Knowledge about how some people influence the behavior of others through the manipulation of consciousness is accumulated in science, in art, and in everyday experience. Science, for example, seeking to ensure the objectivity of research, is obliged to study reality impartially, without giving anyone or anything moral assessments. For such an attitude, a real researcher is likened to an unbiased outside observer who is only present at these feverish disputes between two opponents, at clashes of different opinions, different views, and watches with interest how it all ends and in which direction things will turn. Guided by the principle of objectivity, the author must hear and understand all voices, without giving an advantage either for ideological or aesthetic reasons) to any of them. He only shows them in real interaction with each other and the very image of the course of the discussion between them seems to convince them of the impossibility for both to do without each other. This is the guarantor of stability and balance in relations between them. In other words, the researcher objectively describes the structure of the manipulation process itself, its technique and systems of techniques. This is a technological approach.
Other possibilities of influencing a person's consciousness are represented by works of art, in particular literature, theater and cinema, which, delving into the soul of a person, explore the motives of her actions, as well as the reasons for the gullibility of the victims of manipulation - all this through the prism of the moral norms of a particular culture. Describing the inner world of all participants in the act of manipulating consciousness, word artists sometimes create complex models, which subsequently become the subject of scientific research for a long time. For example, in the novel "The Brothers Karamazov", F. Dostoevsky created a kind of proving model of the manipulation algorithm, which, under certain conditions, works almost flawlessly. The greatest achievement of this "model algorithm" genre is the murder of Karamazov's father. This is a critical experiment that Dostoevsky staged and described with undeniable artistic persuasiveness. It is no coincidence that it is analyzed in the literature on the history and methodology of science. Since this directly relates to the topic of our study, we will dwell on it in more detail.
Let us briefly recall the essence of the matter. The desire for his father's death, invisibly and implicitly for him, determines some of the thoughts of one of Karamazov's sons, Ivan, at the beginning of the novel. However, this secret trickery is caught by Smerdyakov, the servant of Father Karamazov, and catches it with absolute distinctness and certainty. Ivan, according to Dostoevsky's plan, wants the murder of his father, but on the condition that he personally, not only outwardly, but also inwardly, remain uninvolved in him. He wants the murder to happen as a fatal inevitability, not only against his will, but in spite of him. According to N.M. Bakhtin, the most authoritative researcher of F.M. Dostoevsky, the internally dynamic decomposition of Ivan's will can be represented in the form of two replicas:
- "I do not want the murder of my father. If it happens, it is beyond my will."
“But I want the murder to take place against this will, because then I will be internally innocent of it and will not be able to reproach myself for anything.”
On the other hand, Smerdyakov catches, or rather, clearly hears the second replica of this internal dialogue, but understands the loophole hidden in it in his own way: as Ivan’s desire not to give him any evidence that would indicate his complicity in the crime, as the extreme external and internal caution of the “smart a person "who avoids any direct words that could convict him, and with whom therefore" it is interesting to talk, "since one can only talk in hints: it is not at all necessary, the words were said directly between the accomplices; it is enough that each of them had one thing in their hearts and in their thoughts.
Smerdyakov considers the thirst for the death of Karamazov's father to be quite a simple and organic conclusion from his (Ivan) statement that "everything is allowed if there is no God" (let us recall here the distorted scale of human values, which "orients" it to a certain programmed action; in the future, only a push is needed to action, and Ivan's departure will be such an impetus). Smerdyakov subtly guesses that in Ivan's soul there is a place for him, Smerdyakov, and there is a desire and an unconscious readiness to meet this voice and hear it. Smerdyakov confidently and firmly begins to dominate Ivan's hidden will (hidden from himself), or rather, gives this will concrete forms of a definite expression of will. Thanks to Smerdyakov, Ivan's hidden desire, through the second internal remark ("I want the murder to take place against my will, because then I will be internally innocent of it"), thanks to Smerdyakov, turns from a desire into an act. In other words, to put it in ordinary language, Ivan "pours out the heat with the wrong hands": by his departure to Chermashnya, he actually authorizes the murder of his father by the hands of Smerdyakov, or rather, by his behavior provokes the actions that led to the murder, while remaining for public opinion(and his own too) opponent of this murder. In fact, Smerdyakov was only the executor of Ivan's will, "the devoted servant of Licharda," who was ordered by Ivan's second voice. It should be noted that Smerdyakov, with the help of hints and "information", received confirmation of his guesses that Ivan not only did not mind having his father killed, but would in no way interfere with this. Moreover, according to Smerdyakov, Ivan learns that the death of his father is very beneficial for him, since suspicion of murder will fall on Dmitry, his brother, as a result of which all his father's fortune will pass into his hands and brother Alexei. If the murder does not take place, then the old one, having married his mistress Grushenka, will transfer all his property to her. Smerdyakov directly tells Ivan about this: “Agrafena Alexandrovna will marry them in order to rewrite everything for themselves ... And when your parent dies now, while there is still nothing of this, then each of you will have forty thousand, even Dmitry Fedorovich, whom they (that is, the father) hate so much, because they never made a will. Dmitry Fedorovich knows this very well "(who will be suspected, since Dmitry formally threatened to kill his father for a long time). It is noteworthy that Alexey provides for the fact that Ivan - a "deep conscience" - will inevitably, sooner or later, give a categorical answer to himself: I killed. But to oneself, according to Dostoevsky's plan, one cannot answer differently. If in the first two dialogues Ivan is convinced that he was internally involved in the murder, since he really sought it and unambiguously expressed his desire, then in the last dialogue he also learns about his actual, external involvement in the murder. Ivan's mental illness at the end of the novel is the actual moral retribution for the crime committed.
Above, we have described in detail the individual methods of targeted manipulative influence in the process of human interaction. No less attention, in turn, deserves the psychology of "natural" manipulation, when we ourselves become manipulators, sometimes not suspecting it, not realizing the reasons that pushed us onto such a slippery path of forming relationships with people. Given the urgency of this problem, let us dwell on it in more detail.
Someone at one time mustered up the courage and called human species Nomo Sapiens. When, over time, we realized that, after all, we were not as smart as we were pleased to think, the new fashion chose the words Nomo Faber-man-creator to define our species. But the term faber, though not as dubious as sapiens, seems even less characteristic of human truth. There is a third function inherent in both people and animals, and no less important for understanding and creation. This is a game. It seems that almost on the same level with Nomo Sapiens and Nomo Faber, Nomo Ludens deserves its place in our nomenclature - a person who plays: no matter what a person does, everything is a game.
Perhaps this fact explains the fact that between the two options - "play" or "live" - modern man does not choose "play" at all by chance.
The world is a theater and only a select few are allowed backstage.
Modern man confused, she only knows how to pretend. The vast majority of people are empty, leading a life filled with internal compulsion, a life of intense and painful play of social roles. And this world of roles is presented by people as a real reality, and most people use it without having a more attractive alternative. As a result of long-term observations and intense reflection, against the background of all this, a person develops the conviction that the main thing in life is visibility, because social life itself is visibility, a performance, and the person himself has become a spectator of this performance. It is not possible to break away from him, because before the eyes of a person there are images that are much more vivid and attractive than those that she sees in her real life. The characters created are more real than life itself. The spectator of the performance consumes its standard "packages", gets used to them, becomes saturated with them, at the same time remaining out of reality and out of real human contacts, in his own closed inner virtual reality.
Despite what is happening in the world, even the most gloomy misanthrope will have fun.
L. Vauvenargues
In the situation that has arisen, a modern person remains alone with herself, perfectly realizing, in turn, she can only more or less successfully perform roles that, first of all, bother her.
Since others also play roles, as a result of realizing this, pain and loneliness are born in the soul of a person. But, on the other hand, it seems to a person that when she leaves these roles, she will feel weak, vulnerable, and such thoughts give rise to aggression in her soul as defensive reaction in the form of endless manipulations.
Therefore, between the two options - live or play, a person consciously chooses to "play", because this guarantees her personal security, or at least that minimum of psychological security, without which she feels uncomfortable.
It is for this reason that, being in such an unsightly situation, driven and tired, we learn to become first-class actors, become masters of manipulation (as we convinced ourselves of this), which makes it possible to balance on the shaky edge of interpersonal relationships.
Each of us makes up a big theater for the other: "I am a performance in relation to which you are only spectators," says one of the heroes of P. Bourget's novel The Apprentice.
Instead of getting to know others and establishing a full-fledged human connection with them, we first of all worry about how to make a good impression on them, put ourselves on display, play with people enough to even get psychological benefits from this. All we need is a passive spectator and at the same time a person who is compassionate towards us, in front of whom we can play our drama or comedy.
God gave each of us one face, and we got ourselves another: instead of a "natural" face, we got a mask, a "social face", a notice board that people look at and usually do not penetrate further. On the other hand, this mask invented by us, voluntarily put on ourselves, becomes a kind of self-defense for us, is a manifestation of protest against the devaluation of the human in a person. Putting on a mask becomes simply a necessity, because otherwise there is no place for a person in society; without a mask, they will simply cease to perceive and understand it, they will not know how to treat it and what to expect from it. Over time, we ourselves get so used to our masks, they grow so close to our face that very soon we cease to recognize ourselves under them.
If a person is freed from everything that it is not, then his true substance will remain, a person in general, humanity, living in him, which is in another. This is her essence, which, due to circumstances, is disguised, diminished, distorted.
G. Simmel
The choice to "play" is so overwhelming that we do not neglect it even in such a delicate area as legal marriage. Rather, on the contrary, it is here that we find ourselves in all our beauty and irresistibility. So what do you mean?
Upon careful consideration of the relationship between spouses, it is not difficult to guess that both partners secretly, consciously or unconsciously, depending on the situation, enter into a delicate deal among themselves, according to which a certain type of interaction is established between them, regulated by the following condition: I allow the partner to stimulate, support and change in me those traits of character and behavior that correspond to how I see myself or how I would like to see myself. Thus, by impeccably fulfilling the role that is required of him, the partner in this way makes us a "real" person; it is impossible to become "real" without it.
But why, you ask, should someone perform this or that role for me, even if it is a close person? There are reasons for that.
First, the role that the partner has to play in order to make me feel "real" may be the same role that he wants to play in order to fulfill his own "reality" (actually, a mental image of his "I"). However, all this comedy can only continue until one of the partners begins to make the first and hopeless attempts to break out, to slip out of the relationship, which has turned into shackles and is becoming more and more unbearable for him (here it must be clarified: we are rarely tied to a person by something than she was so attracted in the beginning).
The second reason why a partner can voluntarily take on a complementary role and thus enable us to fully realize ourselves as a person associated with an adequate reward for the services provided.
Their levers do not marry out of love - greed and calculation.
Shakespeare
Disappointment invariably arises when peace in a relationship, built on a certain tacit agreement, a "secret plot", is violated by some new expectations or requirements of partners (the fact that such expectations arise is not at all surprising, because life develops and makes adjustments to attitudes of people to which they are not able to adequately respond in a permanent mode). Then, in order to continue to "normally", that is, decently, exist (more precisely, coexist), since it is both convenient and profitable for both, the partners inevitably have to lie. And this is not surprising, because we rarely speak the truth in its pure form, as a rule, when we do not need anything from each other or when someone has the right to demand it from us. In all other cases, we consciously operate only with convenient "simply truths". But the most interesting thing here is that relationships that are based on lies, as it turns out, are no less reliable than those that are supposedly built on the truth, which, in fact, is nothing more than a masterfully disguised lie, a lie that has not yet been expose. In line with such reasoning, the enigmatic phrase once expressed by Sun Tzu becomes clear: "All prosperity is based on deceit."
I don't know, real love gives such a sharp joy as a subtle and refined deceit.
A. Balzac
at the same time, the real drama is generated by the fact that our unwillingness to live a lie inevitably dooms us to loneliness; this, perhaps, is main reason avoiding loneliness, we are involuntarily drawn into this common lie (here, as they say, "choose" less of two evils "), which is a condition for the" normal "existence of society, since there is a great risk that without it all may fall apart. In other words, to what extent evil is a necessary condition and form of the existence of good, so lies are a necessary condition and form of existence of people.
So, as you can see, we become masters of manipulation not of our own free will.
There are many different manipulations in relationships between people, but if they are reduced to general formulas, it turns out that there are only four main manipulation strategies, described in detail by American psychologists B. Shostrom and E. Fromm.
Active manipulation strategy. The person who uses it seeks to control other people through active measures. Under no circumstances will she demonstrate her weakness and in any circumstances she will play the role of a person full of strength. She exploits the weakness of other people and gains control over them.
It is not difficult to raise oneself; it's hard to be yourself.
Same. Michelet
passive manipulation strategy. A passive manipulator is the exact opposite of an active one. He pretends to be helpless, and often even stupidly, but let us not be misled by such a cunning move: the weak consciously belittles himself, so that later, when we lose vigilance, he will soar and take us by surprise. Whereas the active manipulator wins by defeating opponents, the passive manipulator wins by being defeated. By allowing the active manipulator to think and do for him, the passive manipulator wins a landslide victory.
I call a neurotic anyone who uses his powers to manipulate others instead of improving himself.
competitive manipulation strategy. Some people live in struggle, peace, as they say, they only dream of. Life for them is a constant tournament, a chain of wins and losses. Other people for such a manipulator act as rivals or enemies, real or potential.
Indifference manipulation strategy. The person who professes this strategy is playing at indifference. She tries to move away, to get away from contacts. her motto is "I don't care". In fact, she doesn't care at all. However, she never confesses her interest, hidden from prying eyes; she forces others to make the decisions necessary for him, hiding behind a mask of sleek indifference.
However, the manipulator should not be blamed, rather, on the contrary, he deserves pity and even sympathy. He himself suffers from his manipulations more than others (although he is not always aware of this), because he pays for his neurotic strategies with loneliness and a painful sense of the meaninglessness of an existence that is actually empty if there is no sincerity in it. Manipulators do not become from a good life.
The tragedy of our life is that modern man, as a result of his endless manipulation, has lost every opportunity to express himself directly and creatively, and lowered himself to the level of a troubled automaton that spends all its time holding on to the past and insuring itself for the future. Modern man gropes his way through life, using an arsenal of blind masks and evasive statements, and has no idea how rich and colorful the world is.
E. Shostrom
What motivates a person to adopt this or that manipulative strategy?
The main and first reason for manipulation is banal "indecency". The fact is that a person never trusts himself completely. Consciously or subconsciously, she always thinks that her salvation is in other people, but he does not completely trust them either. A contradiction arises, which prompts her to take the slippery path of manipulation: to force, bind, recognize, retreat, etc.
The second reason that makes us become manipulators is even more paradoxical: it seems to a person that the more successful she is, the more they love her. But this is obviously insane. Who will love even an ideal, but cold statue? One cannot but be wary of everything perfect and brought to the limit, because if it alone wins, then there will be almost nothing left for which it would be worth moving on. Man is a being who lives primarily by his imperfection and thanks to it. Everything perfect bores her. Perfection, like any ideal philosophical system, is terrible; like everything that is at rest, it means the end of life.
In line with such reasoning, even such a bright feeling as love is needed not by those who are ideal, but by those who are sinners, so that under the influence of these unusual feelings they have a motivation not so much even for self-improvement, but to search for oneself, to scout out the limits of their abilities. And finally, it gives a person a chance to come to terms with himself.
As for the manipulator, love as such is unknown to him; moreover, it is unacceptable for him. In fact, all manipulators love another person as Tantalus would love a kind angel who would satisfy his hunger, his thirst. All they achieve is an alternative to love, namely a desperate, complete power over another person, which makes it possible to make their own thing out of it. Therefore, they seek not so much to experience love as to inspire it in others and through it control others, to assert themselves as a person, collecting their "victories" over people, not realizing that these victories are actually designed to hide personal defeat. Love for manipulators is the construction of a pedestal for personal comfort within the limits and forms, as they understand it; the establishment and further strengthening of power, which is based on the dependence of other people on them. Only in this way do they feel safe, relative of course.
Everything that draws support from the "I" is nutritious. Anything to do with manipulation and coercion is toxic.
The third reason for manipulation lies in our fears. By and large, people are terrible cowards. We are afraid that someone will say something bad about us or think that we will be deceived, offended, "set up". Driven by these fears, we defend ourselves with manipulations, act proactively, preventively, that is, we ourselves say something bad to someone or think, deceive (consoling ourselves that this is for the good), offend (with the goal of "education"), "substitute" without noticing it.
The fourth reason for manipulation is the need to gain acceptance from everyone and everyone with whom one encounters. And in this desire lies the most important thing. Let's try to explain what is the peculiarity of this phenomenon.
Everyone wants, first of all, the triumph of pride, O. Balzac once wrote. All people - "drug addicts" are "on the needle" desire for recognition; we are all afraid of disapproval of us as a person from others, especially people who are significant to us.
The factor that explains the fear of disapproval is the huge discrepancy between how we show ourselves and how we really are, between the facade we show both to the world and to ourselves, and all those repressed neurotic tendencies, that are hidden behind this facade. Everyone is fighting only for the external facade, for a presentable "I", everyone is playing in the play, trying to put themselves out to divert attention. By painting the façade and exposing it "for show," they try all the more reliably to distract their gaze from their true "I."
There are people with one facade, like houses, unfinished for lack of funds; at the entrance - a palace, at housing - a shack.
Gracien
This state of affairs predetermines the opposite motivation of a person, which is realized in the form of playing polar opposite roles as a means of psychological protection type of "exaggeration-application", depending on what hypostasis of the personality is assessed from the outside. The real reason for role-playing is an attempt to hide the secret contained behind the externally attractive, painted facade, which lies in the absence of its core in the personality, that is, the true "I". Such behavior is a means of hoax, deceit, which, in addition to all that has been said, is designed to hide a person’s inferiority complex, which, like a press, constantly puts pressure on her and sometimes makes her do outwardly illogical and far from noble acts. Just as a weather vane changes position depending on the direction of the wind, so a person tries on one or another role, depending on the circumstances, which would help her stay afloat. Such conscious and unconscious role-playing can be compared to scales, the bowls of which are constantly trying to outweigh each other, depending on the situation in which the person finds himself and the goal that she sets.
If we compare that bowl of watts that pulls down with the paralyzing fear that fills a person, then the shawl that rises up will correspond to excessive pretention and an excessive desire to be significant (excessive pride and ambition), constantly and simultaneously act in a person. If I want, for example, to be sympathetic to every person, then my "I" creates in itself a clearly overestimated, illusory-overestimated self-consciousness (self-confidence). I will try to fulfill the role that corresponds to the idol "I" (the idol role). But, the fear that this will not be possible and that I will soon be exposed gives rise to defensive defensive behavior and leads to the role of protection. Every absolute (exaggerated) harassment "I'm cool" is pushed out by fear ("I'm afraid of not being considered "cool").
As a result, a person begins to fussily run, flounder between two fires from the "I-dream", that is, from self-capture, to, in most cases, an unconscious sense of one's own inferiority, which actually determines the personality and directs its real behavior.
The one who seeks to win the attention of other people has not yet found himself.
Sh. Volshtein
Whether one should be surprised that after all these manipulations a person finds himself in a trap of loneliness, the reason for which is distrust both in other people and, above all, in oneself.
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If we want to apply the knowledge of psychology in our lives, it is important for us to know a whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can provide reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon under study. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, to characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that every reader can use them in everyday life.
Methods of psychology return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent form of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on only one method, several methods can be created. It is also an indisputable fact that psychological science there is no unambiguous set of research methods.
In this lesson, we divided the methods of psychology into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology and methods of practical psychology:
Fundamental (general) psychology doing psychological research general patterns the human psyche, his beliefs, ways of behavior, character traits, as well as what affects all this. In ordinary life, the methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for researching, analyzing and predicting people's behavior.
Practical (or Applied) Psychology is aimed at working with specific people, and its methods allow for psychological procedures designed to change mental condition and behavior of the subject.
Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology
Methods of theoretical psychology are the means and techniques by which researchers are able to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and draw up practical recommendations. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, influence environment and education, etc.
Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, there are methods scientific research and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.
EXAMPLE: If an employee of the organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then in order to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.
It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used in a complex way and are "sharpened" for each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the problem and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. there must be a specific goal. And only after that you need to choose a method.
So, the methods of theoretical psychology.
Observation
In psychology under observation refers to purposeful perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that was widely used only in late XIX century. At first it was applied in developmental psychology, as well as pedagogical, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in labor psychology. Observation is usually used in cases where it is not recommended or impossible to interfere with the natural process of the course of events.
There are several types of observation:
- Field - in ordinary life;
- Laboratory - in special conditions;
- Indirect;
- Immediate;
- Included;
- Not included;
- Direct;
- indirect;
- solid;
- Selective;
- systematic;
- Unsystematic.
As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher can disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and to fully capture the behavior of a person / people. The important features of observation are:
- Impossibility or difficulty of re-observation;
- Emotional coloring of observation;
- Communication of the observed object and the observer.
Observation is carried out to identify various features of behavior - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:
- Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
- Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eye expression, body position, movement expression, etc.
- Movement of people: distance, manner, features, etc.
That is, the object of observation is something that can be fixed visually. The researcher in this case observes not mental properties, but registers the obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about the manifestation of what mental characteristics they are, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about mental properties individual.
How is the observation carried out?
The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. The most objective conclusions can be drawn if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize different results. It should also be observed when observing certain requirements:
- Observations should not affect the natural course of events;
- It is better to observe different people, because there is an opportunity to compare;
- Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained during past observations should be taken into account.
Observation consists of several stages:
- Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
- Determination of the method of observation;
- Choice of data registration method;
- Create a plan;
- The choice of the method of processing the results;
- Observation;
- Processing of received data and their interpretation.
It is also necessary to decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance maps). Observation is often confused with experiment. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:
- The observer does not affect the process;
- The observer registers exactly what he observes.
There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies that observations are made according to certain rules and precautions. The following are examples:
- If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
- Researchers must not allow participants to be harmed in any way during the course of the research.
- Researchers should minimize their intrusion into participants' privacy.
- Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.
Every person, even without being a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the method of observation in order to obtain data regarding any issue, if necessary.
EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or circle. To make the right choice, you need to identify its predispositions, i.e. to which it gravitates by itself without external influence. To do this, you need to make an observation. Look at the child from the outside what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural inclination for drawing and you can try to send him to art school. If he likes to disassemble / assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. The constant craving for the ball suggests that it is worth giving it to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or teachers at school to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son constantly bullies and fights with the boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll in the section of some martial art. If your daughter loves to braid her girlfriends, then she might be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.
There are many options for monitoring. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to define and think through best ways their observations.
Psychological experiment
Under experiment in psychology, they understand an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life of the subject. In the process of research, the scientist changes a certain factor / factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.
There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):
- Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
- Natural - held in normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
- Psychological and pedagogical - when a person / group of people learn something and form certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
- Pilot - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.
There are also experiments on the level of awareness:
- Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
- Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
- Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.
Organization of the experiment process
The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being carried out, with whom and under what conditions. Further, certain relations must be established between the subject and the scientist, and instructions are given to the subject (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained are processed and interpreted.
Experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:
- Objectivity of the received data;
- Reliability of received data;
- Validity of the received data.
But, despite the fact that the experiment is one of the most respected methods of research, it has both pros and cons.
- Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
- Possibility of repeating;
- The ability to change certain factors, thereby affecting the result.
Cons (according to some experts):
- The psyche is difficult to study;
- The psyche is fickle and unique;
- The psyche has the property of spontaneity.
For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on the data of this method alone in their results and must resort to combining with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, the APA Code of Ethics must also be adhered to.
It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of graduates and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained in the course of independent experiments will be purely subjective. But some information can still be obtained.
EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about the behavior of people in certain circumstances, to see how they will react to something, and perhaps even to understand the course of their thoughts. Model some situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be cited: a person was interested in how people around him react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in transport. To do this, he took his friend, who filmed what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned on his neighbor. The reaction of people was different: someone moved away, someone woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, someone sat peacefully, putting his shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, it was concluded that people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is only the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.
When conducting your personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.
Introspection
Introspection It is observation of oneself and the peculiarities of one's behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in the psychology and life of a person. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgotten something, but it is not known why). That is why self-observation, although it is an important research method, cannot be the main and independent in the process of understanding the essence of the manifestations of the psyche.
The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on the self-esteem of a person. For example, people with low self-esteem are more prone to introspection. And the result of hypertrophied self-observation can be self-digging, obsession with wrong actions, guilt, self-justification, etc.
Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:
- Keeping personal records (diary);
- Comparison of self-observation with the observations of others;
- Increased self-esteem;
- Psychological training for personal growth and development.
The use of self-observation in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.
EXAMPLE: Do you want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (in communication with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits(negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of awareness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking now) and your actions (what you are doing in this moment). Try to analyze what causes you certain reactions (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). For what "hooks" people and circumstances pull you. Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just watch what is happening inside you and what is contributing to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion on the topic of what you should cultivate in yourself, and what you should start getting rid of.
The regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on the inner world of a person and, as a result, on its external manifestations.
Psychological testing
Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and is engaged in the study psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers in hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn more about a person’s personality, which cannot be done using a conversation or a survey.
The main characteristics of psychological tests are:
- Validity - the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
- Reliability - conformity of the received results at repeated testing;
- Reliability - the property of the test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
- Representativeness - compliance with the norms.
A truly effective test is created through trials and modifications (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.
There are different types of tests:
- Career guidance tests - to determine a person's predisposition to any type of activity or compliance with the position;
- Personality tests - to study the character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
- Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
- Verbal tests - to study the ability of a person to describe in words the actions performed;
- Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.
There are other options for tests aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometry, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.
Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to get to know yourself or the people you care about better.
EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But here's what you don't know. Find some career orientation tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you did not even know about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you have a penchant for. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something to your liking. In addition, it is also good that a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, in addition, begins to earn more.
Psychological testing contributes to a deeper understanding of yourself, your needs and abilities, and often also indicates the direction for further development. personal development.
biographical method
Biographical method in psychology- this is a method by which a person's life path is investigated, diagnosed, corrected and projected. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, the personality is studied in the context of the history and prospects of its individual development. Here it is supposed to obtain data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.
This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers who study the life of some people, and simply in communication between little-known people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compose it psychological portrait.
EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person this is, what are the characteristics of his personality, what is his life experience, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to a person, let him tell you the facts from his biography and some significant moments on his life path. Ask about what he can tell about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills and training. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant to both interlocutors.
Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and see their strengths and weak sides, as well as to present a possible perspective of interaction with him.
Poll
Poll- a verbal-communicative method, during which there is an interaction between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the researcher (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained in the course of the study. Typically, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, not just one person.
Polls are divided into:
- Standardized - strict and giving a general idea of the problem;
- Non-standardized - less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.
In the process of creating surveys, first of all, programmatic questions are formulated that are understandable only to specialists. After that, they are translated into questionnaire questions that are more understandable to the average layman.
Types of surveys:
- Written allows you to get superficial knowledge about the problem;
- Oral - allows you to penetrate into the psychology of a person more deeply than written;
- Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
- personality tests- to determine the mental characteristics of the individual;
- Interview - a personal conversation (also applies to the method of conversation).
When writing questions, you need to follow some rules:
- Separateness and conciseness;
- Exclusion of specific terms;
- brevity;
- specificity;
- Without hints;
- Questions provide non-template responses;
- Questions should not be repulsive;
- Questions should not suggest anything.
Depending on the tasks, the questions are divided into several types:
- Open - offering answers in free form;
- Closed - offering prepared answers;
- Subjective - about a person's attitude to something / someone;
- Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).
A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to establish the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a particular issue.
EXAMPLE: You are the director of a service firm and you need to get the opinion of your employees about improving working conditions and attracting more customers. In order to do this as quickly and efficiently as possible, you can create (for example, together with an in-house analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve the tasks. Namely: to make the process of work of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (perhaps very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need to make the atmosphere in the team better and the work delivered positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all kinds of methods to improve your business. And, thirdly, you will probably be able to single out a promising and promising person from the general mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving general indicators enterprises.
Polls and questionnaires are a great way to get important and up-to-date information on topical topics from a large number of people.
Conversation
Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its purpose is to identify a special range of issues that are not available in the process of direct observation. The conversation is widely used in psychological research and is of great practical importance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.
The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of study. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:
- It is necessary to think over the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
- Establish contact with the researched person;
- Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
- All questions asked during the conversation should be clear;
- Leading questions should not lead to answers;
- During the conversation, you need to observe the reaction of a person and compare his behavior with his answers;
- The content of the conversation should be memorized so that later it can be recorded and analyzed;
- Do not take notes during the conversation, because this can cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
- Pay attention to the "subtext": omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.
conversation like psychological method contributes to obtaining information from the “original source” and establishing more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know the interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives”.
EXAMPLE: Zhiteisky. You notice that your close friend has been walking around with a drooping and dejected look for days. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual society. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on this. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How can I find out what's going on and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to guess the moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to drink a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: "What happened?" or “Come on, tell me what you got!”. Even if you have a good friendship, start a conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise something. "Turn" the person to yourself. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him anyway. Most likely, under your good pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what the matter is. Almost every person needs other people to take part in his life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and not indifferent. Especially to your friends.
A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to talk face-to-face, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about what, for some reason, you can’t talk about in the bustle of ordinary affairs.
The methods of theoretical psychology are far from being exhausted on this. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.
Part two. Methods of practical psychology
The methods of practical psychology include the methods of the fields that form the general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of counseling and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.
Suggestion
suggestion is the process of insertion into the examined person certain formulas, attitudes, attitudes or views beyond his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion does not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.
From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect each person, but to varying degrees.
There are several types of offerings:
- Direct - impact with the help of words (orders, commands, instructions);
- Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, irritants);
- Intentional;
- Unintentional;
- positive;
- Negative.
There are also different methods of suggestion:
- Methods of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
- Methods of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
- Techniques of hidden suggestion - the provision of all options, the illusion of choice, truism.
Initially, suggestion was unconsciously used by people whose communication skills had developed to high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a trance state. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because are used in the process of education, in advertising, politics, relationships, etc.
EXAMPLE: A well-known example of suggestion, called the "placebo" effect, is the phenomenon of an improvement in the patient's condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties when in fact it's empty. You can apply this method on practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a remedy for a headache - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. That's what it is .
Reinforcement
reinforcements is the instantaneous reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the researcher. The reaction must actually be instantaneous so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that one should continue to act or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.
Reinforcement can be of the following types:
- Positive - the correct behavior / action is fixed;
- Negative - incorrect behavior/action is prevented;
- Conscious;
- Unconscious;
- Spontaneous - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
- Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
- One-time;
- systematic;
- Direct;
- indirect;
- Basic;
- secondary;
- Complete;
- Partial.
Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, is present in her from childhood in the process of education and gaining life experience.
EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are all around us at every turn: if you dip your hand into boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is a negative elemental reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - a positive intentional reinforcement. A child who received a deuce at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to bring more deuces, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time / systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give the result - systematic positive reinforcement.
Psychological consultation
Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start of work, because. the client does not need any special preparation and the specialist together with him can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.
The main problems for which people seek the advice of a psychologist are:
- Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, parenting;
- Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
- Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.
Psychological consultation consists of several stages:
- Contact;
- Request;
- Plan;
- Setting up for work;
- Implementation;
- Hometasks;
- Completion.
Method psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution for many life problems and getting out of difficult situations.
EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological counseling can be absolutely any life situation which a person cannot solve on his own. This is the occurrence of problems at work, and troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or states for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with this alone, and there is no one nearby who could support, then without a shadow of a doubt and hesitation, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and centers of psychological assistance, where experienced highly qualified psychologists provide their services.
This concludes the consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and training, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space, and many others.
Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it is in reality. And this involves studying close relationship with the environment and external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality surrounding us is in constant motion and change, so its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. To gain a deeper understanding of the features inner world of a person, and the essence of things in general, one should also come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.
Now in the public domain there is an incalculable amount of materials for the study of psychological science and its features. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinshtein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananiev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychology methods:
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.
Algorithm
A prescription that specifies, on the basis of a system of rules, a sequence of operations, the exact execution of which allows solving problems of a certain class. A concept that is key to mathematics and mathematical logic. In psychology, it is used not in a strict mathematical sense - in the study of management processes and procedures for fulfilling instructions in various activities. Includes an indication of the initial data necessary for solving the problem and the criterion or rule by which the process of finding the result is considered complete. Ability to solve problems in general view- possession of certain general methods for solving problems of a certain class - means possession of a certain algorithm.
Dictionary of practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 .
ALGORITHM
(on behalf of the Central Asian mathematician of the VIII-IX centuries al-Khwarizmi) - in mathematics: an exact prescription for performing a "computational" (combinatorial) process. It is usually understood that A. serves as a method for solving problems of the same type, infinitely different initial data. A. are, for example, mastered in primary school rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division by a column; originally "A." just called the rules of counting in the positional decimal system, which the Europeans learned from the translation (XII century) of the treatise of al-Khwarizmi. However modern concept A. even in mathematics is not limited to performing operations with numbers. In a broad sense, algorithmic m. b. a variety of types of controlled operations (actions, procedures). in psychology and artificial intelligence essential is the opposition of algorithmic and heuristic methods(processes) of solving problems. Unlike A. heuristics are not accurate, complete and reliable prescriptions. (B. M.)
Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
Algorithm
A problem-solving procedure that requires regular repetition in order to exclude inappropriate answers from among the possible ones, until only the correct one remains. The algorithm always ends with the solution of the problem, if it exists. Because algorithmic reasoning can be too lengthy, we often rely on simplified methods of thinking and rules of thumb to save time in solving a problem.
Psychology. AND I. Dictionary-reference book / Per. from English. K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR-PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000 .
Synonyms:See what "algorithm" is in other dictionaries:
Lee algorithm- Algorithm Lee wave algorithm for finding a path on the map, tracing algorithm. With it, you can build a path, or track, between any two elements in the maze. A wave propagates from the initial element in four directions. That ... ... Wikipedia
ALGORITHM- [from algorithm!; algorismus, originally lat. name transliteration cf. Asian. 9th century scientist Khorezmi (Muhammed bin Musa al Khorezmi)], a program that determines the way of behavior (calculations); a system of rules (prescriptions) for effective ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
algorithm- A finite set of prescriptions for obtaining a solution to the problem through a finite number of operations. [GOST 34.003 90] algorithm A finite ordered set of precisely defined rules for solving a specific problem. [ISO/IEC 2382-1] [GOST R 52292… … Technical Translator's Handbook
ALGORITHM- [lat. algorithmus Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
algorithm- algorithm Dictionary of Russian synonyms. algorithm n., number of synonyms: 3 algorithm (1) ... Synonym dictionary
algorithm- a, m. algorithme m. 1230 algorithms. Lexis.1. In mathematics, a generally understood prescription that defines a deterministic computational process leading from input data to a desired result. BAS 2. Algebra logic of mathematics; its algorithm... Historical dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language
Algorithm- (algorithm) A sequence of well-defined actions to solve a problem, expressed in a finite number of steps. Algorithms are widely used in computer area. The steps of the algorithm are translated into a sequence of commands understood by ... ... Glossary of business terms
ALGORITHM- (algorithm) (from algorithmi, algorismus, originally a Latin transliteration of the name of the mathematician al Khorezmi), a method (program) for solving computational and other problems, precisely prescribing how and in what sequence to get the result, ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
ALGORITHM- (algorithm) (from algorithmi algorismus, originally Latin transliteration of the name of the mathematician al Khorezmi), a method (program) for solving computational and other problems, precisely prescribing how and in what sequence to obtain the result, unambiguously ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
ALGORITHM- (from the Latin form of the name of the Central Asian mathematician al Khorezmi) the rule of action, the sequence of computational operations, the method of finding the desired result. In economic problems solved using mathematical ... ... Economic dictionary
Books
- Algorithm for Estimating the Parameters of a Linear Multiple Regression Model by the Minimax Criterion , I. Yu. Vygodchikova. When researching dynamic processes a realistic and objective causal analysis of events is needed. It is possible through the use of mathematical and computer methods ...
MOSCOW EXTERNAL HUMANITARIAN UNIVERSITY
ACADEMY OF PEDAGOGY
PEDAGOGICAL FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING
"The concept of algorithms »
"Mathematics and Informatics"
Surname, name, patronymic of the student
Record book number
Head (teacher) prof. Mirzoyan D.V.
Reviewer ____________________________
Algorithm Definition
The word "Algorithm" comes from algorithmi - the Latin spelling of the name al-Khwarizmi, under which in medieval Europe they knew the greatest mathematician from Khorezm (a city in modern Uzbekistan) Muhammad bin Musa, who lived in 783-850. In his book On Indian Counting, he formulated the rules for writing natural numbers using Arabic numerals and the rules for working with them in a column. In the future, the algorithm began to be called an exact prescription that determines the sequence of actions that ensures the required result is obtained from the initial data. The algorithm may be designed to be executed by a human or an automated device. Creating an algorithm, even the simplest one, is a creative process. It is available exclusively to living beings, and for a long time it was believed that only to humans. Another thing is the implementation of an existing algorithm. It can be entrusted to a subject or object, which is not obliged to delve into the essence of the matter, and perhaps not able to understand it. Such a subject or object is usually called a formal executor. An example of a formal performer is an automatic washing machine, which strictly performs its prescribed actions, even if you forgot to put powder in it. A person can also act as a formal executor, but first of all, various automatic devices, including a computer, are formal executors. Each algorithm is created based on a very specific performer. Those actions that the performer can perform are called his permissible actions. The set of admissible actions forms a system of commands for the executor. The algorithm should contain only those actions that are valid for a given executor.
Properties of algorithms
The definition of the algorithm given above cannot be considered strict - it is not entirely clear what is an "exact prescription" or "a sequence of actions that ensures the desired result is obtained." Therefore, it is common to formulate several common properties algorithms that distinguish algorithms from other instructions.
These properties are:
· discreteness(discontinuity, separation) - the algorithm should represent the process of solving the problem as a sequential execution of simple (or previously defined) steps. Each action provided by the algorithm is executed only after the execution of the previous one has ended.
· Certainty- each rule of the algorithm should be clear, unambiguous and leave no room for arbitrariness. Due to this property, the execution of the algorithm is mechanical in nature and does not require any additional instructions or information about the problem being solved.
· Efficiency(finiteness) - the algorithm should lead to the solution of the problem in a finite number of steps.
· mass character- the algorithm for solving the problem is developed in a general form, that is, it must be applicable to a certain class of problems that differ only in the initial data. In this case, the initial data can be selected from a certain area, which is called the area of applicability of the algorithm.
Execution rules arithmetic operations or geometric constructions are algorithms. At the same time, the question remains unanswered, what is the difference between the concept of an algorithm and such concepts as “method”, “method”, “rule”. You can even come across the statement that the words “algorithm”, “method”, “rule” express the same thing (i.e. they are synonyms), although such a statement obviously contradicts the “properties of the algorithm”.
The very expression "properties of the algorithm" is not entirely correct. Objectively existing realities have properties. You can talk, for example, about the properties of a substance. An algorithm is an artificial construct that we build to achieve our goals. In order for the algorithm to fulfill its purpose, it must be built according to certain rules. Therefore, it is necessary to speak, nevertheless, not about the properties of the algorithm, but about the rules for constructing the algorithm, or about the requirements for the algorithm.
The first rule is that when constructing an algorithm, first of all, it is necessary to specify a set of objects with which the algorithm will work. The formalized (encoded) representation of these objects is called data. The algorithm starts working with a certain set of data, which are called input, and as a result of its work, produces data, which is called output. Thus, the algorithm transforms input data into output data.
This rule allows you to immediately separate algorithms from “methods” and “methods”. Until we have formalized input data, we cannot build an algorithm.
The second rule is that the algorithm requires memory to work. The memory contains the input data with which the algorithm starts to work, intermediate data and output data, which are the result of the algorithm. The memory is discrete, i.e. made up of individual cells. The named memory cell is called the variable. In the theory of algorithms, memory sizes are not limited, that is, it is believed that we can provide the algorithm with any amount of memory necessary for operation.
In the school "theory of algorithms" these two rules are not considered. At the same time, practical work with algorithms (programming) begins precisely with the implementation of these rules. In programming languages, memory allocation is carried out by declarative statements (variable declaration statements). In the BASIC language, not all variables are described, usually only arrays are described. But all the same, when the program is launched, the language translator analyzes all identifiers in the program text and allocates memory for the corresponding variables.
The third rule is discretion. The algorithm is built from separate steps (actions, operations, commands). The set of steps that make up the algorithm, of course.
The fourth rule is determinism. After each step, you must indicate which step is next, or give a stop command.
The fifth rule is convergence (effectiveness). The algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps. In this case, it is necessary to specify what to consider as the result of the algorithm.
So, an algorithm is an undefined concept of the theory of algorithms. The algorithm assigns a certain set of output data to each specific set of input data, i.e., it calculates (implements) the function. When considering specific issues in the theory of algorithms, one always has in mind some particular model of the algorithm.
Types of algorithms and their implementation
An algorithm as applied to a computer is an exact prescription, i.e. a set of operations and rules for their alternation, with the help of which, starting from some initial data, any problem of a fixed type can be solved.
The types of algorithms as logical and mathematical means reflect the indicated components of human activity and trends, and the algorithms themselves, depending on the goal, initial conditions of the problem, ways to solve it, determine the actions of the performer, are divided as follows:
· Mechanical algorithms, or otherwise deterministic, rigid (for example, the algorithm for the operation of a machine, engine, etc.);
· Flexible algorithms, such as stochastic, i.e. probabilistic and heuristic.
The mechanical algorithm sets certain actions, denoting them in a unique and reliable sequence, thereby providing an unambiguous required or desired result if the process conditions and tasks for which the algorithm is developed are met.
· Probabilistic(stochastic) algorithm provides a program for solving the problem in several ways or ways that lead to the probable achievement of the result.
· Heuristic algorithm (from Greek word“Eureka”) is an algorithm in which the achievement of the final result of the action program is not uniquely predetermined, just as the entire sequence of actions is not indicated, all the actions of the performer are not identified. Heuristic algorithms include, for example, instructions and prescriptions. These algorithms use universal logical procedures and decision-making methods based on analogies, associations and past experience in solving similar problems.
· Linear Algorithm - a set of commands (instructions) executed sequentially in time one after another.
· branching algorithm - an algorithm containing at least one condition, as a result of checking which the computer provides a transition to one of two possible steps.