation for performing any activity, was formulated:
T. Ribot
2) A. Yostom
3) F. Donders
4) Yerkes and Dodson
46. Indicate the incorrect definition of temperament:
1) the quality of personality, formed in the personal experience of a person on the basis of the genetically determined type of his nervous system and to a large extent determines the quality of the personality, formed in the personal experience of a person on the basis of the genetically determined type of his nervous system and largely determines the style of his activity
2) an individually unique, naturally conditioned set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche
3) dynamic characteristics of the mental activity of the individual
The quality of personality, not related to heredity
47. Arbitrary act, subject to the idea of the result, the image of the future, i.e. a process subordinate to a conscious goal is:
1) operation
2) action
3) motive;
48. The founders of the psychological theory of emotions, which consisted in the idea that the perception of an exciting fact (danger, sad event) directly reflexively causes bodily changes and emotions are the sensation of these changes:
1) P.K. Anokhin
2) P.V. Simonov
W. James, G. Lange
49. The physiological basis of automatic actions is:
1) genotype
2) dynamic stereotype
motive
50. Which of the following properties is a personality property:
1) temperament;
2) responsibility;
3) sexual dimorphism;
4) retardation.
51. Adaptation of the eyes to a clear selection of various distant objects by changing the refractive power (thickness) of the lens:
Accommodation
2) aggro
3) agglutination
52. The process of transition from internal actions to external, practical actions:
1) habituation
2) sensitization
3) internalization
exteriorization
53. Process aimed at achieving the goal:
1) operation
2) action
motive
54.Mechanism psychological protection, characterized by attributing one's own feelings, desires, qualities to another person is:
1) compensation
2) projection
3) rationalization
Regression
55. Character traits include:
1) vulnerability;
2) low performance;
3) imbalance;
4) impressionability.
56. The totality of unconscious mechanisms, the function of which is to preserve the integrity and stability of the personality by reducing negative experiences, negative emotional states in stressful, conflict, frustrating situations, accompanied by a sense of anxiety - these are:
Neurosis
2) psychological defense mechanisms
3) kinesthesia
4) disparity
57. Determine the type of abilities: associated with the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture.
2) educational;
3) creative;
4) natural.
58. The highest form of mental reflection, integrating all other forms of reflection, peculiar only to man is:
self-awareness
2) consciousness
4) reflection
59. When extracting information from memory, it is always easier:
1) remember some single element;
2) recognize the element of information in the proposed content.
3) answer direct questions;
60. The need to identify contradictions as a source of development and self-development of the psyche means a principle.