The history of the study of emotions has always been associated with a certain direction in the study of mental phenomena, which prevailed at different stages of the development of psychology. Therefore, in the psychology of emotions, the very interpretation of the concept of "emotion" may be different depending on the theoretical foundations of a particular study.

E.P. Ilyin notes that since the time when philosophers and natural scientists began to seriously think about the nature and essence of emotions, two main positions have arisen in views on the nature of emotions: intellectualistic and sensationalistic. Representatives of the intellectualistic position, most clearly identified by I.F. Herbart, argued that the organic manifestations of emotions are the result of mental phenomena. Emotion is a mental disorder caused by a mismatch (conflict) between ideas. This affective state involuntarily causes vegetative changes. Representatives of the sensationalist position, on the contrary, declared that organic reactions influence mental phenomena. F. Dufour wrote about this: “Have I not proved enough that the source of our natural inclination to passions lies not in the soul, but is connected with the ability of the vegetative nervous system inform the brain about the excitement it receives, that if we cannot arbitrarily regulate the functions of blood circulation, digestion, secretion, then it is impossible, therefore, in this case, to explain by our will the violations of these functions that have arisen under the influence of passions.

According to Yu.B. Gippenreiter, theories endowing everyone with affectivity mental process(W. Wundt, N. Groth, S.L. Rubinstein), and theories for which the affective state is a special event, meaning that some deviation has occurred in the normal course of the mental process (J.-P. Sartre, P.V. Simonov), differ not only in the solution of the question of what should be attributed to emotions. This decision predetermines the scale of these theories, the nature and level of generality of the problems considered in them, it depends on whether the theory will analyze the process that plays a universal role in the mental, or whether it will be devoted to one of the particular mechanisms intended for specific conditions and only in them appearing. Therefore, the solution of the question of the scope of the class of emotional phenomena is the basis of each theory, its most important initial characteristic.

We structure and present the main theories of emotions, most of which are considered in the work of E.P. Ilyin in the form of a table (see Table 1).

Theories of emotion

Table 1

I Traditional theories
Evolutionary theory of emotions (Ch. Darwin)	Ch. Darwin showed the evolutionary path of development of emotions and substantiated the origin of their physiological manifestations. Emotions, according to this theory, appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as vital adaptive mechanisms that contribute to the adaptation of the organism to the conditions and situations of its life. The essence of his ideas is that emotions are either useful, or they are only remnants (rudiments) of various expedient reactions that were developed in the process of evolution in the struggle for existence. Ch. Darwin argued that in the development and manifestation of emotions there is no impassable abyss between man and animals.
Rudimentary theory of emotions (G. Spencer, T. Ribot, etc.)	Develops an evolutionary idea about the origin of emotions, evaluating them from the behavioral sphere. Emotions are residual manifestations of affects that once accompanied full-fledged biological reactions.
Psychoanalytic theory (3. Freud, D. Rapaport, etc.)	3. Freud based his understanding of affect on drive theory, identifying affect and drive with motivation. D. Rapaport believed that a perceptual image taken from the outside causes an unconscious process during which instinctive energy is mobilized unconsciously by a person. Representatives of this theory considered only negative emotions arising as a result of conflicting drives. Therefore, they single out three aspects in affect: the energy component of instinctive attraction (the "charge" of affect), the process of "discharge" and the perception of the final discharge (sensation or experience of emotion). Understanding the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions as unconscious instinctive drives has been criticized by many scientists.
Association theory (W. Wundt)	According to W. Wundt, emotions are, first of all, changes characterized by the direct influence of feelings on the flow of ideas and, to some extent, the influence of the latter on feelings, and organic processes are only a consequence of emotions. The author identifies three dimensions of emotions: pleasure - displeasure, calm - excitement, tension - discharge. Each of these three "dimensions" is present in emotion not only as a subjective state determined by quality, but also in various degrees of intensity - from emotional zero (a state of indifference) to

	higher degrees of intensity of this quality. E.B. Titchener showed that these measurements cannot be considered independent factors.
Theory of W. James-G. Lange	The emergence of emotions is due to changes caused by external influences both in the voluntary motor sphere and in the sphere of involuntary acts of cardiac, vascular, and secretory activity. The totality of sensations associated with these changes is an emotional experience. The theory of emotions by W. James - G. Lange is an attempt to turn emotions into an object accessible to natural study. The main objections to this theory of emotions relate to the mechanistic understanding of emotions as a set of sensations caused by peripheral changes, and to the explanation of the nature of higher feelings.
Theory of W. Cannon - P. Barda	The same physiological changes, according to W. Kennon, can accompany several different emotions. Thus, emotion is something more than a sensation associated with a vegetative reaction. W. Cannon's theory, which was later modified by F. Bard, essentially stated that when perceiving events that cause emotions, nerve impulses first pass through the thalamus. Then the excitation splits, as it were: half goes to the cortex hemispheres, where it generates a subjective experience of fear, anger or joy; the other half goes to the hypothalamus, which controls physiological changes in the body. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, psychological experience and physiological responses occur simultaneously. The physiological part of the Cannon-Bard theory was not correct in detail. But she returned the process of the emergence of emotions from the peripheral organs, where the James-Lange theory attributed it, back to the brain.
differential	The object of study is private emotions, each of which is considered separately from the others as an independent emotional and motivational process. K. Izard postulates five main theses: 1) the main motivational system of human existence is formed by 10 basic emotions: joy, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear,

emotions (K. Izard)		shame/embarrassment, guilt, surprise, interest; 2) each basic emotion has unique motivational functions and implies a specific form of experience; 3) fundamental emotions are experienced in different ways and affect the cognitive sphere and human behavior in different ways; 4) emotional processes interact with drives, with homeostatic, perceptual, cognitive and motor processes and influence them; 5) in turn, drives, homeostatic, perceptual, cognitive and motor processes affect the course of the emotional process. Emotion, according to K. Izard, is something that is experienced as a feeling (feeling), which motivates, organizes and directs perception, thinking and actions. Emotion motivates. It mobilizes energy, and this energy is in some cases felt by the subject as a tendency to act. Emotion directs the mental and physical activity of the individual, directs it in a certain direction.
II Cognitive Theories
Two-factor theory of emotions (S. Schechter, D. Singer, etc.)	He proposes to consider emotion as a combination of two components, physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of this arousal. According to this theory, some event or situation causes excitement and a person needs to evaluate its content, i.e., the situation that caused this excitement. According to S. Schechter, the emergence of emotions, along with the perceived stimuli and the physiological changes generated by them in the body, is influenced by a person’s past experience and his assessment of the current situation from the point of view of the existing ones. this moment needs and interests. At the same time, emotional states are the result of the interaction of two components: activation (arousal) and a person’s conclusion about the reasons for his excitation based on an analysis of the situation in which the emotion appeared.

Cognitive theory of emotions (M. Arnold - R. Lazarus)

Intuitive assessment of the object acts as a cognitive determinant of emotions. Emotion, like action, follows this assessment. As soon as a person intuitively concludes that something threatens him, he immediately feels that it has acquired a repulsive character and that it must be avoided. The emerging tendency to act, being expressed in various bodily changes, is experienced as an emotion. Evaluation is characterized by instantaneousness, immediacy and unintentionality, i.e., intuitiveness. This intuitive assessment is understood as a "sensory judgment", in contrast to the abstract "reflexive judgment" (M. Arnold). In the concept of R. Lazarus, the idea of ​​cognitive determination of emotions is also central (cognitive mediation is necessary condition to show emotion). At the same time, two provisions are the main ones: each emotional reaction, regardless of its content, is a function of a special kind of cognition or evaluation; the emotional response is a kind of syndrome, each of the components of which reflects some important point in the overall reaction. However, he criticizes M. Arnold for the fact that the concept of "assessment" remains subjective and is not associated with facts that can be directly observed, which leads to ignoring the question of the conditions that determine the assessment.

Theory of cognitive dissonance (L. Festinger)

Emotions are considered as the main motive for the corresponding actions and deeds. The underlying cognitive factors are given a much greater role in determining human behavior than organic changes. A positive emotional experience arises in a person when his expectations are confirmed, and cognitive ideas are brought to life, i.e. when the actual results of the activity correspond to the planned ones, are consistent with them. Negative emotions arise and intensify in cases where there is a discrepancy, inconsistency or dissonance between the expected and actual results of the activity. Subjectively, the state of cognitive dissonance is usually experienced by a person as discomfort, and he seeks to get rid of it as soon as possible. The way out of the state of cognitive dissonance can be twofold: either change cognitive expectations and plans in such a way that they correspond to the actual result obtained, or try to get a new result that would be consistent with previous expectations.

Comparing the existing theories of emotions, it can be argued that the currently accumulated theoretical and experimental material allows us to speak about the dual nature of emotions. On the one hand, emotions are determined by the physiological characteristics of the individual, i.e. arise as a result of exposure to a certain stimulus, and their appearance is nothing more than a manifestation of the mechanisms of human adaptation and regulation of his behavior. It can also be assumed that emotions were formed in the process of evolution of the animal world and they reached the maximum level of development in humans. On the other hand, there is a position, which we also adhere to, that emotions are subjective factors, which include various mental phenomena, including cognitive processes. Let us consider in more detail the provisions of cognitive theories of emotions.

In recent decades, more and more works have appeared in the scientific literature devoted to the problem of emotions in the framework of cognitive research. As N. Branscombe notes, the main difficulty in developing questions related to the understanding of affect, cognition and their relationship is the distinction between what is meant by emotion and cognition. “The fundamental difference in the definitions of cognition and emotion lies in the degree of attention to the type of information processed in each case,” writes N. Branscombe, “if cognition is usually understood as a series of internal processes involved in mastering, storing, transforming and searching for information (in this case, the type information is not taken into account), then in the definitions of emotion, on the contrary, the type of stimulus or information that produces the emotion is usually mentioned. Affect and cognition cannot be understood if they are considered in isolation: they must be examined in relation to other properties of the intellect.

L. Bloom argues that emotions "report something" about something (are "about" something) in our minds, and these representations are intentional states. Despite the fact that they have a material manifestation in the mode of expression and a corresponding physiological component, emotions are mental states (states of consciousness (mind), and not physical states (states of the body). They appear as a result of appraising and evaluating the circumstances of a particular a different situation in terms of certain beliefs, desired goals and plans.Therefore, a large part of emotional development depends on the development of knowledge necessary for such an assessment and for the representations that act as its products.

X. Hekhauzen believes that "emotions are more likely the result of such processing of information when the matter is decided by the cognitive interpretation of the situation" . The central point in the cognitive theory of M. Arnold (Arnold, 1967) is the assessment of the situation in terms of its usefulness or danger. The object must be perceived and evaluated before the emotion arises. Emotion in this case arises as the acceptance or rejection of an object in response to an assessment of the object. R. Lazarus experimentally investigated the mastery of threatening or stressful situations. As the experiment showed, cognitive interpretations lead to a noticeable decrease in neurovegetative excitation. In his opinion, each emotion is a complex response, consisting of three different subsystems (components). The first component contains signaling variables or stimulus properties. The second component is the evaluative subsystem, which is defined as a function of the brain processes by which an individual evaluates a stimulus situation. The third component is the response, which includes cognitive responses, facial expressions, and instrumental responses.

In the theory of S. Schachter, there are always two components in the emotional process: non-specific - vegetative excitation as a condition for any emotion; specific - a certain interpretation of the current situation. Hence the name "two-factor theory" The emotional process is a vegetative arousal plus the subject's corresponding interpretation of this arousal. The type of emotion depends on what this interpretation will be. S. Valins' modification of S. Schechter's two-factor theory continued the development of the cognitive theory of emotions. S. Valine suggested that the actual state of arousal (a non-specific component of emotion) is not directly included in the experience of emotion, i.e. automatically and unconsciously, but through the perception of this state, and in order to change the perception of one's own state of arousal, actual changes in the autonomic nervous system are not required. Such changes can be staged using false feedback given to the subject. Thus, it does not matter where the information about the own state of arousal comes from (from inside or outside), whether it corresponds to reality or not, the main thing is that it is associated by the subject with his own internal state.

E. Aizen (Isen) and her colleagues managed to obtain a number of facts that speak about the influence of emotions on cognitive processes, in particular, on creative thinking.

A feature of E. Aizen's research was that it evoked exclusively positive emotional states in the subjects. To induce joy, subjects were given small gifts or were given test tasks, and then reported on their successful completion. The results obtained by A. Aizen indicate that positive emotions enhance student creativity. So, in one study it was shown that in a positive mood, subjects give more original verbal associations, in another study, a positive mood led to a better solution of creative problems.

Thus, in the history of scientific research into the connections between cognitive and emotional processes, the focus of research interest has shifted more than once. In particular, from the assertion of the absolute priority of cognitions and, as a result, control and minimization of emotional parameters in the experiment, to the recognition and repeated empirical confirmation of the fact of the mutual influence of emotions and cognitive processes. In this context, psychological mechanisms that are not emotional, but associated with the processing of emotional information, are of interest. These include, first of all, people's knowledge and ideas about emotions, as well as a person's ability to understand, describe and control emotions.

AT domestic psychology the idea of ​​the unity of affect and intellect originally arose in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, who discovered the existence of a dynamic semantic system, which is a unity of affective and intellectual processes. Along with the influence of thinking on affect, there is an inverse influence of affect on thinking, which, in particular, manifests itself in the fact that, firstly, “every idea contains in a revised form the affective attitude of a person to reality represented in this idea”; Secondly, thought itself arises from the motivating sphere of our consciousness. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the relation of thought to the word is “movement through a whole series of internal planes”.

Ideas L.S. Vygotsky about the relationship between cognitive and emotional processes was developed by S.L. Rubinstein and A.N. Leontiev. According to S.L. Rubinstein, thinking in itself is a unity of the emotional and rational, and emotion is the unity of the emotional and intellectual. A.N. Leontiev showed that thinking has an emotional (affective) regulation. A deeper basis for the partiality of activity is personal meanings. The function of emotions just consists in "pointing the subject to their real source, in the fact that they (emotions) signal the personal meaning of the events that are played out in his life ...". The essential thing here is, firstly, that semantic education is recognized as the source of emotions, and secondly, that emotion performs the function of “presenting” personal meanings into the consciousness of the subject and, on this basis, regulates activity. Thinking should be considered not as a set of purely cognitive processes, but as an activity that is realized in actions that lead to the development of semantic formations.

The problem of the relationship between cognitive and emotional processes is especially acute in the field of the psychology of thinking. Already representatives of the early period in the development of the psychology of thinking could not ignore the fact that human thinking includes emotional components. So, G. Mayer singled out "judgmental" thinking and emotional thinking. Both in emotional thinking and in judging thinking, similar logical processes are observed (and interpretation, and objectification, and the activity of the categorical apparatus), but the general tendency in the acts of emotional thinking is different: the cognitive process is obscured here, relegated to the background, not recognized as such, the focus is on a practical end for which knowledge is only a by-product.

T. Ribot divided thinking into affective and intellectual, E. Bleuler, based on the analysis of pathology, singled out autistic and realistic thinking. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, a group of Austrian psychologists (G. Brentano, K. Nalovsky, G. Volkmann-von-Volkmar) put forward the thesis about "the importance of intellectual emotions as a creative element in scientific thought" .

Perhaps the most attention was paid to the role of emotions in thinking by L. Sekei. The author points out that at present psychologists have little knowledge of the "mechanisms of motivation and the dynamics of thought." Further, he notes, for example, the fact that the emergence of the emotion of surprise is associated with the generation of a whole series of assumptions and, conversely, the absence of surprise is expressed in the poverty of making assumptions. Thus, in all the above theories, emotions are the result of cognitive processing of some information: assessment and interpretation of the situation, one's state, assessment and comparison of the means necessary and available to the individual to achieve the goal, etc.

The concept of practical intelligence (“empirical reason”) by S. Epstein is one of the modern approaches to the connection between emotions and thinking. In his theory, he reveals the mechanism of the influence of emotions on thinking and proves the need to regulate emotional states for the successful functioning of the intellect and personality as a whole. S. Epstein suggests that a person has two types of intelligence. "In addition to rational intelligence, we have another that cannot be measured using IQ." S. Epstein calls it empirical reason. “While the skills of rational thinking are acquired through abstraction and analysis, the empirical mind is improved directly from experience. The rational method tries to solve problems with the help of logical constructions, the empirical method follows intuitive wisdom. The empirical mind is much more closely tied to our emotions than the rational mind.

Acting outside the realm of the rational, it corresponds to involuntary internal reactions based on the memory of past experience. This kind of thinking is vital for well-being - it intuitively interprets everything that happens around and, based on emotional reactions, suggests the right course of action. Empirical reason is inextricably linked with life experience. He is busy constantly interpreting current events and determining the appropriate response. It processes information quickly, efficiently and intuitively, although not always correctly from a rational point of view. Practical reason is engaged not only in the interpretation of external events, but also seeks to control emotions. Its main goal is to deliver maximum pleasure and minimize pain, to evoke pleasant feelings and avoid unpleasant ones. There is also an inverse relationship between emotions and empirical reason. The more emotional arousal that a person experiences (stress, irritation, fear), the more he falls under the influence of empirical reason.

S. Epstein developed the concept of constructive thinking, which is the ability to use the advantages of rational and empirical reason. Managing emotions and managing behavior are two essential components of constructive thinking. Together they determine the ability to effectively interact with the inner world of feelings and the outer world of events. S. Epstein describes emotionally balanced people who effectively deal with negative feelings. They are characterized by calmness of mind, low stress levels, composure, “they are not too sensitive to disapproval and failure and do not worry about what does not depend on them. They are not overly critical of themselves and others, and do not overgeneralize based on adverse events. Which, in turn, echoes the spiritual well-being of the individual or spiritual homeostasis, which V. D. Shadrikov speaks about. “Such a state can be observed when the level of a person's claims corresponds to real possibilities and nothing threatens her. Mental homeostasis is characterized by an even mood of contentment, lack of anxiety, positive attitude to the surrounding people, good health ... Mental homeostasis is formed in the process of human life.

In addition, V. D. Shadrikov focuses on two interrelated functions of emotions: the function of emotions as a mechanism for the formation of consciousness and the function of emotions as a mechanism for the formation of inner real human life. The author assumes that, since in his experiences a person himself acts as an object of knowledge for himself, then consciousness begins to form with awareness of himself. That is, consciousness begins with experience. He explains the confirmation of this hypothesis by the fact of the natural egocentricity of the child. “The environment, including the social environment, matters to him only to the extent that it is connected with the satisfaction of his natural needs. And the satisfaction of needs is associated with experiences. Experiences lead to awareness of oneself, to the fact that in the center of the world there is a child who realizes himself through his experiences.

In addition, each life event is accompanied by emotions (experiences), since in the mind of an individual any experience is associated with the motives and goals of his life and activity. Consequently, the role of emotions is to form the entire inner mental life of the subject. Experiences are included in any mental process. Feelings, perceptions, ideas, thoughts of the subject always carry the component of experiences. That is why experiences can become the basis for the unification of all mental processes, all inner mental life. Experiences act as a systemic factor in the inner mental life, the basis for its manifestation in the personal "I". At the same time, some feelings can reinforce others, forming into something integral, characterizing the emotional sphere of a person at a particular moment in time.

Being conscious experiences that develop on the basis of certain physiological mechanisms, feelings can be separated from the needs that gave rise to them and live on their own. In this case, they become a factor in the inner real human life. Thus, it can be assumed that emotions are part of the inner world of a person along with the intellect, which, according to the model of intellect by V.D. Shadrikov develops throughout human life along with the development of the innermost world. “The action of the mind, especially in social behavior, is motivated and controlled by morality. Morality and conscience are interconnected with emotions. In this case, emotions in relation to mental actions act as a cause, and not as a consequence. Emotions can generate new ideas. There are certain grounds for speaking about emotional thinking as well.

So, based on the analysis of the theories of emotions, it can be argued that the currently accumulated theoretical material allows us to talk about the relationship between the emotional and cognitive spheres of the psyche. Many great scientists have spoken out about the need to study "affect and cognition" in relation to other properties of the intellect. So, for example, L.S. wrote about the unity of intellect and affect. Vygotsky. Domestic and foreign psychologists conducted research on the relationship between the emotional and cognitive spheres of the psyche, as a result of which it was revealed that the type of emotion largely depends on the interpretation of autonomic arousal by the subject. At the same time, it does not matter where the information about the own state of excitation comes from (from inside or outside), whether it corresponds to reality or not, the main thing is that it is associated by the subject with his own internal state. A large part of emotional development depends on the development of the cognition necessary to evaluate the circumstances of a given situation in terms of certain beliefs, desired goals and plans. Thus, "emotional thinking" occupies a significant place in the inner world of a person. This kind of thinking is vital for well-being - it intuitively interprets everything that happens around and, based on emotional reactions, suggests the right course of action. In this regard, the psychological mechanisms associated with the processing of emotional information are of particular interest. In the last decade for real active attention is paid to this topic, which is reflected in the explosion of "emotional revolution".

graduate work

1.4 Interrelation of emotions and cognitive processes

In connection with the peculiarities of the stimulus, it is customary to distinguish at least two types of stress: physiological and psycho-emotional. The stimulus that causes a stress response is called a stressor. An irritant can become a stressor as a result of its cognitive interpretation, that is, the values ​​that a person ascribes to this stimulus (psycho-emotional stress).

The ability of cognitive processes to evoke emotions increases significantly when they relate to significant events for a person. As a result, we get that the cognitive processes themselves are stimulated by effects, and only secondarily do they make their additional contribution to the development and content of emotions, often radically changing them.

The relationship between emotional and cognitive processes can be described as follows. We first feel, and only then we know and understand. At the same time, the cognitive processes themselves that affect emotions are realized in the cerebral cortex, which is already emotional and is not affectively neutral. Therefore, a purely cognitive determinant of emotions does not exist, and therefore emotion to a significant stimulus is the unity of affective-cognitive processes.

There are not only direct but also inverse relationships between cognitive and emotional processes. Cognitive activity can be not only a source of emotions, but also depend on the emotional state of the subject. So, in joy we see the world through rose-colored glasses, and in fear we look at it through a narrow channel of vision.

Thus, the realization by parents that the cause of their child's deviant behavior is in themselves can be very stressful.

However, all parents perceive this information differently. Thus, in works on higher nervous activity there is a hypothesis about the inductive-deductive specialization of the brain.

According to this hypothesis, in the learning process, the right hemisphere works according to the principle of deduction, that is, it first performs synthesis and then analysis.

The left hemisphere functions according to the principle of induction - first analyzing stimuli, and then synthesizing them.

There is abundant evidence that the perception of emotional signals is under the control of the right hemisphere and that the right hemisphere is more closely associated than the left with autonomic reactions.

Thus, right-brained clients will be more prone to stress and will be more in need of help to relieve guilt.

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The presence of emotional phenomena in the process of cognition was noted by ancient Greek philosophers (Plato, Aristotle).

However, the discussion of the role of emotions in the cognitive process was initiated by P. Janet and T. Ribot. According to P. Janet, emotions, being "secondary actions", the subject's reaction to his own action, regulate "primary actions", including intellectual ones. T. Ribot, on the contrary, believed that there should be no “emotional admixture” in intellectual thinking, since it is the affective nature of a person that is most often the cause of illogicality. He shared intellectual thinking and emotional.

L. S. Vygotsky attached great importance to the connection between thinking and affects. He wrote: “He who has torn thinking from the very beginning from affect has forever closed his way to explaining the causes of thinking itself, because a deterministic analysis of thinking necessarily involves the discovery of the driving motives of thought, needs and interests, motives and tendencies that direct the movement of thought into that or the other side” (1956, p. 54).

S. L. Rubinshtein also noted the need to connect thinking with the affective sphere of a person. “Mental processes taken in their concrete totality

4.4. Applied role of emotions 123

ness, are processes not only cognitive, but also "affective", emotional-volitional. They express not only knowledge about phenomena, but also attitude towards them” (1957, p. 264). In another work, he sharpens this question even more: “It is not only about the fact that emotion is in unity and interconnection with the intellect or thinking with emotion, but that thinking itself, as a real mental process, is itself a unity. intellectual and emotional, and emotion - the unity of the emotional and intellectual" ("Problems of General Psychology", 1973, pp. 97-98).

Currently, most psychologists who study intellectual activity recognizes the role of emotions in thinking. Moreover, the opinion is expressed that emotions do not just influence thinking, but are an indispensable component of it (Simonov, 1975; Tikhomirov, 1969; Vinogradov, 1972; Vilyunas, 1976; Putlyaeva, 1979, etc.), or that most human emotions intellectually conditioned. They even highlight intellectual emotions other than basic ones (see section 6.5).

True, the opinions of the authors about the specific role of emotions in the control of thinking do not coincide. From the point of view of O. K. Tikhomirov, emotions are a catalyst for the intellectual process; they improve or impair mental activity, speed it up or slow it down. In another work (Tikhomirov, Klochko, 1980), he goes even further, considering emotions to be the coordinator of mental activity, ensuring its flexibility, restructuring, correction, avoiding the stereotype, and changing actual attitudes. According to P. V. Simonov, emotions are only a trigger mechanism for thinking. L. V. Putlyaeva considers both of these points of view hyperbolized and, in turn, identifies three functions of emotions in the thought process: 1) emotions as component cognitive needs, which are the source of mental activity; 2) emotions as a regulator of the cognitive process itself at certain stages; 3) emotions as a component of the assessment of the achieved result, i.e. as feedback.

The role of emotions in the intellectual creative process is diverse. This is the pain of creativity and the joy of discovery. “The ardent desire for knowledge,” wrote K. Bernard, “is the only engine that attracts and supports the researcher in his efforts, and this knowledge, so to speak, constantly slipping out of his hands, is his only happiness and torment.

Whoever did not know the torments of the unknown will not understand the pleasures of discovery, which, of course, are stronger than all that a person can feel” (1866, p. 64).

It also follows from memoir literature that emotion, lyrical mood or inspiration contribute to creative imagination, fantasy, since bright numerous images, thoughts, associations easily arise in the mind. This is beautifully written by A. S. Pushkin:

But a short day goes out, and the fire is forgotten in the stove again The fire burns again - now a bright light shines, Now it smolders slowly - and I read before it Or I feed long thoughts in my soul. And I forget the world - and in sweet silence

124 Chapter 4

I am sweetly lulled by my imagination

And poetry awakens in me:

The soul is embarrassed by lyrical excitement,

It trembles, and sounds, and searches, as in a dream,

Finally pour out free manifestation -

And then an invisible swarm of guests comes to me,

Old acquaintances, fruits of my dreams,

And the thoughts in my head are worried in courage,

And light rhymes run towards them,

And fingers ask for a pen, pen for paper,

A minute - and the verses will flow freely.

But here's what is characteristic: this inspiration, joy over creative success is not long-term. K. Bernard wrote about this: “. „For some whim of our nature, this pleasure, which we so eagerly sought, passes, as soon as the discovery is made. It is like lightning that has lit up a distant horizon for us, towards which our insatiable curiosity rushes with even greater fervor. For this reason, in science itself, the known loses its charm, and the unknown is always full of charms” (ibid.).

When discussing the connection between thinking and emotions, some psychologists go to extremes. So, A. Ellis (Ellis, 1958) argues that thinking and emotions are so closely related to each other that they usually accompany each other, acting in the cycle of “cause and effect” relationships, and in some (although almost all) relationships are essentially the same, so that thinking becomes emotion and emotion becomes thought. Thinking and emotions, according to this author, tend to take the form of self-talk or internal suggestions; the sentences that people say to themselves are or become their thoughts and emotions.

As for the transformation of thought into emotion and vice versa, this is a rather controversial statement. Another thing is that, as Ellis writes, it is hardly possible to distinguish between thought and emotion and isolate it in its pure form. Here we can agree with the author.

Emotions play a special role in various art forms. K. S. Stanislavsky (1953) said that of all three mental spheres of a person - mind, will and feelings - the latter is the most "difficult to educate a child." The expansion and development of the mind is much more easily amenable to the will of the actor than the development and expansion of the emotional sphere. Feeling, noted Stanislavsky, can be cultivated, subordinated to the will, cleverly used, but it grows very slowly. The alternative "is or is not" applies to him most of all. Therefore, it is the most precious thing for an actor. Students with mobile emotions, the ability to deeply experience - this is the golden fund of the theater school. Their development is fast. At the same time, Stanislavsky complained that there were too many rational actors and stage works coming from the mind.

The experience of emotions is also important for the artist in the process of the pictorial act. V. S. Kuzin (1974) notes that if nature (the object of the image) left the artist indifferent, did not evoke any emotions, the image process will be passive. The need to be excited about one’s topic, to “feel nature”, is conveyed

EMOTIONS IN THE THEORIES OF EMOTIONS AND PERSONALITY

Despite the fact that McDougall in his theory (McDougall, 1908) pointed to close relationship emotions and volitional activity (conation), and his and Freud's work (1938) laid the foundation for studying the relationship between emotions, motivation and behavior, one of the most serious problems of psychology is that most theories of personality, theories of behavior and theories of emotions have little connection together. Quite characteristic is the fact that the authors of many personality theories do not even mention the problem of emotions. As a rule, they use one or another concept related to motivation, but at the same time they rarely consider private emotions as motivational variables. Emotion researchers also tend to analyze only one or a few components of the emotional process - its neurophysiological, expressive, or phenomenological component. At the same time, with rare exceptions (for example, Tornkins, 1962, 1963), they almost do not correlate their data with data from personality theories and data from behavioral theories. This chapter provides a brief overview of several approaches to the study of emotions, each of which is correlated with data from studies of other functions of the body or the personality as a whole; the chapter provides material that will help us define emotion and understand its essence.

Psychoanalytic concept of affect and motivation

Freud's work (Freud, 1930, 1936, 1938) and his psychoanalytic theory rightfully occupy a special place in the history of psychology and in the history of the behavioral sciences. Freud generated such heuristic constructs as the unconscious, the dynamics of dreams, the development of consciousness, he introduced into scientific use such concepts as<защитный механизм>, <вытеснение>, <подавление>, <сопротивление>, <перенос>He raised issues of childhood sexuality and childhood amnesia. But within the framework of the theme we have designated, the method proposed by Freud for analyzing the mechanisms of the functioning of the personality deserves special mention. He opened up a new area scientific knowledge- the field of human motivation, made it an important part of modern psychology and thus became the founder of the psychodynamic tradition (Boring, 1950). Freud's concept of affect is of great interest to us in this regard, but we will consider it in a general way, in the context of his theory of motivation.

The basis of the classical psychoanalytic theory of motivation is the Freudian theory of instinctive drives. In relation to this theory, as in relation to psychoanalysis itself, Freud's views were constantly transformed and developed. In this regard, his views are almost not amenable to precise definition and systematization, this task is not up to even Freud's students. Rapaport's (1960) summary of the theory of psychoanalysis is considered the most correct, and it is this that has served as the main source of the excursus below.

Rapaport warns the reader against excessive generalizations, calls not to exaggerate the role of instinctive drives in motivation, since, relying only on instinctive drives, it is extremely difficult to explain ego-determined behavioral phenomena, such as the phenomenon psychological protection or the phenomenon of cognitive synthesis and differentiation. Instincts will in no way bring us closer to understanding the role that external stimulation plays in human behavior, or those functions of consciousness that arise as a result of attention to an external stimulus.

Instinctive attraction, or instinctive motive, is defined by Rapaport as a motivating internal, or intrapsychic, force, which is characterized by: a) unconditionality; b) cyclicality; c) selectivity; and d) replaceability. It is these four characteristics that determine the driving nature of drives or motives. On the other hand, cognitive or exploratory behavior can in some sense be viewed as a function of an external stimulus; the determinants of such behavior do not exhibit cyclicity, selectivity, or substitutability.

Rapaport believes that the above four properties of instinctive drives are quantitative rather than qualitative characteristics, that is, drives differ in the degree of expression of each of these properties. In addition, instinctive drives can be assessed using four other characteristics, such as: a) intensity (pressure) - the strength of the drive and the need to perform those actions in which the drive is represented; b) the goal of attraction - the action to which the attraction pushes and which leads to satisfaction; c) the object of attraction - that in which or through which the desire can achieve its goal or satisfaction; and d) the source - the physiological process of one or another part of the body, perceived as excitation.

It's hard to give precise definition affect in the framework of classical psychoanalytic theory. The complexity is caused by the fact that Freud and his followers interpreted this term extremely broadly, loading it with more and more diverse meanings as the theory developed. Thus, in his early works, Freud writes that affect, or emotion, is the only motive power of mental life, and in his later works he<уже говорит об аффектах как об интрапсихиче-ских факторах, пробуждающих фантазии и желания индивида>(Rapaport, 1960, p. 191). Concluding the review of psychoanalytic and other data, Rapaport comes to the following conclusion:

Only one of the theories explaining the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions does not contradict empirical data. Its essence is as follows: a perceptual image perceived from the outside serves as the initiator of an unconscious process during which the instinctive energy unconscious of the individual is mobilized; if this energy cannot find a legal application for itself (in the case when the instinctive demands are in conflict), it spills out through other channels in the form of involuntary activity; various types of activities<эмоциональная экспрессия>and<эмоциональное переживание>- can manifest simultaneously, alternately or independently of each other: the open manifestation of instinctive attraction is taboo by culture, and therefore constant emotional discharges of varying intensity are inherent in a person; as a result mental life of a person is saturated not only with those described in textbooks<чистыми>emotions such as rage, fear, etc., but also a wide range of other emotions, from the most intense to moderate, conventional, intellectually refined (Rapaport, 1960, p. 37).

In psychoanalytic literature, three aspects of affect are considered - the energetic component of instinctive attraction (<заряд>affect), process<разрядки>and the perception of the final release (sensation or feeling of emotion). At the same time, the realization of affect and its sensual component are considered only in the context of the expression of emotion; the communicative value of these aspects of affect was recognized by psychoanalysis only after the works of Schachtel (Schachtel, 1959). However, Rapaport noted as early as 1953 that<аффект как набор сигналов - столь же обязательное средство познания реальности, как и мышление>(Rapaport, 1953, p. 196). Wherein<заряд>affect is evaluated by a quantitative or intensity measure, while the process<разрядки>perceived or felt by the individual in qualitative categories.

Freud's theory and psychoanalysis as a whole considered, first of all, negative affects arising as a result of conflicting drives - therefore, their special interest in such a defense mechanism as repression is understandable. However, affect by its nature is a phenomenon of consciousness and cannot be an object of repression. Only the ideational component of instinctive attraction is not allowed into consciousness. When repressive mechanisms are triggered, its ideational and affective components are separated. As a result, a ban is imposed on the preconscious cathexis of his instinctive representations and on the use of verbal images associated with them. Thus, with the help of the mechanism of repression, a conflict is prevented at one of the levels (for example, between the interest generated by the libido and the sanction of the superego), and at the same time, at the other level, the risk of the formation of neurotic or psychosomatic symptoms is reduced. If the repressive mechanisms fail, a conflict arises between the unconscious and the preconscious, and a qualitatively different, already symbolized affect appears in consciousness. This affect is negative, it is generated by a conflict-colored representation, and therefore enslaves it and can cause mental disorder (Singer, 1990).

Freud's concept of motive as an ideational-affective representation in consciousness is analogous to the concepts of ideo-affective organization (Tornkins, 1962, 1963) and affective-cognitive structure (lzard, 1971, 1972). Affective-cognitive structures are understood not only as representations of instinctive drives, but also as structures or orientations of consciousness resulting from the interaction of emotion (the initial motivational condition) and cognition.

Another Freudian concept -<желание>is even more similar to the concept of affective-cognitive structure. Freud was the first to speak of desire (about<страстном желании воплощения>) as the motivating power of dreams. At the unconscious level, desire is an instinctive impulse, and at the preconscious level it manifests itself in the form of dreams and fantasies.<Желание выступает в роли аффективно-организующего принципа, оно использует механизмы конденсации, замещения, символизации и вторичной детализации, чтобы скрыть истинное содержание сновидения, чтобы выразить себя в форме, приемлемой для сознания>(Rapaport, 1961, p. 164). The concept of affective-cognitive structure in the theory of differential emotions differs from Freud's<желания>the fact that as an organizing, motivating factor considers the affect, and not the processes of ideation. Both theories agree that affective and cognitive factors, in one way or another, or in one way or another, determine human motivation in one way or another.

Holt (Holt, 1976) decisively rejected the theory of instinctive drives and put forward his own, quite convincing, concept of affect and motivation. He emphasizes the importance of external stimulation and perceptual-cognitive processes, but at the same time recognizes the importance of phenomena associated with the expression and experience of emotions.

Both Holt (Holt, 1967) and a number of other authors (Kubie, 1974; Rubinstein, 1967; Peterfreund, 1971) draw attention to the fact that empirical data do not allow us to consider instinctive attraction as some kind of psychic energy or instinctive motive force. According to Holt, despite the fact that sexual desire, aggression, fear and other affective phenomena can be considered as biologically determined, innate (<хотя и наблюдаемые в самых разнообразных модификациях>) reactions, they are activated only as a result of the individual's awareness of external pressures - that is, under the influence of significant aspects of the environment (Murray, 1948), which can best be defined in terms of social regulations and prescriptions.

Proposing his theory of motivation, Holt relies on the concept<желание>in the sense that Freud understood it in his early writings, and defines it as<ког-нитивно-аффективное понятие, формулируемое в терминах смысла того или иного действия и предположений о приятном или неприятном исходе>(Holt, 1976, p. 179). In the concept of Klein (Klein, 1976), the main property of the motivational system is<перцептивно-оценочном рассогласовании>. The mismatch in this case is interpreted as a conscious, preconscious or unconscious comparison of the perceptual image and the image created by the imagination, and then the conclusion about their relative value. In fact, this approach differs little from the approach implemented in cognitively oriented theories of emotions (Arnold, 1960a; Lazarus, 1974, 1984; Pribram, 1970; Schachter, 1971), which describe the processes of evaluation and control - the processes of comparing the existing and potential states affairs. Thus, desire - a key phenomenon in motivation - is understood as a mismatch, as<когнитивно-аффективное состояние, родственное неудовлетворенности>(Holt, 1976, p. 182). A moderate degree of disagreement excites moderate pleasure and interest, and an extreme and unexpected degree leads to fear and displeasure. At the same time, Holt's statement that different degrees of mismatch can give rise to different affects is very similar to Singer's (1974) attempt to link the degree of severity of one or another affect with the success of assimilation of cognitive information.

The works of Helen Lewis, devoted to the role of shame and guilt in personality development, in psychopathology and psychotherapy, are based on the theory of psychoanalysis, on research experimental psychology and person-centered psychotherapy. In his most famous work<Стыд, вина и неврозы>(Shame and Guilt in Neurosis, 1971) she addresses the eternal problem of distinguishing between shame and guilt, considering these two emotions as independent and important factors of motivation. She convincingly proves that this problem owes its origin to Freud; confusion has arisen since Freud failed to draw a clear line between<самостью>(self) and<эго>, ever since it was customary to talk about<суперэго>in terms of instinctive drives (death instinct) and emphasize the role of the affective state of guilt. Within the framework of the theory built by Freud, there was no place for the concept of shame, he did not consider shame as a component of the superego, just as he could not recognize the role of shame in the development of depression.

There is a well-known technique developed by Witkin (Witkin, 1949) together with colleagues. Using this technique, one can determine the perceptual-cognitive style of an individual, evaluate his field dependence-field independence, that is, the extent to which the individual's thinking and behavior are due to external or internal stimulation. Lewis, based on Witkin's research, demonstrated the relationship between perceptual-cognitive styles (styles of superego functioning) and the manifestation of guilt or shame in perceptual-cognitive processes. Her work showed the need to study shame and guilt as emotions that motivate superego functions.

In the course of research, Lewis showed that the fear or expectation of shame acts as a restraining motive in the behavior of the individual and as a force contributing to the formation of self-identity. On the other hand, Lewis sees shame as emotional condition, which in extreme manifestations can cause disorders of consciousness and personal problems and in this sense is the opposite of a sense of personal autonomy. She found that in the field dependent patient, the emotion of shame generates hostility directed inward, toward oneself.

Field dependence-field independence, considered as a style of perceptual-cognitive activity, determines the way the superego functions. So, in field-dependent patients, we are more likely to observe manifestations of emotions of shame, and in field-independent patients, emotions of guilt.

In his work, Lewis reveals the positive meaning of the emotion of shame, showing how important it is for maintaining a person's self-esteem, self-esteem and emotional connections. Her findings of differences in the expression of shame and guilt support her idea that shame, as an affective state of the superego, plays a role in the development of depression and hysteria, while guilt causes obsessional disorders and paranoia. In addition, Lewis hypothesizes that there may be significant gender differences in the emotional sphere, suggesting that women, unlike men, are more likely to experience the emotion of shame and that is why they are more prone to depression and hysteria.

Measuring approach: arousal, activation and scaling of emotions

Spencer (1890) was one of the first to consider emotions (feelings) as a measurable part of consciousness. Wundt (1896), developing this tradition, proposed to describe the emotional (sensual) sphere of consciousness, evaluating it using three dimensions: pleasure-displeasure, relaxation-tension and calmness-excitation. Subsequently, these criteria were used by Woodworth (Woodworth, 1938) and Schlosberg (Schlosberg, 1941) in a number of studies of emotional expression.

Emotions as an organismic excitation. Duffy (1934, 1941, 1951, 1962), based on the concepts of Spencer and Wundt, believes that all behavior can be explained in terms of a single phenomenon - organismic arousal, a concept that has obvious similarities with Wundt's relaxation-tension dimension. . Duffy (1962) argues that behavior is variable only along two vectors, which she calls directionality and intensity. Behavioral orientation is defined by Duffy in terms of response selectivity, expectancy-based selectivity, target orientation of the organism, and the relationship between perceived stimuli. The individual either submits to the situation or avoids it, depending on its meaning - motivating or threatening. Duffy draws an analogy between his understanding of directionality, or<ответа на взаимоотношения>, and<когнитивными картами>Tolman (1932) or<сигнальными функциями>Hebb (Hebb, 1955).

The second characteristic of behavior - intensity - Duffy defines as a consequence of the general excitability of the organism or as the mobilization of energy, and considers the measure of intensity<количество энергии, высвобожденной из тканей организма>(Duffy, 1962, p. 17). According to Duffy, emotion is just a point or a set of points on the scale of excitation, therefore there is no place for discrete varieties of emotions in her theory, and one can speak about the variability of emotion only from the point of view of intensity.

Although Duffy's ideas belonged to a line of thought that tended to exclude emotional phenomena from psychological theory and experimental research, her conception paved the way for activation theory, which, in turn, contributed greatly to the current flourishing of research into brain-behavior interactions.

Neural activation, emotion and behavior. Following the discovery by Moruzzi and Magun of certain functions reticular formation brainstem Lindsley (Lindsley, 1951, 1957) put forward his own - activation - theory of emotions and behavior. Too broad and difficult to measure the concept of organismic excitation put forward by Duffy (Duffy, 1962), he replaced the concept of activation, which he defined as neuronal excitation of the reticular formation of the brain stem with concomitant changes in the electroencephalographic parameters of the cortex. His interpretation of emotion presupposes the existence of a prior emotional stimulus, either external and conditional or internal and unconditional. Such stimuli excite impulses that activate the brainstem, which in turn sends impulses to the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. A hypothetical activating mechanism transforms these impulses into behavior characterized by<эмоциональным возбуждением>, and in EEG parameters characterized by low amplitude, high frequency, and asynchrony.

When impulses arise due to a decrease in emotional stimulation and directly affect the thalamus, synchronized, high-amplitude, low-frequency EEG complexes arise. Lindsley predicts that under these conditions, behavior opposite to that observed under these conditions should be detected.<эмоциональном возбуждении>, that is<эмоциональная апатия>. Lindsley realized that his theory did not explain the nature of individual emotions: his main goal was to establish a relationship between certain antecedent conditions, changes in brain electrical activity measured by EEG, and observed behavior.

Most modern researchers studying the problem of arousal no longer believe that there is only one type of arousal. In addition, they associate types of arousal with individual personality traits. For example, Zuckerman (Zukennan, 1979) believes that each personality trait is based on its own type of arousal. In his early work, he wrote that for a gifted person, the optimal type of arousal is the search for sensations. Zuckerman (1984) has shown that sensation craving as a personality trait has distinct neurochemical underpinnings as well as distinct cognitive and behavioral manifestations. It correlates positively with the impulsive, but not the social, aspects of extraversion. It also correlates with risky behaviors such as drug use, ski jumping, and risky career choices. People for whom the thirst for new experiences has become a personality trait, as a rule, seek to find them in exciting, exciting experiences.

Scaling of emotional expression. Since 1872, after the publication of the famous work of Darwin<Выражение эмоций у человека и животных>, such a complex area of ​​emotions as expressive facial expressions has been considered by many scientists as independent discipline. Some of these authors made invaluable contributions to the analysis and understanding of expression, but often failed to integrate their important discoveries into the psychology of personality and behavior.

The study of facial expressions, which make up main topic Our interest began with Woodworth (1938), when he proposed the first truly effective system for classifying facial expressions of individual emotions. He showed that the whole variety of expressive facial expressions can be categorized using a linear scale, suggesting the following six steps: 1) love, joy, happiness; 2) surprise; 3) fear, suffering; 4) anger, determination; 5) disgust; 6) contempt.

Schlosberg (Schlosberg, 1941), applying the classification scheme of Woodworth when analyzing photographs of people with different facial expressions, suggested that they can be most adequately described if the Woodworth scale is represented as a circle with two axes: pleasure-unpleasure (pleasantness-unpleasantness, axis P-U ) and acceptance-rejection (acceptance-rejection, A-R axis). Schlossberg later added a third dimension, sleep-tension, and thus came very close to accepting and empirically validating the three dimensions of feeling first proposed by Wundt in 1896.

Schlosberg's approach is similar to that which underlies the psychophysical experiment, Schlosberg also tried to associate judgments with some physically measurable phenomena. In Schlosberg's early experiments, subjects rated facial expressions in photographs on two nine-point scales:<удовольствие-неудовольствие>and on a scale<принятие-отвержение>, and then for each image, the average scores for both measurements were calculated.

If imagine P-U scales and A-R as two perpendicular axes intersecting at point 5 (fig. 2-1) and enclosing them in a circle centered at the indicated point, then each assessment of the presented images can be represented as a point in space within a quadrant of the circle. To assess the emotional expression of the face, to determine the category of emotion, you need to draw a line from the center of the circle, from the point of intersection of the linear scales, through the plotted point to the edge of the circle. The correlation between the values ​​of the circular scale, set using the sort method, and those values ​​that were determined, or predicted, using two nine-point scales, was 0.76. Thus, we can say that the scales<удовольствие-неудовольствие>and<принятие-отвержение>allow with sufficient accuracy to classify presented (even in photographs) facial expressions in terms of discrete emotions.

The sleep-stress measurement was introduced by Schlosberg and his collaborators (Engen, Levy, Schlosberg, 1957) under the influence of the work of Duffy and Lindsley and data indicating that such a measurement is<активация>important for the analysis of emotions. With the help of a specially designed series of photographs of expressive expressions of human faces (the Lightfoot series), they showed that the criteria<удовольствие-неудовольствие>, <принятие-отвержение>and<сон-напряжение>quite reliable (respectively 0.94, 0.87 and 0.92 at N = 225). Triiandis and Lambert (1958) used Schlosberg's three measurements in a cross-cultural study and proved their validity for both Greeks and Americans. However, later other researchers (Abelson and Sermat, 1962; Ekman, 1964) revealed a high correlation between measurements<принятие-отвержение>and<сон-напряжение>and thereby questioned their independence from each other and the possibility of their use as independent measurements. Several other authors also contributed to the development of a measuring approach in the study of emotions and expressive facial expressions (Hofstatter, 1955-1956; lzard, Nunnally, 1965; Plutchik, 1962). Some of these studies have led to the development of new measurements such as<контроль-импульсивность>(Osgood, 1966),<внимание-невнимание>(Frijda & Phillipszoon, 1963) and<уверенность-неуверенность>(Frijda, 1970).

Osgood's extensive research into expressive facial expressions led him to formulate three dimensions of expression, which he interpreted in terms of the semantic dimensions of linguistic cues. He came to the conclusion that these dimensions he identified - pleasure, activity and control - correspond to his semantic dimensions of evaluation, activity and power.

Cognitive theories of emotion and personality

Cognitive theories of emotion and personality include at least two broad classes of theories. These are the so-called theories.<Я>, or theories of self-consciousness, and theories that consider cognitive processes to be the root cause or component of emotion. The central and predominant concept of all theories<Я>is the concept of self-concept. The self-concept is a holistic, integrated phenomenon, consisting of the individual's perception and knowledge of himself, and it is he who is given great explanatory significance in theories<Я>(Rogers, 1951; Snygg and Combs, 1949). Within the framework of these theories, behavior is considered as a function of perception and especially self-perception of the individual.

theories<Я>, feeling and emotion. The deeper a person's perception or knowledge of himself, the more they are connected with the core of his personality, with his self, the more they include feelings, emotions. The threat of the self-concept causes fear in a person, forces him to defend himself, while the confirmation and approval of the self-concept causes joy and interest in a person.

In the theories<Я>the importance of analyzing<чувственного содержания>(as opposed to strictly semantic) verbal expressions, which is considered especially important in the work of a psychotherapist. Psychotherapist helping a person in a decision psychological problems must be able to see emotion behind the patient's statements. This principle is used by many areas of modern psychotherapy and psychology of personal growth (for example, in psychological training groups, meeting groups, in gestalt therapy). However, most theories<Я>operates only with the general concept of emotion or feeling, almost without using the concept of discrete emotions.

Emotion as a function of cognitive processes. Some modern theories consider emotion mainly as a reaction or a set of reactions caused by cognitive processes. Such a view of the nature of emotions, which is very characteristic of representatives of Western culture, is obviously generated by those ideas about human nature that have their roots in Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Diderot, Kant and other philosophers. These representations are as follows: a) man, first of all and to the greatest extent, is a rational being; b) rational start useful, beneficial for a person, emotional harms and interferes with him; c) the mind (cognitive processes) should serve as a factor of control and replacement of emotions.

The most developed of the theories of emotion and personality, built within the framework of the above tradition, is Arnold's theory (Arnold, 1960a, 19606). According to this theory, emotion arises as a result of the impact of a certain sequence of events described in terms of perception and evaluation.

Term<восприятие>Arnold interprets how<элементарное понимание>. In this case<воспринять>object means in some sense<понять>it, regardless of how it affects the perceiver. In order for the image presented in the mind to receive emotional coloring, the object must be evaluated in terms of its effect on the perceiver. Emotion thus is not an assessment, although it can carry it in itself as an integral, necessary component. More specifically, an emotion is an unconscious attraction to or rejection of an object, resulting from the assessment of the object as good or bad for the individual.

Evaluation itself is an unmediated, instantaneous, intuitive act, not associated with reflection. It occurs immediately after the perception of the object, acts as the final link in the perceptual process and can be considered as a separate process only reflexively.

These three acts, perception-evaluation-emotion, are so closely intertwined that our everyday experience cannot be called objective knowledge; it is always cognition-acceptance or cognition-rejection. Intuitive appraisal of a situation gives rise to a tendency to act, which is experienced as an emotion and is expressed by various somatic changes and which can cause expressive or behavioral reactions (Arnold, 1960a, p. 177).

Emotion can give a residual, or prolonged, effect. Action tendencies caused by emotion have an organizing influence on the process of further perception and evaluation; emotions<завораживают и захватывают нас>(Arnold, 1960a, p. 184). In addition, intuitive evaluation and emotional response tend to be constant, so that an object or situation, evaluated in a certain way and emotionally reacted,<всякий раз>evoke the same appreciation and emotion (Arnold, 1960a, p. 184). Moreover, the assessment of the object and the emotional response to it tend to be generalized - they are transferred to the entire class of objects.

Other cognitive theories of emotion. Schachter and his colleagues (Schachter, 1966, 1971; Schachter and Singer, 1962) suggested that emotions arise on the basis of physiological arousal and the cognitive assessment of the situation that caused this arousal. A certain event or situation causes physiological arousal, and the individual needs to evaluate the content of the arousal, that is, the situation that caused it. The type or quality of emotion experienced by an individual does not depend on the sensation that arises from physiological arousal, but on how the individual evaluates the situation. Grade (<по памяти или чувству>) situation allows a person to define arousal as joy or anger, fear or disgust, or any other emotion appropriate to the situation. According to Schechter, the same physiological arousal can be experienced both as joy and anger (and like any other emotion), depending on the interpretation of the situation. Mandler (Mandler, 1975) and Lazarus (Lazarus, 1982) adhere to the same point of view when explaining the processes of emotional activation.

In one well-known experiment, Schachter and Singer (1962) tested their theory in the following way: one group of subjects was injected with arousal adrenaline, the other with a placebo. Each of the groups was divided into three subgroups - one subject was given true information about the effect of the drug, the other was given false information, and the third was not told anything about the possible effect of the drug. After the administration of the drug, all falsely informed subjects, some of the subjects who had accurate information, and some of the subjects who did not have any information, fell into the company of a person who demonstrated euphoric behavior; the rest of the subjects found themselves in the company of a person who portrayed rage. The researchers found that the misinformed and uninformed subjects tended to imitate the actor's mood and behavior, both euphoric and angry. Subjects who had accurate information about the action of adrenaline were less susceptible to outside influences. In the euphoric model group, the misinformed and uninformed subjects rated their joyful states much higher than the correctly informed subjects, but these ratings were not much different from those in the placebo group. In the group that followed<гневной>model, the highest ratings for the experienced state of anger were given by uninformed subjects, but members of the placebo group again did not confirm Schechter's model. Their ratings on the self-reported anger scale did not differ from those of the misinformed and uninformed subjects.

Schechter's work stimulated the theoretical and experimental study of emotions, although many researchers criticize his methodological approach (lzard, 1971; Manstead and Wagner, 1981; Plutchik and Ax, 1967). It is also depressing that two experiments that reproduced the Schechter-Singer experiment did not confirm its results (Marshall, 1976; Maslach, 1979). Maslach demonstrated that unexplained, hypnotically suggested excitation of the autonomic nervous system makes a person want to interpret his internal state and negative feelings. No significant relationship was found between the actions of the actor and what the subjects reported about their experiences. Marshall, following Schechter and Singer, used the narcotic excitation technique in his experiment and obtained results similar to those of Maslach.

The latest theoretical developments of the cognitivist and socio-cognitivist directions are similar to biosocial theories in their approach to the motivational and adaptive role of emotions, but differ from them in that emotions are assigned a priority role in the process of emergence of emotions. cognitive processes. However, for both of them, the fact that cognitive processes serve as a necessary link in the chain of events that activate emotion is indisputable.

The main contribution of cognitive theories to the study of emotions is the description of emotional-specific cognitive processes - a special kind of inference that causes a specific emotion. They also deepened our understanding of the relationship between emotions and cognitive processes.

Weiner (1985) explains the cognitive antecedents of emotion in terms of causal attribution. According to Weiner, the cause of emotion is a function of personal attribution to the causality or cause of the activating event. He proposes three dimensions of causality: locus (internal-external), stability (stability-unstability), and control (controllability-uncontrollability). So, for example, if you're standing in line and someone tries to get in front of you, you're more likely to view their attempt as internally motivated and controlled, and feel angry. But if the same person happens to be in the same place by accident - for example, someone running past and rudely pushes him - then you interpret the reason as external and unregulated and, most likely, you will feel pity for him or sadness.

More sophisticated schemes of causal measurements have also been developed (Ellsworth and Smith, 1988; Roseman, 1984; Smith and Ellsworth, 1985). Thus, some theorists propose to supplement the parameter of control with the parameter of responsibility. They believe that the attribution of responsibility and control is important in distinguishing between the emotions of surprise (external responsibility/control) and guilt (internal responsibility/control).

Some researchers, following the cognitivist tradition, have attempted to divide the process of emotional activation into stages. In their research, they prove that ratings/attributions are the true precursors of emotion. Because an emotion occurs within milliseconds of an internal or external event, identifying the cognitive process that preceded the emotion is extremely difficult. However, regardless of where cognitive processes occupy in the causal chain, they undoubtedly participate in the process of the emergence of emotion and are part of the general phenomenology associated with emotions. Thus, cognitivists, both theorists and practitioners, continue to make significant contributions to the development of the psychology of emotions.

Emotions as a result of biological processes. Emotional patterns as personality traits

Plutchik (Plutchik, 1962, 1980) considered emotions as a means of adaptation that played an important role in survival at all evolutionary levels. Below are the basic prototypes of adaptive behavior and their corresponding emotions (affective-cognitive structures).

Protypical adaptive complex; primary emotion.

1. Incorporation - the absorption of food and water;

Adoption;

2. Rejection - rejection reaction, excretion, vomiting; disgust;

3. Destruction - removal of obstacles on the way to satisfaction; Anger;

4. Protection - initially in response to pain or the threat of pain; Fear;

5. Reproductive behavior - reactions accompanying sexual behavior; Joy;

6. Deprivation - the loss of an object that brings pleasure; grief;

7. Orientation - reaction to contact with a new, unfamiliar object; fright;

8. Research - more or less random, voluntary activity aimed at learning environment; Hope or curiosity;

Plutchik defines emotion as a complex somatic reaction associated with a specific adaptive biological process common to all living organisms. Primary emotion, according to Plutchik, is limited in time and is initiated by an external stimulus. Each primary emotion and each secondary emotion (which means a combination of two or more primary emotions) corresponds to a certain physiological and expressive-behavioral complex. According to Plutchik (1954), the constant blocking of adequate motor reactions in conflict or frustrating situations causes chronic stress in muscles, which can serve as an indicator of poor adaptation, he cites a number of experimental data in support of this thesis.

According to Plutchik, his theory of emotions can be useful in the study of personality and in psychotherapy. He proposed to consider personality traits as a combination of two or more primary emotions, even mutually exclusive ones. Such an approach - an analysis of the way emotions are mixed - can contribute to a better understanding of many important emotional phenomena. For example, the Dodger suggests the following formulas: pride = anger + joy; love = joy + + acceptance; curiosity = surprise + acceptance; modesty = fear + acceptance; hatred = anger + surprise; guilt = fear + joy or pleasure; sentimentality = acceptance + grief. Social regulators (superego phenomena) can be understood in Plutchik's system as a combination of fear and other emotions, and anxiety as a combination of fear and expectation. In his opinion, the analysis of situations that give rise to fear in a person, and the identification of a person's expectations in relation to such situations, helps to understand the dynamics of anxiety.

Cognitive-affective approach

According to Singer, the close relationship between affect and cognitive processes is based on the child's attempts to adapt to a new and constantly changing environment. Singer, like Tomkins (Tornkins, 1962) and Izard (lzard, 1971), believes that the novelty of the environment activates the emotion of interest, which, in turn, reinforces the child's exploratory activity. Environmental awareness and successful adjustment reduce arousal levels and activate the emotion of joy, while a large amount of complex material that is inaccessible to assimilation can cause fear, sadness or fear.

The most important result of Singer's research was the introduction of his developments in the field of imagination and affect into the practice of psychotherapy (Singer, 1974). He emphasizes the importance of using imagination in combination with action (for example, in a role-playing game), with the help of which the patient learns to understand a variety of affective manifestations, learns to control his emotions, thoughts and behavior. According to Singer, the work of imagination and fantasy helps to form a sense of competence, develops self-control. So, for example, he successfully treated voyeurism, relying only on the patient's imagination. Singer encouraged the patient to imagine something unhealthy, disgusting, for example, asked him to imagine a naked man suffering from leprosy, and taught the patient to recall this image at moments of unhealthy attraction, when he had a desire to look into the window of a neighboring house to see a woman undressing there. Positively colored female images were used by Singer to neutralize heterosexual fear and homosexual inclinations. These techniques have become widespread in psychodynamic therapy, which has made it possible to understand the mechanisms for the success of this technique.

THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL EMOTIONS

The theory of differential emotions has a rich intellectual heritage and claims kinship with the classic works of Duchenne, Darwin, Spencer, Kierkegaard, Wundt, James, Cannon, MacDougal, Dumas, Dewey, Freud, Rado, and Woodworth, as well as more modern works Jacobson, Sinnot, Maurer, Gelhorn, Harlow, Bowlby, Simonov, Ekman, Holt, Singer and many others. All these scientists, representing different disciplines and points of view, are generally inclined to recognize the central role of emotions in motivation, social communication, cognition and behavior. However, the merit of conceptual substantiation of the theory belongs to our contemporary, Sylvan Tomkins, whose brilliant two-volume work<Аффект, воображение, сознание>will be cited frequently throughout this book.

The theory of differential emotions is so named because the object of its study is private emotions, each of which is considered separately from the others, as an independent emotional-motivational process that affects the cognitive sphere and human behavior. The theory is based on five key theses: 1) ten fundamental emotions (which will be briefly defined in chapter 4 and discussed in detail in subsequent chapters) form the basic motivational system of human existence; 2) each fundamental emotion has unique motivational and implies a specific form of experience; 3) fundamental emotions, such as joy, sadness, anger or shame, are experienced in different ways and affect the cognitive sphere and human behavior in different ways; 4) emotional processes interact with drives, with homeostatic, perceptual, cognitive and motor processes and influence them; 5) in turn, drives, homeostatic, perceptual-cognitive and motor processes affect the course of the emotional process.

Emotions as the main motivational system

The theory of differential emotions recognizes the functions of the determinants of behavior in the widest range of its manifestations: from violence and murder, on the one hand, to acts of self-sacrifice and heroism, on the other. Emotions are considered not only as the main motivational system of the body, but also as fundamental personal processes giving meaning and meaning to human existence. They play an important role both in human behavior and in his inner world.

Six systems of personality organization

Personality is the result of a complex interaction of six systems: homeostatic, incentive (drive system), emotional, perceptual, cognitive and motor. Each system is to some extent autonomous and independent, and at the same time each of the systems is in some way related to the others.

The homeostatic system is essentially a series of intertwined and interdependent systems that operate automatically and unconsciously. Chief among these are the endocrine and cardiovascular systems, which are associated with personality due to frequent interaction with the emotional system. Homeostatic mechanisms are usually seen as ancillary to the emotional system, however hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and other metabolic regulators also play a role in the regulation and reinforcement-activated emotion.

The drive system is based on tissue changes and resulting deficits that signal to the individual the needs of the body. The fundamental drives are hunger, thirst, sexual desire, seeking comfort, and avoiding pain. It is difficult to dispute the important role of drives in situations of struggle for survival, but in everyday life (when basic needs and the need for comfort are satisfied), drives are psychologically significant only to the extent that they affect emotions. The exceptions are the sex drive and the pain avoidance drive, both of which have some of the characteristics of emotion in themselves. They inevitably interact with emotions, and it is because of this interaction that they play an important role in the organization of personality and behavior.

For the organization of the personality, for its social interaction and for human existence in the highest sense of the word, four systems are fundamentally important: emotional, perceptual, cognitive and motor. Their interaction forms the basis of true human behavior. The result of harmony in the relationships of systems is effective behavior. And vice versa, ineffective behavior, maladjustment is a direct consequence of a violation or improper implementation of systemic interaction.

Emotions and the emotional system

The theory of differential emotions comes from the fact that it recognizes the need to study individual emotions. However, the presence of a dozen fundamental emotions, which, in combination with drives and cognitive processes, form an innumerable set of affective-cognitive structures, makes it extremely difficult to study human motivation.

Practical psychologists in any of the fields of activity - in engineering, educational or clinical psychology - sooner or later inevitably come to an understanding of the specificity of individual emotions. When dealing with people, they see that people are happy, sad, angry, afraid, and not just<испытывают>some emotion. Nowadays, practicing psychologists use less and less general terms such as<эмоциональная проблема>, <эмоциональное нарушение>or<эмоциональное расстройство>, they try to analyze individual affects and affective complexes, considering them as motivational phenomena.

Definition of emotion. The theory of differential emotions defines emotion as a complex process that has neurophysiological, neuromuscular, and sensory-experiential aspects. The neurophysiological aspect of emotion is defined primarily in terms of the electrochemical activity of the central nervous system. The facial nerves, muscle tissue, and proprioceptors of the facial muscles are also involved in the emotional process. It is hypothesized that emotion is a function of the somatic nervous system (which controls voluntary movement) and that a somatically activated emotion mobilizes the autonomic nervous system (which regulates internal organs and systems, the state of body tissues), and that, in turn, can reinforce and enhance emotion.

At the neuromuscular, or expressive, level, emotion manifests itself primarily in the form of mimic activity, as well as pantomime, visceral-endocrine, and sometimes vocal reactions.

At the sensory level, emotion is an experience that has direct significance for the individual. The experience of emotion can cause a process in the mind that is completely independent of cognitive processes.

Neurochemical processes, following innate programs, cause complex mimic and somatic manifestations, which are then realized through feedback, as a result of which a person has a feeling / experience of emotion. This feeling/experience both motivates the person and alerts him to the situation. The innate response to the sensory experience of a positive emotion evokes a sense of well-being in the individual and encourages and sustains the approach response. Positive emotions contribute to the constructive interaction of a person with other people, with situations and objects. Negative emotions, on the contrary, are experienced as harmful and difficult to bear, evoke a withdrawal reaction and do not contribute to constructive interaction. We have already said that, despite the philistine division of emotions into positive and negative, the true sign of a particular emotional experience can only be determined taking into account the general context.

Concluding the discussion of the individual elements of the definition of emotion, it should be noted that emotion is not just an organismic reaction. It cannot be considered only as an action performed in response to some stimulating event or situation, it is in itself a stimulus, or cause, of our actions. Apparently, one can even say that emotions, to a greater or lesser extent, have the ability to self-generate. This statement seems especially true of the emotion of interest, which plays an unusually important role in our Everyday life motivating us to do something or another. Be that as it may, any activated emotion - no matter whether it is generated by sensory information (for example, pain sensation) or cognitive processes (evaluation, attribution) or was a response to some event - itself has a motivating, organizing influence on our thoughts and actions. In turn, both thinking and behavior, as well as the information stored in memory, have a counter-influence on it.

The systemic nature of emotions. Emotions are dynamically, but at the same time more or less stable, interconnected, so the theory of differential emotions considers them as a system (Cicchetti, 1990). Some emotions, due to the nature of their underlying innate mechanisms, are organized hierarchically. Even Darwin (Darwin, 1872) noted that attention can develop into surprise, and surprise -<в изумленное оцепенение>reminiscent of fear. Expanding on this observation, Thomkins (Tornkins, 1962) argues that the stimuli that evoke the emotions of interest, fear, and horror represent a kind of hierarchy in which a stimulus of moderate intensity arouses interest, and a stimulus of the greatest intensity, horror. The validity of this thesis can be seen if you observe the reaction of the child to an unfamiliar sound. Sound of moderate intensity arouses interest in the child. But if the unfamiliar sound is loud enough at the first presentation, it can frighten the child, and a very loud, sharp sound can terrify the child.

In favor of the systemic organization of emotions, such a characteristic as polarity also testifies. Obviously, there are emotions that are directly opposite to each other. The phenomenon of polarity has been observed by many researchers since Darwin (Darwin, 1872), and each of them has provided evidence in favor of its existence (Plutchik, 1962). Joy and sadness, anger and fear are the most common examples of polarity. It is possible to consider as opposite and such emotions as interest and disgust, shame and contempt. However, like concepts<позитивное>, <негативное>, polarity is not a characteristic that rigidly defines the relationship between emotions; polarity does not necessarily imply mutual negation. Sometimes opposites do not oppose each other, one of them can cause the other, and an example of this can be at least so understandable to us.<слезы радости>.

Other emotions, those that do not constitute polar pairs among themselves, under certain circumstances, can also be interconnected with each other. When a person encounters an unknown (potentially exciting, potentially dangerous) object or finds himself in a new situation, his interest can be transformed into fear. In the same way, contempt, mixed with joy and excitement, causes<воинствующий энтузиазм>(Lorenz, 1966). If a person regularly or quite often experiences two or more fundamental emotions at the same time, if at the same time they are associated with certain cognitive processes with a certain degree of obligation, this can lead to the formation of an affective-cognitive structure or even an affective-cognitive orientation. The descriptive term affective-cognitive orientation seems to be useful in understanding some personality traits. For example, a combination of emotions of interest and fear, associated with the idea that risk, overcoming danger contain an element of play, entertainment, leads to the formation of such an affective-cognitive orientation (or personality traits) as a thirst for adventure. However, the combination of interest and fear may be associated with the risk involved in research activities - in this case, the affective-cognitive orientation of a person will be curiosity.

Not only the striving for the structure of emotions described above allows us to define emotions as a system. In addition, emotions have some General characteristics. So, unlike drives, emotions are not cyclical: digestive or any other metabolic processes occurring in the body cannot make a person experience the emotion of interest, disgust or shame two or three times a day. Emotions, as a motivating factor, have versatility and flexibility. If the satisfaction of a physiological drive, such as hunger or thirst, requires very specific actions and quite objective food or drink, then emotions of joy, contempt, or fear can be caused by a variety of stimuli.

Emotions have a regulating effect on drives and other personality systems. This ability to regulate is one of the most important and most common functions of emotions: each emotion can increase or decrease the effect of another emotion, physiological drive, or affective-cognitive structure. For example, unreduced drives that are within the body's tolerance evoke emotion, which in turn reinforces the drive. Sexual attraction reinforced by the emotion of interest-excitation can become unbearable, while the emotion of disgust, fear or grief can weaken, mask, reduce or suppress it.

Biological systems at the service of emotions. There are two biological systems that serve the work of the human emotional system. These are the reticular system of the brain stem, which regulates changes in the level of neuronal activity, and the autonomously innervated visceral-endocrine system, which controls parameters such as hormonal secretion, heart rate, respiratory rate, etc. The visceral-endocrine system helps the body prepare for the directed action caused by emotion, and helps support both the emotion and the action.

The emotional system rarely functions independently of other systems. Some emotions or complexes of emotions almost always manifest themselves in interaction with the perceptual, cognitive and motor systems, and the effective functioning of the personality depends on how balanced and integrated the activity of various systems is. In particular, since the influence of any emotion - both intense and moderate - is generalized, then all physiological systems and organs are more or less involved in emotion. The effect of emotion on the body is evidenced by a specific response to emotion in the cardiovascular, respiratory and other functional systems.

Sources of emotion. The sources of emotion can be described in terms of neural, affective, and cognitive processes. At the neural level, the origin of emotion can be explained as the result of the activity of certain mediators and brain structures, with the help of which the incoming information is evaluated. At the affective level, the activation of emotion can be explained in terms of sensory-perceptual processes, and at the cognitive level, in terms of individual thought processes. The problem of cognitive activation of emotion has been studied much more than the other two types of activation, but nevertheless it is always useful to remember that, in addition to cognitive, there are also non-cognitive (neural, affective) sources of emotions. In the following chapters, we will talk in detail about the three types of activators, but for now, we will simply list them, providing appropriate examples.

1. Neural and neuromuscular activators:

a) naturally produced hormones and neurotransmitters;

b) narcotic drugs;

c) expressive behavior (facial expressions, pantomimics);

d) changes in brain blood temperature and subsequent neurochemical processes.

2. Affective activators:

b) sexual desire;

c) fatigue;

d) another emotion.

3. Cognitive activators:

a) assessment;

b) attribution;

c) memory;

d) anticipation.

The theory of differential emotions emphasizes that emotion can be caused directly by neurochemical and affective processes without the participation of cognitive ones. The above list of neural, neuromuscular, and affective emotion activators is a list of non-cognitive causes of the emotional process. In addition, the theory of differential emotions emphasizes that there is a genetically determined relationship between a specific emotion and the specific experience that accompanies it, and their separate existence in consciousness is acquired. It follows from this that facial expression and a person's reaction to their own emotion play an important role in the course and regulation of the emotional process. The reader who wishes to become more familiar with these provisions of the theory of differential emotions may refer to the works of Izard and Malatesta (Malatesta, 1987; lzard, 1990).

COMPLEX EMOTIONAL COMPLEXES IN CRITICAL LIFE SITUATIONS

Although the purpose of this work is to justify the discreteness of emotions, each of which will be devoted to a separate chapter, in the life of every person there are moments when he simultaneously experiences several emotions. It happens that one emotion prompts him to do one thing, and another dictates something opposite to him. We will consider the complex interaction of several emotions using the example of Mary's story about the crisis experienced by her at the age of seventeen.

At that time I was terribly unhappy. I thought my mother was a paranoid schizophrenic. Whatever I did, she was always dissatisfied, or rather, everything drove her crazy. Out of a sense of protest, in order to somehow assert my right to independence, I began to smoke, drink and<тусоваться>, - the latter especially angered her. At the end of everything, I began to live a sexual life in defiance of her.

I met Jeff shortly before I was seventeen. It seemed to me that I fell head over heels in love, and, given my age, I probably really was in love. We entered into a relationship by mutual agreement, and at least it was not a feeling of protest that pushed me to this, but still love. Later, however, I began to amuse myself with the thought that I was engaged in such affairs, from which, if my mother knew about it, her hair would stand on end. And at the same time I felt guilty, I understood that revengeful joy is not the best feeling. However, already at that time I began to doubt that I loved my mother - probably this was the problem. If before my love for her was unconditional - I simply adored her, now I increasingly asked myself - did I ever love her? I experienced a terrible internal conflict, I was overcome by a variety of, sometimes conflicting feelings. I remembered the past with longing, I got angry thinking about the present, and I felt guilty when I caught myself thinking that I didn’t love her. I asked myself - am I really so cruel that such thoughts come to my mind? But be that as it may, Jeff soon became the meaning of my life. He not only<вписался>in the company of my friends, he became a symbol of my protest against my mother.

Talking about her feelings, Maria does not mention how her heart was pounding when she was angry with her parents, she does not talk about the heaviness in her chest that she felt when she was overcome by longing. Experiencing a strong emotion, we often do not pay attention to its bodily manifestations, but nevertheless they take place and they are extremely important. In the story of Mary, mimic phenomena are not described, and this is not surprising. She talks about her deep feelings, describes the experiences that disturbed her heart and deposited in her mind. Despite the fact that in stressful conditions, facial expressions are one of the main ways a person communicates with loved ones, we are rarely aware of our facial expressions. During a heated argument with our parents or spouse, we do not think about what is written on our face, but meanwhile these<сообщения>carry very important information, and, whether we are aware of them or not, they are extremely prominent. If the emotion is genuine, then its facial expression occurs automatically and unconsciously, but the automated nature of the reaction does not detract from its significance.

After a few months of our friendship with Jeff, the thought came to me about how good, how<правильно>it would be if I conceived a child from him. It seemed to me that this is the most beautiful thing that love can create. And I also thought:<Уж от ЭТОГО она просто обалдеет!>On Saturday, when Jeff came to pick me up, I was at home alone. The day before I had had a big fight with my mother, and the mere memory of her made me sick. Jeff did not have condoms with him, but this circumstance did not bother me, I thought that at the crucial moment he would simply interrupt the act. But during our intimacy, I made a conscious decision. I do not know why, but I realized that he would not interrupt the act if I did not remind him. And I didn’t remind, although I knew very well that in the middle of the monthly cycle (and I was just in this period), the risk of getting pregnant is greatest. I kept silent because I knew that THIS would be the highest form of my protest against my parents. For the first time in months, I felt like I was in control of my life.

I was supposed to have my period two weeks later, but it didn't come. I felt a little uneasy, but I calmed myself, I told myself that this was just a failure of the menstrual cycle. It wasn't until the next month that I really got scared, when I didn't have my period again. But strangely - I experienced at the same time some feeling unfamiliar to me. The thought that I was carrying a child from a loved one awakened in my soul some kind of warm, joyful expectation. Now, I thought, Jeff and I had a bond that no one could break. No one could have done this, but it was Jeff who, when he heard about my pregnancy, decided that I was trying to marry him to myself in this way, and declared that he did not want to see me anymore.

I had another test - a conversation with my parents. I was terribly afraid of him, and I was also ashamed. If earlier I really wanted to take revenge on them for everything, to hurt them, now I didn’t want to at all. On the contrary, I felt that these were the people closest to me, I needed them, I needed them more than ever.

It was feelings, emotions that determined the train of thought and behavior of Mary. She was barely aware of the changes that were taking place in her body, and probably not at all aware of the expression on her face when she was angry or sad, but her sense of every emotion was piercingly sharp. Talking about how she felt angry or disgusted, experienced fear or loss, she talks about her feelings. And these sensations are presented in her mind as emotions, as experiences that predetermined her thoughts and actions.

From birth, a person is surrounded by sounds, colors, objects, people, in a word, everything that causes emotions. Among other mental processes (cognitive, volitional), emotions occupy a special place, since they affect both all components of cognition: sensation, perception, imagination, memory and thinking, and volitional processes.

In sensations, which can be pleasant or unpleasant, there is always an emotional tone. In the process of perception, the same object will appear differently in front of a joyful person, embittered or sad. Memorization will be more facilitated by a good mood. Emotional memory is quite strong: people with a developed emotional memory remember well the very feelings that once owned them. At the same time, emotions help a person to force painful memories out of consciousness.

The quality of thinking often depends on the emotional state: a joyful, happy person will solve the task assigned to him much more successfully, while misfortune, anxiety will complicate the solution process.

Positive emotions increase motivation, while negative emotions decrease it.

Strong-willed processes are also closely related to emotions: the emotional attractiveness of a goal multiplies a person’s strength and facilitates the implementation of a decision. People who are in a depressed state have a reduced ability to make a volitional decision. An indifferent person, with weakly expressed emotions, cannot be strong-willed either. Mood is reflected at all stages act of will, but also volitional processes at any stage can cause a variety of feelings.

Emotions, in accordance with their main characteristics, refer to each of the three types of mental phenomena: mental processes, mental states, and mental properties of a person.

Emotions as a mental process are characterized by short duration and dynamism, they have a fairly pronounced beginning and end. Emotional processes include, for example, sensual tone, situational emotions. Emotions as a mental state are distinguished by relative constancy and sufficient duration. They exist as a unity of human experience and behavior. Emotional states include moods and stress.

Affects, although they are short-term emotional reactions, also belong to mental states, in view of the fact that they form a holistic syndrome of emotional and behavioral reactions and have a long aftereffect. If emotional processes and states often arise and are experienced in the same way in similar situations, they acquire stability and are fixed in the structure of the personality, becoming emotional properties of the personality.

Like all emotional phenomena, they are characterized by sign, modality and strength. These can be such properties as cheerfulness, optimism, sensitivity, restraint or pessimism, insensitivity, irritability, etc. Some emotional properties, in particular poise, irascibility, resentment, depend on the properties of the nervous system and temperament.

Basically, the emotional properties of a person are formed in the process of human life, in a system of certain life situations and relationships as a result of the most frequently recurring emotional states. For example, when performing some activity, the child fails, which causes him negative emotions - grief, dissatisfaction with himself. If in such a situation adults support the child, help correct mistakes, the experienced emotions will remain a passing episode in his life. If failures are repeated (recall the famous painting by F.P. Reshetnikov “Again a deuce”) and the child is reproached, shamed, called incapable or lazy, he usually develops an emotional state of frustration. This is expressed in long-term, negative experiences, in the loss of interest in this activity, its disorganization and even worse results. If the existing system of relations persists for a long time, frustration becomes a stable way of responding to failures and turns into a personality trait - frustration.

Now the child considers each of his failures to be natural, he loses self-confidence, he develops low self-esteem, and the level of claims decreases. Psychological correction manifestations of frustration presents significant difficulties, although it is possible with the correct organization of the child's activities, taking into account his interests and abilities, with changes in living conditions and the system of relationships with people around him.

There is an interdependence between emotional processes, states and personality traits. The emotional properties of a person are formed as a reinforcement of emotional states. Subsequently, they become an important factor determining the course of all emotional processes and states.

In ontogenesis, stable complexes of emotional properties are formed, which determine the emotionality of the personality as a whole. Emotionality is an integrative property of a person that characterizes the content, quality and dynamics of emotions and feelings.

Emotionality is manifested in the sign and modality of dominant emotions, in the features of their occurrence and external expression, in the readiness and ability to open to other people the world of their experiences, emotional stability and the nature of emotional well-being, etc.

A person with a predominance of positive emotions is characterized by a joyful attitude. In a state of joy, inspiration, happiness, a person experiences a surge of strength, his working capacity increases, and friendly relationships with other people are formed. But at the same time, it is important that positive emotions fulfill their main adaptive function - reflect the objective relationship of environmental influences to the needs of the subject. If this function weakens or is lost and positive emotions have no reason, one of the forms of emotion pathology develops - euphoria.

This is an emotional state of increased inadequate cheerfulness with a decrease in critical thinking. Euphoria hinders normal life, work and communication. The adaptive function of negative emotions is also very important for a person, as it gives him information about the harmfulness or danger of the environment. Fear, for example, can awaken forces in a person that he did not even suspect, and thereby save his life. But if negative emotions dominate the behavior and structure of the personality, the psychological appearance of a person changes.

With the dominance of anger, an aggressive, conflict personality is formed. With the dominance of fear, a person develops anxiety, anxiety, shyness, timidity. In extreme forms of the predominance of negative emotions, a person perceives everything in a gloomy light, he develops depression, which is expressed in a pronounced passivity, a decrease or complete lack of interest in the world around him.

In these cases, a person needs psychological or psychiatric help. Depression can be caused by grief caused by tragic circumstances, illness, or bereavement. Helping a person experiencing a strong, irreplaceable asthenic reaction is to give him the opportunity to speak out, empathize with him, to contribute to the formation of a new life perspective and new meanings.

People differ greatly among themselves in terms of dominant emotions and their external expression, ability and desire to reveal their inner world, their feelings. Some people are characterized by strong feelings and a violent manifestation of emotions. Others are more calm and reserved emotionally.

Full openness of feelings for other people is inherent only in children. As they grow older, they begin to care about the integrity of their inner experiences and master the ability to restrain them. external manifestations. More restrained emotional behavior characteristic of introverts. This is also the result of upbringing, lack of communication. There are also certain gender differences. Men are more restrained in expressing feelings.

The inability or unwillingness to disclose one's feelings often creates difficulties in communication and hinders the constructive resolution of conflicts. People show their emotions in different ways in official settings and in intimate and personal communication. The warmth of relationships, friendship, love help a person overcome the barrier of restraint and isolation. For example, trainings to improve communicative competence include special exercises that develop the ability to analyze one's emotions and feelings and adequately use them in communication processes.

Emotional stability is manifested in varying degrees of sensitivity to emotional stimuli and in varying degrees of violation of mental mechanisms of regulation under the influence of emotional arousal. With high emotional stability, a stronger stimulus is required to evoke emotion.

Emotions arising in the process of activity do not reduce its effectiveness. A person can maintain control over their emotions and cope with stress more successfully. Emotional stability depends on both psychophysiological and psychological factors. The former include the properties of the nervous system, the latter - complex mechanisms of self-regulation and behavior control, formed in the process of educating the individual.

L.S. Vygotsky showed that these mechanisms are based on a complex and ambiguous relationship between emotions and thinking. On the one hand, comprehension of one's emotions leads to their weakening or even destruction.

The American psychologist E. Titchener argued that attention is hostile to emotions if it is focused directly on them. On the other hand, emotions and thinking function in the human mind as a whole. This is what L.S. Vygotsky the principle of the unity of affect and intellect in the structure of human behavior and activity. The decision on this or that action is made by a person in the process of carefully weighing all the circumstances and motives. When actions and deeds are carried out only on the basis of the arguments of the mind, they are less successful than when supported by emotions. Usually a specific act of behavior begins and ends with an emotional assessment of the situation and the decision made, but the thought dominates.

If a person is unable to recognize and comprehend his emotions, he cannot gain power over them. In this case, emotionality takes over intellect, which may result in impulsive decision making, or various forms inappropriate behavior: incontinence, aggressiveness, increased anxiety, unreasonable fun, etc. The inability to cope with one's emotions is especially pronounced in difficult critical situations, for example, in conditions of conflict, lack of time or over-motivated activity. So, emotionally unstable schoolchildren usually show lower results when performing responsible tasks. control works or in exams.

Knowing the characteristics of the emotionality of another person contributes to the understanding of his actions and deeds, the establishment of adequate forms and methods of communication with him, the rational organization of activities. Emotional stability is a necessary condition for the successful implementation of many types of professional activity, including pedagogical . The teacher's work is characterized by high dynamism, tension, abundance conflict situations, a variety of problems requiring quick and non-trivial solutions. At the same time, it is important that the teacher be able to competently cope with emerging emotions and affects, not succumb to feelings of irritation, resentment, antipathy. In the psychological appearance of a teacher, such emotional qualities as calmness, prudence, restraint of impulsive reactions, and the ability to control one's emotional state are important.

The peculiarity of the emotional sphere of a person largely determines the specifics of his behavior, activities, communication, attitude to life and emotional well-being. Each individual develops an individual system of fluctuations in emotional well-being, a feeling of being happy or unhappy. B.I. Dodonov figuratively called this kind of fluctuation an "emotional pendulum".

For some people, emotional well-being approaches the “happiness” pole, for others it approaches the “unhappiness” pole. Differences in emotional well-being are often observed in people who are objectively in similar living conditions. This means that the feeling of being happy or unhappy depends not only on the circumstances of life, but also on the needs and character of a person, his values ​​and meanings, the characteristics of his emotionality and personality as a whole.