Every organization is made up of groups of people. Such groups are not just a random collection of people, but, as a rule, a team carefully selected, trained and prepared to perform certain actions. Therefore, organizational behavior can be viewed from the point of view of group behavior, understood as a set of actions of groups and individual individuals that make them up. If individuals make up groups and determine their goals, plans for achieving goals and the means necessary for this, then groups as a whole, in turn, influence individuals, changing, modifying their behavior, interests and needs. The manager must know the psychological patterns of behavior of people in groups and use this knowledge to ensure the highest performance of the group.
Definition and classification of organizations and groups
Before starting consideration of group behavior, it is necessary to define the concepts of "organization" and "group", as well as to classify them.
Organization - it is a group of two or more people who interact and depend on each other, united to achieve common goals. There are formal and informal organizations.
formal organization is a group of people, structured in a certain way, and having special documents (for example, a charter, a certificate of registration), which indicate its goals and its legal status. Such an organization is "registered" in accordance with the current legislation. In a formal organization, the behavior of each member must be directed towards the achievement of common goals.
informal organization - it is a group that, unlike a formal organization, has neither a definite structure nor a document certifying its existence. Most of these groups are usually formed in a service environment, they appear to meet any social needs, such as communication or demonstration of personal professional achievements. So, three employees from different departments who always have lunch together and discuss various topics at the same time is an example of an informal organization.
We can propose the following classification of groups: managed; target; by interest; friendly.
Managed and target groups are formal organizations, but interest groups and friendship groups are more examples of informal organizations.
Consider the characteristics of these groups.
Managed group consists of a manager and those subordinates who report directly to him for the work done. So, for example, the director of a school and the 12 teachers who teach there are a manageable group. The group of the senior auditor on the railway and his assistant belong to the same tin.
Target group also organizationally framed, it is an association of people who work together to achieve some common work goal. However, the target group does not only unite the immediate hierarchical environment, it can also affect other relationships. So, for example, a specialist in the analytical department of a corporation, when a problem arises, can turn not only to colleagues or the head of the department, but also to a familiar lawyer working in the corporation, an experienced procurement officer, the secretary of the head of the department, and other persons who, in his opinion, can provide help. In turn, he himself is ready to help and assist these people. The combination of all these people will make up the target group. It should be noted that all steering groups are also target groups; their members work to achieve specific goals.
Interest Group is created if there are two or more people whose work interests coincide. So, for example, employees who want to change their vacation schedule are an interest group. Such a group will be, for example, people who want to support a dismissed colleague. Workers advocating better working conditions are again an association that has a common interest.
Friends groups are formed on the basis of the fact that people have one or more similar character traits. These associations often go beyond the boundaries of the organization, they can be formed on the basis of the same ethical principles that have developed among people, they can unite workers of the same age or, for example, football club fans. Such groups can also be formed from those whose Political Views coincide or unite people whose characters are somewhat similar.
Table 4 Reasons why people join groups
|
Cause |
Explanation of the reason |
|
Security |
Becoming a member of the group, each person reduces the likelihood of being "left alone", he feels stronger, less self-doubt. When people unite in groups, they are more successful in confronting emerging problems. |
|
A person who is a member of a group is respected and recognized |
|
|
self esteem |
The group will give each of its members a sense of self-respect. That is, a person is revered not only by those around him, but he himself is proud of his belonging to this group. |
|
Explanation of the reason |
|
|
Satisfying needs |
Any group is created in order to satisfy certain social needs. People tend to communicate with each other, so most groups satisfy the natural human need for interaction. |
|
Often, what cannot be done by an individual is easily accomplished by the efforts of the whole group. AT this case strength lies in quantity |
|
|
Achievements of goals |
Sometimes it is necessary to concentrate the efforts of several people to achieve a particular goal. There may be a need to combine skills, talent, strength to successfully complete a job task. In this case, management should focus on the creation of formal groups |
informal groups arise to meet the social needs of workers. People tend to communicate with each other, which is why employees often play golf together or drive home from work, have lunch together and drink tea together during breaks. It is important to remember that such groups, although not formal, have a great influence on the behavior of employees in the organization.
It is difficult to identify a single reason that would explain why people unite in such informal groups. Obviously, different groups bring different benefits to their members, which is why one person can often be part of several different informal associations. Typical reasons for the entry of people into groups are shown in Table. 4.
Or conformism. Conformity manifests itself where and when the presence of a conflict between the opinion of the individual and the opinion of the group is fixed and this conflict is overcome in favor of the group. A measure of conformity is a measure of subordination to a group in the case when the opposition of opinions was subjectively perceived by the individual as a conflict. Distinguish between external conformity, when the opinion of the group is accepted by the individual only externally, but in fact he continues to resist it, and internal (sometimes this is what is called true conformism), when the individual really assimilates the opinion of the majority. Internal conformity is the result of overcoming the conflict with the group in its favor.
External conformity is the subordination of the individual to the norms of the group under the influence of the desire to remain a member of it. The threat of punishment causes only external agreement with the group, the real position remains unchanged. Internal conformity manifests itself: 1) thoughtless acceptance of the opinion of the group (different from the position of the individual) on the grounds that "the majority is always right"; 2) acceptance of the opinion of the group by realizing the correctness of this positions.
Conformism - a change in the behavior or beliefs of an individual as a result of group pressure - manifests itself in the form of compliance and in the form of approval. Compliance is an external adherence to the requirements of the group while internally rejecting them. Approval is a combination of behavior corresponding to social pressure and internal agreement with the requirements of the latter.
In studies of the influence of community pressure, another position of the individual in relation to the group was revealed - the position of negativism. When pressure is exerted on an individual, resistance to pressure arises, which at first glance seems to be an independent position, because the standards of society are denied. But this is only at first glance, negativism can be perceived as a form of extreme denial of pressure. In fact, negativism is not true independence, on the contrary, it is a specific version of submission, but only inside out. After all, if the individual aims to resist the group, then he depends on it, since he needs to actively defend the anti-group position, and therefore be tied to the opinion of the community. Therefore, the position that opposes the pressure of the environment is independence and independence.
12. Leadership and leadership in small groups. Theories of the origin of leadership. The problem of leadership and leadership is one of the cardinal problems of social psychology.
Leadership and leadership are considered in social psychology as group processes associated with social power in the group. A leader and leader is understood as a person who has a leading influence on the group: the leader in the system of informal relations, the leader in the system of formal relations. In the socio-psychological sense, leadership and leadership are mechanisms group integration, uniting the actions of a group around an individual who performs the function of a leader or manager. There are two aspects of power - formal and psychological. The formal, or instrumental, aspect of power is associated with the legal powers of the leader, and the psychological aspect is determined by the personal capabilities of the leader to influence the members of the group. Leadership
is a purely psychological characteristic of the behavior of certain members of the group, management
to a greater extent, there is a social characteristic of relations in a group, primarily in terms of the distribution of the roles of management and subordination.
leader
is such a member of a small group that is nominated as a result of the interaction of group members to organize a group in solving a specific problem. He demonstrates a higher level of activity, participation, influence in solving this problem than other members of the group. Thus, the leader is put forward in a specific situation, taking on certain functions. The remaining members of the group take the lead, i.e. they build a relationship with the leader that assumes that he will lead, and they will be followers. Leadership must be considered as a group phenomenon: a leader is unthinkable alone, he is always given as an element of a group structure, and leadership is a system of relations in this structure. Therefore, the phenomenon of leadership refers to the dynamic processes of a small group.
Leader always authoritative, otherwise he will not be a leader. Supervisor may have authority, or may not have it at all. In some sources, the phenomena of leadership and leadership are considered identical. So, D. Myers believes that leadership is a process by which certain members of the group motivate and lead the group. At the same time, the leader can be officially appointed or elected, but can also be nominated in the process of group interactions.
1) Trait theory (charismatic theory)- proceeds from the provisions of German psychology of the late 19th - early 20th century. and focuses on the innate qualities of a leader. A leader is a person who has a certain set of personal qualities or a set of certain psychological traits.
situational theory.(on its basis, many experimental studies of leadership in the school of "group dynamics" have been carried out). Leadership is a product of the situation. AT different situations group life, individual members of the group stand out who are superior to others in at least one quality, but since it is this quality that turns out to be necessary in a given situation, the person who possesses it becomes a leader. "Systems Theory of Leadership". Leadership is the process of organizing interpersonal relations in a group, and the leader is the subject of managing this process. Leadership is interpreted as a function of the group and therefore should be studied from the point of view of the goals and objectives of the group, although the structure of the personality should not be discounted. In this approach, the nomination of a leader is determined not only by personal qualities, group activities, but also by the composition of the group. There can be at least two types of leaders: instrumental (business), focused on the task and ensuring the group's success, achievement. Orientation in the first case to the "case". Emotional (expressive), aimed at integrating interpersonal relationships and providing "equality" in the group, a favorable atmosphere.
Leadership styles. In the tradition of social psychology, it is the question of the style of leadership, and not leadership, that is being investigated. But due to the noted ambiguity in the use of terms, the problem is often referred to as leadership style. AT experimental studies equally come to light - the style of leadership, and the style of leadership.
13. Types of spontaneous groups and their general characteristics. Methods of influence implemented in spontaneous groups.
These are short-term associations of a large number of people, often with very different interests, but nevertheless gathered together on a specific occasion and demonstrating some kind of joint action. The members of such a temporary association are representatives of various large organized groups: classes, nations, professions, ages, etc. Such a "group" can be organized to a certain extent by someone, but more often it arises spontaneously, it is not necessarily clearly aware of its goals, but nevertheless it can be very active.
The methods of influence implemented in spontaneous groups are quite traditional.
1. Contagion has long been studied as a special method of influence, integrating large masses of people in a certain way, especially in connection with the emergence of such phenomena as religious ecstasies, mass psychoses, etc. The phenomenon of infection was known at the earliest stages of human history and had a variety of manifestations: massive outbreaks of various mental states that occur during ritual dances, sports excitement, situations of panic, etc. general view contagion can be defined as the unconscious involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. It manifests itself not through the more or less conscious acceptance of some information or patterns of behavior, but through the transmission of a certain emotional state, or “mental mood.” The degree to which different audiences are susceptible to infection depends, of course, on general level development of the personalities that make up the audience, and - more specifically - on the level of development of their self-awareness. In this sense, it is true that the modern societies infection plays a much smaller role than in early stages human history. It is rightly noted that the higher the level of development of society, the more critical the attitude of individuals to the forces that automatically entrain them on the path of certain actions or experiences, the weaker the effect of the mechanism of infection.
2. Suggestion is a special type of influence, namely, a targeted, unreasoned impact of one person on another or on a group. With suggestion, the process of transmitting information is carried out, based on its non-critical perception. Suggestion, "suggestion", as a socio-psychological phenomenon, has a deep specificity, therefore it is legitimate to speak of a special phenomenon of "social suggestion".
3. Imitation also refers to the mechanisms, ways of influencing people on each other, including in conditions of mass behavior, although its role in other groups, especially in special types of activity, is also quite large. Imitation has a number of common features with the already considered phenomena of infection and suggestion, however, its specificity lies in the fact that here it is not a simple acceptance of the external features of the behavior of another person or mass mental states, but the reproduction by the individual of the features and patterns of the behavior demonstrated.
14. Socio-psychological models of the development of a small group.
The following psychological mechanisms for the development of a small group are distinguished:
1. Resolution of intra-group contradictions: between growing potentialities and actually performed activities, between the growing desire of individuals for self-realization and the growing tendency to integrate with the group.
2. "Psychological exchange" - the provision by the group of a higher psychological status to individuals in response to a higher contribution to its life.
1. "Idiosyncratic credit" - the provision by a group of its high-status members of the opportunity to deviate from group norms, to make changes in the life of the group, provided that they will contribute to a more complete achievement of its goals.
The small group development model proposed by the American psychologist B. Takmen is based on the identification of two main areas, or dimensions, of group life: business, associated with the solution of a group task, and interpersonal, associated with the development of a group structure.
In the field of business activity, B. Takmen distinguishes the following stages:
1) orientation in the task and the search for the optimal way to solve it;
2) emotional reactions to the requirements of the task, opposition of the members of the group to the requirements imposed on them in connection with the solution of the task and contrary to their own intentions;
3) open exchange of information in order to achieve a deeper understanding of each other's intentions and search for alternatives;
4) decision-making and active joint actions for its implementation.
In the field of interpersonal activity, B. Takmen distinguishes the following stages:
1) "testing and dependence", orientation of group members in the nature of each other's actions and the search for mutually acceptable behavior;
"2) "internal conflict" associated with disruption of interaction and lack of unity in the group;
3) "development of group cohesion", overcoming differences and resolving conflicts;
4) “functional-role consistency”, associated with the formation of the role structure of the group, corresponding to the content of the group task (Krichevsky R. L., Dubovskaya E. M., 1991, pp. 52-53).
15. Patterns of formation and change of social attitudes.
Patterns of formation and change of social attitudes: 1. Dependence of social attitudes on specific situations in terms of valence (positive, negative, neutral) and degree (weak, medium, strong - the methods of Thurstole, Lapert, Osgood); 2 . The pattern of compliance and inconsistency of situations with social attitudes (contrast effect, assimilation, adequacy of the personal social attitude and the proposed position); 3. The pattern of change and stability of social attitudes (from unacceptable to acceptable, from unacceptable to acceptable, the invariance of the internal social attitude, but not outwardly advertised, the stability of extreme social attitudes); 4. The dependence of the interaction of the individual with the group on the social attitudes of the individual in relation to the group (conformal, anticonformal). Social attitudes change depending on how the reinforcement of one or another social attitude is organized.
Uznadze believed that the attitude underlies the selective activity of a person, and therefore is an indicator of possible areas of activity. Knowing the social attitudes of a person, it is possible to predict his actions. Changes in settings depend on the newness of the information, individual characteristics the subject, the order of receipt of information and the system of installations. The installation regulates activity at 3 hierarchical levels: semantic, target, operational.
At the semantic level, the attitude is of the most generalized nature and determines the relationship of the individual to objects, which has personal significance for the individual.
Target settings are usually associated with specific actions and the desire of a person to bring the work begun to the end. They determine the relatively stable nature of the course of activity. If the action is interrupted, then the motivational tension is still preserved, providing the person with an appropriate readiness to continue. The effect of unfinished action was discovered by K. Levin and more thoroughly studied in the studies of B.V. Zeigarnik. At the operational level, the attitude determines the decision in specific situations. It contributes to the perception and interpretation of circumstances, primarily on the basis of the past experience of the subject's behavior in a similar situation and the corresponding prediction of the possibilities of adequate and effective behavior.
In the process of human communication, social interaction, attitudes are transformed. In communication there is always an element of a conscious or unconscious desire to change the attitudes of another person.
16. Specific regulators of social behavior of large social groups.
A social group is a collection of people connected by a system of relations governed by common values and norms. Group members tend to have common goals, general rules, joint activities, common environment.
The main features of a social group:
characteristic psychological characteristics,
Availability of basic parameters,
The coordinated activity of individuals,
Having certain relationships
The action of group pressure.
General signs of large social groups:
The presence of regulators of social behavior that are not in small groups (mores, customs, traditions);
The way of life of the group is a certain unity of behavior patterns and features of the life position of the group;
The presence of a specific language - for ethnic groups this is a self-evident characteristic, for other groups the language can act in the form of a certain genre (professional, age, etc.).
The influence of a large social group on the consciousness of its representatives is carried out in two ways:
Through the personal life experience of each member of the group, determined by the socio-psychological conditions of the life of the entire group;
Through communication, most of which takes place in a certain social environment with distinct features of this group.
In large groups, there are specific regulators of social behavior that are absent in small groups. These are customs, customs and traditions. Their existence is due to the presence of a specific social practice, with which this group, the relative stability with which the historical forms of this practice are reproduced. Considered in unity, the features of the life position of such groups, together with the specific regulators of behavior, provide such an important characteristic as the way of life of the group. His research involves the study of special forms of communication, a special type of contacts that develop between people. Within the framework of a certain way of life, interests, values, needs acquire special significance. Not the last role in the psychological characteristics of these large groups is often played by the presence of a specific language. For ethnic groups, this is a self-evident characteristic, for other groups, "language" can act as a certain jargon, for example, characteristic of professional groups, such an age group as youth.
17. Social attitudes and personality stereotypes.
social attitude- the state of the psychological readiness of the individual to behave in a certain way, based on past social experience and regulating social behavior individual. (Allport). In Western social psychology, the term "attitude" is used to refer to social attitudes.
social attitude has 3 components:
1. Cognitive, involving rational activity;
2. Affective (emotional assessment of the object, manifestation of a feeling of sympathy or antipathy);
3. Conative (behavioral) implies consistent behavior in relation to the object.
Types of social attitudes:
1. Social attitude to the object - the willingness of the individual to behave in a specific way. 2. Situational attitude - the willingness to behave in a certain way in relation to the same object in different ways in different situations. 3. Perceptual attitude - willingness to see what a person wants to see.4. Partial or particular installations and general or generalized installations. An attitude toward an object is always a private attitude; a perceptual attitude becomes general when a large number of objects become objects of social attitudes. The process from particular to general goes as it increases. Types of attitudes according to their modality: 1. positive or positive,
2. negative or negative,
3. neutral,
4. ambivalent social attitudes (ready to behave both positively and negatively) - marital relations, managerial relations.
Stereotype- a well-established attitude to ongoing events, developed on the basis of comparing them with internal ideals. The system of stereotypes constitutes the world outlook.
In the structure of a stereotype, the main role is played by its emotional charge, which clearly indicates what is accepted and what is unacceptable, what is generally “good” or “bad” in relation to any object. The stereotype owes its origin to the development of a mass communication network; it forms simplified and superficial ideas about phenomena of reality. Thanks to him, the ease and speed of highlighting supposedly significant details in any issue can, upon closer examination, turn out to be just a banality or an artistic cliché.
If the object of the stereotype is another person, then the leading features often turn out to be his gender, nationality, profession, and other differences are unjustifiably ignored. The most characteristic feature is the division of people into “us” and “them”, and “our” are perceived idealized, differences in positive qualities are attributed to them (autostereotype), and “aliens” are endowed with negative assessments.
18. The concept of "socio-psychological atmosphere" and "socio-psychological climate".
Socio-psychological climate- the socio-psychological field of lived dynamic relations, relatively stable for a given group, determining the well-being of each member of the group, and hence the personal development of each.
The socio-psychological climate is one of the strongest factors personal development children. It is favorable for the development of personality and unfavorable. The criterion for pedagogical assessment of the nature of the climate in the group is positive influence on the well-being of each individual member of the group. Usually, children note that their “bad mood” during the work changed and became better, that “the head hurt”, but “now it doesn’t hurt”, that “I didn’t want to work”, and after the end of the group work “I am full of desire to work further”.
The teacher forms, corrects, creates, strengthens, improves the climate of the group. With pedagogical errors - lowers, worsens, destroys the climate of the group.
To understand the methodology for promoting the formation of a favorable climate, it is necessary to introduce the concept of "atmosphere".
Socio-psychological atmosphere of the group- an extremely unstable psychological field of mobile relationships as instant reactions to what is happening. This is the same as "climate", but devoid of the stability characteristic.
The group appeared at training sessions after losing in sports competitions - the atmosphere is clearly unfavorable, although the climate of the group has always been high.
The group had great pleasure from a delicious meal and the atmosphere now seems to be favorable, although this group is characterized by a difficult climate.
Repeated reproduction of a certain socio-psychological atmosphere gives rise to a permanent characteristic for the group, this constancy of relations testifies to the birth of a completely definite climate: the constancy of an unfavorable atmosphere ultimately creates an unfavorable climate; the daily living of a favorable atmosphere will eventually determine the favorable climate of the group. Spectrum of recurring dynamic characteristics atmosphere will be reproduced over time in the spectrum of stable group climate relations.
19. The main directions of personality research in social psychology.
Most often in modern psychology stand out and considered as separate the following main areas of personality research: psychodynamic, sociodynamic, interactionistic and humanistic. Psychodynamic is such a direction in the study of personality, in which a person as a person is presented and described using terms that characterize him. inner world, and the explanation of actions is given exclusively from the inside, without taking into account the factors influencing human behavior from the side environment. For example, concepts such as needs, abilities, will, character and others,
Sociodynamic refers to such a direction in the study and presentation of personality, in which a person as a person is described in behavioral terms, and an explanation of his actions is given solely on the basis of an analysis and consideration of the external environment or in fact not dependent on this person life circumstances.
If within the framework of the sociodynamic direction it is necessary to scientifically explain human behavior, then it is considered as a reaction to external circumstances. At the same time, the connections between external influences exerted on a person and his actions are studied, and on the basis of knowledge of the influences themselves and the laws of response to them, explanations of his behavior are offered. In other words, the sources of a person's actions are placed outside him, and explanations for behavior are given not from within, but from outside.
interactionistic. It can be defined as a direction in which a person is presented and described in terms that simultaneously characterize the inner world of a person and his behavior, and the behavior itself is explained taking into account both the person’s own psychology and life circumstances that develop independently of him.
20. Classification and levels of development of large social groups.
social group regarded as a relatively stable set of people connected by a system of relationships governed by common values and norms.
That. goals, common interests, group rituals, sanctions, relationships, joint activities, etc. - these are the components of a social group that determine the measure of its stability.
Different signs are taken as the basis for a detailed classification of large social groups.
According to the time of existence, long-existing large groups (classes, dad) and short-existing ones (rallies, audiences, crowds) are divided. By the nature of organization-disorganization - organized groups (parties, unions, crowds). A number of large groups arise spontaneously (crowd), others are organized consciously (parties, associations).
Large social groups can be divided according to the presence of a certain number of common features and the mechanism of links with the community. So, GG Diligensky distinguishes two types of social groups. The first type is an association of people who have a common objectively existing and socially significant feature. For example, such a feature may be demographic. In this case, the first type will be made up of men, women, generation, youth, middle age, the elderly, etc. The characteristics of these groups as social are determined by their significance in the life of society, their role in the system of social relations (in the system of production, in the family). These groups are homogeneous in their composition, homogeneous, but precisely on the basis of their isolation.
The second type of groups is characterized by the fact that the people who make them consciously seek to unite. Examples of these groups are religious groups, parties, unions, social movements. In terms of their social composition, these groups are heterogeneous and heterogeneous. According to their socio-psychological characteristics, they are more homogeneous than the groups of the first type. If in the first case the priority is given to the objective side of the community, then in the second - the subjective. It's about about psychological community. The subjective community does not coincide with the objective community.
Development levels First- the lower level is typological, characterized by the fact that the members of the corresponding group are objectively similar to each other in some way. These signs may be of significant importance in the regulation of individual behavior of people, but do not form the basis for the creation of a psychological community. United according to these characteristics, people constitute the sum of individuals, but do not constitute a unity. Second the level of development of a social group is characterized by the fact that members of the group are aware of their belonging to this group, identify themselves with its members. In the example of entrepreneurs, this level means that entrepreneurs consider themselves to be part of a new social community. This is the identification level.
The third the level of development of a social group presupposes the group's readiness for joint action in the name of group goals. Members of the group are aware of the commonality of their interests.
21. Conflicts, ways of their resolution, functions of the conflict.
A conflict is a clash of opposing tendencies, intentions, goals, positions, values, opinions or views of certain subjects of interaction. Conflict situation- this is the objective basis of the conflict, fixing the emergence of a real contradiction in the interests and needs of the parties. In fact, this is not the conflict itself, since the existing objective contradiction may not be recognized by the participants in the interaction for a certain time. Incident- this is a situation of interaction that allows its participants to realize the existence of an objective contradiction in their interests and goals. That is, an incident is a realization conflict situation. It can take place in various forms. First of all, there are hidden and open incidents. In its first form, the incident unfolds at the level of awareness by the participants of the conflict of what is happening, but may not manifest itself in any way in their real relationships and reactions. An open incident unfolds as a series of conflicting actions of participants in relation to each other.
Objective reasons can be relatively conditionally represented in the form of several fortified groups:
limited resources to be distributed;
difference in goals, values, methods of behavior, skill level, education;
Interrelation of tasks, incorrect distribution of responsibility;
bad communications.
At the same time, objective reasons will only be the causes of the conflict when they make it impossible for an individual or a group to realize their needs, they affect personal and / or group interests.
along with the so-called destructive functions (destruction of joint activities, deterioration or disintegration of relations, deterioration in the well-being of participants, etc.), the conflict performs a significant constructive task, because is a reflection of objective processes occurring in various interpersonal interactions. In general, the constructive function boils down to the following:
- conflict is an important source of development of the individual, group, interpersonal relationships, allows them to rise to new heights, expand and change the scope and methods of interaction;
- through open confrontation, the conflict frees the group from factors that undermine it, reduces the likelihood of stagnation and decline of the group;
- conflict contributes to the development of mutual understanding between the participants in the interaction.
General recommendations for resolving a conflict situation can be summarized as follows:
Acknowledge the existence of conflict those. to recognize the existence of opposite goals, methods of opponents, to identify these participants themselves. In practice, these issues are not so easy to resolve, it can be quite difficult to confess and say out loud that you are in a state of conflict with an employee on some issue. Sometimes the conflict has existed for a long time, people suffer, but there is no open recognition of it, everyone chooses their own form of behavior and influence on the other, but there is no joint discussion and a way out of the situation.
Determine Negotiation Opportunity. After recognizing the existence of a conflict and the impossibility of resolving it “on the move”, it is advisable to agree on the possibility of holding negotiations and clarify what kind of negotiations: with or without a mediator and who can be a mediator that equally suits both parties.
Agree on negotiation process. Determine where, when and how negotiations will begin, i.e. stipulate the terms, place, procedure for negotiating, the time of the start of joint activities.
Reveal the range of questions that are the subject of the conflict. The main problem is to define in shared terms what is in conflict and what is not. Already at this stage, joint approaches to the problem are developed, the positions of the parties are identified, the points of greatest disagreement and points of possible convergence of positions are determined.
Develop solutions. Parties at joint work offer several solutions with the calculation of the costs for each of them, taking into account the possible consequences.
Make a consensus decision.
22. Socio-psychological structure of the group.
Each social group has its own social structure, which is based on three "pillars": status-role relations, professional and qualification characteristics and gender and age composition. Status-role relations reflect the system of relationships that develops in the group. Each person occupies a certain social position in his group: vertically - leadership and subordination (boss and subordinate), horizontally - cooperation (employee). This is reflected in the status of each member of the group. professional and qualification characteristics. They include education, profession and skill level of group members. This important component speaks of the intellectual, professional potential of the group.
The third "whale" is the gender and age composition of the group. For a leader, understanding the features of this component is very important from a psychological point of view, because, as we have already said, each age period has its own psychological characteristics that a leader cannot ignore. In addition, when forming a group, the prospects for its development in terms of age composition and period should be considered. professional activity(beginning or completion) and maturity.
Features of male and female psychology also leave an imprint on the nature of intra-group relationships.
23. The structure of large social groups.
The following common features of large groups are distinguished.
1. Morals, customs, traditions.
2. Lifestyle. It is based on a certain system of socio-cultural values and priorities; picture of the world; social circle, interests, needs; social stereotypes, habits. Lifestyle is an essential characteristic not only of individual social groups, but also of generations (for example, the "sixties").
There are different lifestyles: healthy; morally healthy; closed, ascetic; Bohemian; student. According to another classification, army, urban, rural, monastic, resort lifestyles, etc. are distinguished.
3. Specific language.
4. Values and stereotypes. The long existence of large
groups requires taking into account temporal characteristics: synchronization (analysis of processes occurring at the same time), diachronization (analysis of processes in their time span) and translation (changes in group characteristics from generation to generation).
The structure of the psychology of a large social group is various mental properties, mental processes and mental states, like the psyche of an individual person.
Researchers distinguish two components of this structure:
1) psychological as a stable formation (national character, mores, customs, traditions, tastes, etc.);
2) emotional as a dynamic formation (interests, mood). Psychological characteristics great
groups are not simply the sum of individual traits of individuals. According to L. S. Vygotsky, collective psychology studies only that part of personal psychology, which is considered the property of the collective. This is something typical that is generated by the general conditions of existence, but is not the same for everyone (for example, youth at the beginning of the 21st century). Not all features of the group are inherent in each member of the group, since each has individual characteristics, is involved in various areas of life, etc.
The French school developed the concept of social representations of S. Mosco-visi, which offers a method for studying large groups. The social representations of various large groups are analyzed, and through them their psychology is known. A. V. Dontsov and T. P. Emelyanova think so. According to G. M. Andreeva, social representations are developed on the basis of experience, the activities of the group, referring to everyday experience, contribute to the formation of group identity.
From this concept follows the concept of mentality as an integral characteristic of a certain culture, reflecting a peculiar vision and understanding of the world by its representatives, their typical "answers" to the picture of the world.
24. The interaction of the individual and the group (the effects of group influence).
The interaction of a person and a group is always bilateral in nature: a person, through his work, through his actions, contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs of security, love, respect, self-expression, the formation of his personality, the elimination of worries, etc. .P. It has been noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intra-group life, people have better health and better morals, they are better protected from external influences and work more efficiently than people who are in an isolated state or in “sick” groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability. The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.
Firstly, under the influence of society, there is a change in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, sphere of attention, rating system, etc. A person expands the scope of his attention by increasing interest in the problems of other members of the group. His life is dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and others.
Secondly, in a group a person receives a certain “weight”. The group not only distributes tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same job, but have a different "weight" in the group. And this will be an additional essential characteristic for the individual, which he did not and could not have, being outside the group. For many members of the group, this characteristic may be no less important than their formal position.
Thirdly, the group helps the individual gain a new vision of his "I". A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his worldview, in understanding his place in the world and his destiny.
Fourth, being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never give out if he thought about the problem alone. The effect of brainstorming significantly increases the creative potential of a person.
Fifth, it has been noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to accept risk than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of changing human behavior is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.
The interaction of a person with a group can be in the nature of either cooperation, or merger, or conflict.
25. The main socio-psychological barriers to the passage of information.
The problem of information quality is provided by implementing the principle of representativeness and checking the obtained data for reliability. Given the specifics of social psychology, the quality of information can be objective and subjective. According to V. A. Yadov, it is necessary to take into account that the source of information is a person. To overcome the errors of subjectivism, a number of requirements are introduced regarding the reliability of information: validity (validity), stability and accuracy.
Justification (validity) is the ability to examine exactly those characteristics of an object that need to be measured. To do this, you can resort to the help of competent experts or an additional interview, the answers to the questions of which also give an indirect description of the property being studied.
Stability (reliability) involves obtaining identical information in different situations. There are the following validation methods:
1) repeated measurement;
2) measurement of the same property by different observers;
3) checking the scale in parts (“splitting the scale”).
Accuracy is the degree to which measurement results approximate to the true value of the quantity being measured, i.e. accuracy is tested by how fractional the metrics used are.
In order to become a source of information, a person must understand the question, instruction, or other requirement of the researcher; must have information be able to remember what is necessary for complete information; must consent to the release of information. That is why the issue of representativeness is acute for social psychology. The problem of constructing a sample is solved in a similar way to sociology.
The same samples are used as in other studies: random, typical (stratified), by quota, etc. However, the use of a particular sample is determined by the specific content of the research object and is decided creatively each time.
The most difficult is the solution of the problem of representativeness when conducting a socio-psychological laboratory experiment. In this case, the laboratory group must be “pulled out” of reality for a certain period of time. Often, students of psychological faculties are used for these purposes, which causes increased criticism, since age and professional criteria are neglected, students have an increased willingness to please the experimenter. The Rosenthal effect is often observed - an effect that is caused by the presence of the experimenter.
From these positions, the natural experiment can be considered the most promising for application in social psychology.
26. The main areas and stages of the socialization of the individual.
Personality socialization is the process of personality formation in certain social conditions. In the course of this process, a person assimilates social experience, that is, transforms it into their own values and orientations.
1. The primary stage of socialization, or the stage of adaptation. This stage can be divided into three stages. · Infancy (from birth to about three years of age), the main form of activity at this stage is communication. The main agents of socialization during this period are the family and close relatives. Childhood (from 3 to 6 - 7 years). Here, the main form of activity is the game, and primarily role-playing. For example, a child learns, "trying on" himself for various social roles - mothers, fathers, etc. Along with the family, a new social institution of socialization arises - preschool educational institution. Thus, the number of social institutions is gradually increasing. The transition from mono-institutional to poly-institutional socialization can be very difficult and painful for a child. Adolescence (from 6 - 7 to 13 - 14 years). During this stage, there are several significant changes, fractures that characterize the features of socialization. First, the main form of activity is changing: instead of play (although it often continues to retain a significant place in a child’s life), learning appears, which becomes the main means of understanding the world, life, and relationships. Secondly, to replace preschool comes the institution of the school as the main (along with the family) factor of socialization. Thirdly, puberty occurs, leaving a special imprint on the process of socialization. Let us summarize the features of this stage. This period includes the age of a person from the moment of birth to the lower limits of adolescence. At this stage, the assimilation of social experience takes place uncritically, adaptation, adaptation and imitation.
2. Stage of individualization. A period that has a lower limit of adolescence (13-14 years) and is characterized by a well-known temporal uncertainty of the upper limit. In terms of content, this is the completion of the study and the transition to professional labor activity. For some, it occurs at the age of 18, for others - at 23 - 25 and even later. The main form of activity continues to be educational, however, leisure activities and communication are serious competition to it. The puberty of the personality ends, and - most often - the sexual life begins. Within the framework of this particular stage, the choice of a profession, a way to achieve a career, ways to build a future life takes place, which is of decisive importance in the process of socialization. At this stage, it is necessary to note the declining importance of the family, the continuing importance of educational institutions, and the sharply increasing importance of the social microenvironment, friendly environment.
3. Stage of integration. The stage that characterizes such a period of a person's life when there is a desire to find one's place in society. Integration occurs safely if the personal properties of a person are accepted by society, a group. If this does not happen, then the following options are possible: the preservation of dissimilarity and the manifestation of aggressive relationships with people and society; changing oneself according to the principle “to become like everyone else”; conformism, external conciliation, social adaptation. Conformism - opportunism, passive acceptance of the existing order, prevailing opinions, lack of one's own position, unprincipled and uncritical adherence to any model that has the greatest force of pressure. 4. Labor stage. This stage covers the entire period of a person's maturity (although the demographic boundaries of the "mature" age are conditional), his labor activity. It is characterized by high activity in professional field, the creation of a family, in connection with this transformation of the individual from the "object" into the "subject" of socialization. There is a full disclosure of personal potential. This can be facilitated by the main institutions of socialization - the production (labor) collective, family, means mass media, education, etc. The leading forms of activity, along with professional and labor, can be family, social, political, leisure, communication activities. 5. Post-labor stage. It is characterized by a significant contribution of the individual to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of passing it on to subsequent generations. This stage includes the period when there is a comprehension of the life path passed, its evaluation. Great importance in the process of socialization, a person switches to other forms of activity that become dominant for him and bring deep satisfaction. During the last stage of the socialization of the individual, social institutions play a special role, connected with the possibility of its social protection and the provision of moral and psychological assistance to it. It should also be noted that the role of the family is becoming more and more significant for a person, it takes on significance both in the first stages of socialization.
27. Dynamics, mechanism and conditions for the development of interpersonal relations.
Interpersonal relationships are an integral part of the interaction and are considered in its context. Interpersonal relationships are objectively experienced, to varying degrees, perceived relationships between people. They are based on various emotional states interacting people and their psychological characteristics (N. N. Obozov). Unlike business relationships, interpersonal relationships are sometimes called expressive, emotional.
The process of development of interpersonal relations includes the dynamics, the mechanism of regulation of interpersonal relations and the conditions for their development.
Interpersonal relationships develop in dynamics: they are born, consolidated, reach a certain maturity, after which they can gradually weaken. The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relations goes through several stages: acquaintance, friendly, comradely and friendly relations.
The mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships is empathy - the response of one person to the experiences of another. Empathy has several levels (N. N. Obozov). The first level includes cognitive empathy, which manifests itself in the form of understanding the mental state of another person (without changing one's state). The second level involves empathy in the form of not only understanding the state of the object, but also empathy with it, i.e. emotional empathy. The third level includes cognitive, emotional and, most importantly, behavioral components. This level involves interpersonal identification, which is mental (perceived and understood), sensual (empathetic) and active. There are complex, hierarchically organized relationships between these three levels of empathy. Various forms of empathy and its intensity can be inherent in both the subject and the object of communication. A high level of empathy determines emotionality, responsiveness, etc.
The conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships significantly affect their dynamics and forms of manifestation. In urban areas, compared to rural areas, interpersonal contacts are more numerous, quickly start up and just as quickly interrupted. The influence of the time factor is different depending on the ethnic environment: in Eastern cultures, the development of interpersonal relations is, as it were, stretched out in time, while in Western cultures it is compressed and dynamic.
28. National identity. Factors of its formation.
National identity- this is a set of views and assessments, opinions and attitudes that express the content, level and characteristics of the ideas of members of the national-ethnic community about their history, state of the art and future prospects for their development, as well as their place among other similar communities and the nature of their relationship with them. Includes rational (actual awareness of one's belonging to a nation) and, to a lesser extent, emotional (sometimes unconscious empathy for one's unity with other representatives of a national-ethnic group) components.
National identity is formed under the influence of a number of factors (ethnic environment, ethnocultural traditions, ethnosocial situation, population migration, active interethnic contacts, the state and its institutions, the education system, the media, cultural institutions, the family, etc.), as well as special collective ideas ethnos. Ethnic priorities most significantly affect the level of awareness of the ideals and interests of the nation. They are conditioned by a collective identity based on the commonality of "blood and soil", i.e. ideas about a single ethnonym (self-name of the people), the common origin of the members of the ethnos, its common historical past, ethnic territory, as well as an uncritical attitude to established traditions, ideals, values. The formation of national self-consciousness is also influenced by the religious beliefs of the ethnic group, which are one of the most significant factors in the mentality of the people and are associated with its worldview in the context of world civilization. A certain influence on the formation of the self-consciousness of the people is exerted by social ideas that take shape in the process of economic development of the state, its institutions and communications, cultural life, as well as political feelings and ideas that reflect people's perception of real power-distribution relations in their own country and in the world as a whole. The above factors are components of national self-consciousness, the significance of which depends on the specific conditions and features of the development of a particular ethnic group. On the one hand, these components are able to form a positive identity of the ethnic group, develop high feelings of patriotism, duty, love for native land to promote the growth of intergroup respect and mutual responsibility of people. On the other hand, these structural components of national self-consciousness can incite enmity and hatred between peoples, spread hostility towards representatives of other ethnic groups, racist and fascist sentiments, give the national movement a destructive character for society. http://www.zavtrasessiya.com/index.pl? act=PRODUCT&id=319
29. Psychology of the crowd. Psychological features of human behavior in the crowd.
From a psychological point of view, a crowd should be understood as an initially unorganized (or lost organization) crowd of people who do not have a common conscious goal (or have lost it) and, as a rule, are in a state of emotional excitement. The crowd takes place in the following situations: crowds in natural disasters (fires, earthquakes, floods, man-made disasters, etc.), military exercises, transport crowds, mass spectacles, celebrations, protest crowds (rallies, processions, demonstrations) .
Socio-psychological characteristics of the crowd, which influence the behavior of its constituent individuals:
1. anonymity - belonging to the crowd gives rise to a feeling of anonymity in a person, the confidence that his actions and deeds will remain unnoticed and unknown to anyone. The consequence is a feeling of being out of control and irresponsible, since everyone believes that any of his actions will be attributed to the crowd, and not to him personally.
2. The homogeneity of the crowd arises as a result of equalization, reduction to one level of all mental manifestations and behavior of individuals. She perceives rumors extremely uncritically, easily shifts her attention from one object to another, mindlessly succumbs to the influence of slogans, speeches not only of the leaders of the crowd, but also of random people.
3. suggestibility - one of the most important properties of the crowd, associated with its previous qualities, explaining the unpredictability of its actions, since it easily responds to any circumstances and appeals. The same property increases the willingness of people to commit acts that may be in complete contradiction to their consciousness and character.
Rumors in the crowd play a special role. They are the main way to disseminate information and perform the function of orienting crowd members in the current situation, contributing to the spontaneous organization of their actions.
Mental infection is expressed in the rapid spread, the transfer of the mental state of some people to others. This is the effect of the law of the psychological unity of the crowd (according to the theory of G. Le Bon), which allows us to explain its psychological homogeneity and high emotional sensitivity.
The irrationality of the crowd's behavior and emotional tension become the integrative result of all its other properties.
A person who obeys the laws of the crowd loses his personal individuality, becomes its conformal participant and is capable of any actions and deeds. Not all people are subject to such transformations. It depends on the level of psychological and moral maturity of the individual.
30. Stages of entry of a person into a group.
The process of entry of an individual into an established group can be divided into several stages. At the first stage of intra-group life (this stage is referred to as the stage adaptation), the main efforts of the individual are aimed at mastering the norms and rules, at getting acquainted with group-specific values, at mastering those methods and means of activity that the members of this group already own. A person has a more or less pronounced need to “be like everyone else”, the desire not to be different from others, to feel like a full member of it and to feel recognition of his membership in this group.
At a certain stage, the desire not to stand out among other members of the group comes into direct conflict with the desire inherent in each person to emphasize their individuality. Successful adaptation of a person in a group, achieving the goal of “being like everyone else”, can lead to a subjectively experienced feeling of personal dissolution in a group, to a feeling of losing one's own individuality. As a result, a person has a desire to “be different from everyone else”, which, ultimately, is the psychological essence of the second stage of the entry of a person into a group, called the stage individualization. At this stage, a person does not always present to the group only aspects of his personality that this group is ready to recognize and accept. These parties may not correspond to what the group defines as valuable and important, corresponding to the norms, rules and prospects of their life. Quite often, the group harshly sanctions a person who has not mastered the rules of the hostel at the adaptation stage, and forces him to return to the very beginning of his intra-group "career" in order to pass tests in a new way, allowing him to be considered "like everyone else", his in the group. In this case it is natural to speak of maladaptation individuals in the group of their membership.
If, with repeated attempts, the individual cannot find a “golden mean” between what is significant for the group and what is especially valuable for himself, he is either isolated or subjected to a negative attitude from the group and forced out of it. In this case, the process disintegration individuals in the group.
If a person is able to bring his need for individuality into line with the readiness of the group to accept only those aspects of it that provide the group with development and facilitate the solution of group-wide tasks of life, the person successfully integrates into the group.
At the same time, this does not mean that the process of integration (as well as adaptation) can be reduced only to the passive adaptation of the individual to the requirements of the community in whose life he is included. To a greater or lesser extent, almost always, the community, experiencing the influence of a new personality for itself, transforms its needs, changes and develops.
Adaptation, individualization, integration are self-valuable phases of an individual entering a relatively stable group
31. The essence of the process of socialization of the individual.
In the existing conditions of social life, the most urgent problem is that it requires the inclusion of each person in a single social integrity and the very structure of society. The key concept of this process is personality socialization which allows each person to become a full-fledged member of society.
Personality socialization- this is the process of entry of each individual into the social structure, as a result of which changes occur with the very structure of society and in the structure of each individual. This is due to the social activity of each individual. As a result of this process, all the norms of each group are assimilated, the uniqueness of each group is manifested, the individual learns patterns of behavior, values and social norms. All this is essential for successful functioning in any society.
Occurs throughout the existence of human life, because the world is in constant motion, everything changes and a person just needs to change for a more comfortable stay in new conditions. The human essence undergoes regular changes and changes over the years, it cannot be constant. Life is a process of constant adaptation, requiring continuous change and renewal. Man is a social being. The process of integrating each individual into social strata is considered to be quite complex and rather lengthy, since it includes the assimilation of values and norms of social life and certain roles. The process of socialization of the individual runs in mutually intertwined directions. The object itself can act as the first one. As a second, a person begins to more actively integrate into the social structure and life of society as a whole.
32. Social movements. Main characteristics, attachment mechanisms.
Social movements are a special class of social phenomena, which is a fairly organized unity of people who set themselves a specific goal, usually associated with some kind of change in social reality. Social movements have different level :
- broad movements with global goals(struggle for peace, for environmental protection, etc.),
- local movements, which are limited either by the territory or by a certain social group (for the equality of women, for the rights of sexual minorities, etc.)
- movement with pragmatic goals in a very limited region (for the removal of any of the members of the administration).
Common features all levels of social movements:
It is based on certain public opinion, which prepares social movement, although subsequently it is itself formed and strengthened as the movement develops.
· Any social movement aims to change the situation depending on its level: either in society as a whole, or in the region.
· In the course of the organization of the movement, its program is formulated, with varying degrees of elaboration and clarity.
· The movement is aware of the means that can be used to achieve the goals, for example, whether violence is acceptable as one of the means.
Any social movement is realized to one degree or another in various manifestations of mass behavior, including demonstrations, demonstrations, rallies, congresses, etc.
Three issues are important: the mechanisms for joining the movement, the ratio of the opinions of the majority and the minority, and the characteristics of the leaders.
The mechanisms for joining a movement can be explained through an analysis of the participants' motives. They are divided into fundamental, which are determined by the conditions of existence of a particular social group, its status, and momentary, which are generated by a problem situation, a social incident, a new political act. They are more justified by purely emotional reactions to what is happening in society or a group. The solidity and "strength" of the movement, the forecast for the successful fulfillment of goals depend on the ratio of fundamental and momentary motives.
Recruitment of supporters of the movement is carried out in various ways: in local movements, this can also be recruitment "on the street", when a collection of signatures is organized in favor of some action. In motion more high level recruitment occurs in those groups in which the initiative was born. Thus, in the civil rights movement, the initiators can be people who have been unlawfully injured or subjected to repression. In modern literature, two theories have been proposed to explain the reasons for an individual joining a social movement.
Relative deprivation theory argues that a person feels the need to achieve some goal, not in the case when he is absolutely deprived of some good, right, value, but in the case when he is relatively deprived of this. In other words, this need is formed by comparing one's position (or the position of one's group) with the position of others.
Theory resource mobilization focuses on the more "psychological" reasons for joining the movement. It is argued here that a person is guided by the need to identify with the group to a greater extent, to feel himself a part of it, thereby to feel his strength, to mobilize resources.
33. Mass phenomena in large groups. Features of intergroup interaction.
Rumors are a form of distorted (transformed) information about a significant object circulating in large diffuse groups under conditions of uncertainty and socio-psychological instability. Patterns of their occurrence and distribution: Firstly, rumors arise in connection with important events for people or social objects that are significant for them. Secondly, they arise in conditions of uncertainty, when information is either completely absent, or clearly insufficient, or is contradictory. Thirdly, they are facilitated by political and economic instability in the community, which includes the diffuse group of interest. Fourthly, a favorable factor in generating rumors is the desire of people to witness something unusual in life, some kind of sensation or miracle, etc.
Panic is a spontaneously occurring state and behavior of a large population of people who are in conditions of behavioral uncertainty in increased emotional arousal from an uncontrolled feeling of fear. Characteristics of panic: panic occurs in groups of large numbers (crowd, diffuse group, mass gathering of people); panic is caused by a feeling of uncontrolled (uncontrollable) fear based on real or imaginary
| Roles associated with a group task | Group support roles |
| initiator Offers new ideas, ways to overcome difficulties and solve problems. Changes the point of view on the problems and goals of the group developing Develops and develops ideas and proposals put forward by other members Coordinating Brings together ideas, suggestions and tries to coordinate the actions of group members Orienting Guides the group towards its goals, assessing what is happening and identifying deviations from the agenda | encouraging Encourages and supports the participation of others. Demonstrates understanding of other people's ideas and opinions harmonizing Acts as an intermediary between the participants in case of differences of opinion and the presence of different points of view. Reduces tension during conflicts Compromising Gives up something of his opinion, reconciling it with the opinions of others to establish group harmony Protective and fulfilling Supports, encourages others, facilitating their participation and regulating the course of communication |
| evaluating- criticizing Critically evaluates participants' proposals by comparing them with existing standards for task performance Motivating to action Pushes and encourages the group to take action and make decisions | Setting standards Applies standards within the group to assess the quality of the group process Passive next Passively follows the group, acts as a listener in group discussions and when making decisions |
Creating favorable conditions for the work of the group is facilitated by a positive emotional atmosphere that reduces psychological tension, reflection, as well as mastering the basic rules of behavior during classes. The main rules of the group are:
1) activity, involving the inclusion of all participants in the work of the group, the manifestation of intellectual, emotional, motor activity;
2) communication on the principle of "here and now", involving an appeal to the present, what worries the participants right now, a discussion of what is happening in the group;
3) detection positive qualities personalities each participant;
4) sincerity and trust in communication;
5) inadmissibility of direct assessments a person (not the qualities of the participants are evaluated, but only their actions);
6) confidentiality everything that happens in the group.
Let us dwell on the procedural aspects of the training groups. The optimal size of the group, according to the researchers of the training, is 10-12 people who are included in the lesson based on the principle of voluntariness, i.e. free choice this type of training. The practice of connecting in one group of people of different sex, age, education, degree of acquaintance justifies itself. A group of participants working in the same institution or organization can also be created, but it is more difficult to work with. The cycle of training sessions is usually designed for 30-50 h., average duration of each lesson - 3 h. In some cases, marathon classes are held, the duration of one lesson is 8-12 h.
Training technologies are widely described in the literature. In the most general form, personality-oriented trainings are carried out as follows:
The training is conducted by two educational psychologists; at the very beginning of the lesson, they present each other;
An introduction to the issues of training is being carried out, ensuring openness and trust among participants to each other;
Readiness for mutual cooperation, motivation to achieve the objectives of the training is formed;
The development of psychotechnics of new professional behavior and the development of socially and professionally important skills, qualities and abilities is being carried out;
The professional and psychological potential of specialists is being updated;
The correction of the professional and psychological potential of the specialist's personality is being carried out.
When conducting training sessions, leading educational psychologists are required to comply with ethical rules and the code of a practical psychologist.
The leader has an important role in all types of psychotechnologies. He acts more as a facilitator - a person who facilitates the manifestation of initiative and personal interaction of the participants, providing psychological support, and not evaluating. The host himself acts as a model of a self-revealing personality, talking frankly about himself, like the rest of the participants. Showing attention and care, he creates an environment of acceptance and empathic understanding in the group.
The implementation of personality-oriented communication determines the use of pedagogical facilitation technologies 1 , which maximally take into account the psychological characteristics of all aspects of interpersonal communication. The main principles for the selection of such technologies are:
Ensuring cooperation of all objects of education;
Building communication on an equal footing;
Recognition of each participant's right to their own position and opinion;
Recognition of each subject of communication as a unique personality;
Open manifestation of one's own feelings and emotional experiences;
Facilitative organization of communication space 2 .
Let us present the technological methods of training sessions that are adequate to these principles.
The teacher does not react to the superficial emotional reactions of the trainees, but to their hidden feelings, thereby helping to realize why the trainees experience such feelings and experiences. Pedagogical empathy includes the following levels:
Rational (understanding the emotional state);
Emotional (empathy for the state of the student);
Effective (providing real assistance in overcoming negative emotions);
Leading (prediction of possible emotional states).
An effective facilitation technique is the teacher's self-presentation, self-disclosure by him of his life and pedagogical experience. The use of this technique contributes to the acceptance by the members of the training group of the personality of the teacher and thereby allows you to remove the psychological barriers of alienation between all subjects of personality-oriented pedagogical communication.
K. Rogers identified three levels of humanization of any interpersonal relationships that provide constructive personal changes: 1) non-judgmental positive acceptance of another person; 2) active empathic listening; 3) congruent (adequate, genuine, sincere) self-expression in communication. The followers of K. Rogers emphasize that learning should become a means of personal growth of students and teachers.
The results of personality-oriented professional trainings and the criteria for their effectiveness are:
Increasing autopsychological, psychological and professional competence;
The transition of specialists to a new level of professionalism;
Development of readiness for self-change, self-development and self-realization in the field of professional activity;
Creating an optimistic professional perspective and mastering the techniques (technologies) of professional self-preservation;
Overcoming destructive professional changes and preventing the loss of meaning in professional life.
Conducting a personality-oriented professional training requires compliance with a number of ethical rules, and the participants need a vigilant and careful attitude to the training with a clear understanding of what kind of impact they will have, what consequences this may lead to. From this point of view, it is important that when conducting professional training, its goals and objectives are precisely specified, i.e. it is determined to improve which professional qualities of a specialist it is aimed at.
Consider the main ethical contradictions,
1 arising during trainings, which can become sources of value and moral problems:
Between the interests of society, organization, enterprise and specialist, which cannot always
coincide;
Between the right of a specialist to professional growth, career and the inability to realize this need based on the results of the training;
Between the high goals and objectives of the training and the pragmatism of the participants, seeking to receive specific recommendations and clear instructions.
Often, the group faces tasks in which it is difficult to find an objective indicator of the correctness of the solution. Then the opinion of the majority turns out to be the only guideline for behavior for everyone. The situation becomes critical when a member of the group finds that his point of view is contrary to the opinion of others. Then he has an internal conflict: "believe yourself or the opinions of other people." The mere presence of other people is enough to change the feelings of the individual, her emotional states and behavior.
The group is often referred to as an organism. One of the proofs of this is the willingness of group members to converge opinions and psychological qualities. As a result, the group can solve joint problems.
Often, the group faces tasks in which it is difficult to find an objective indicator of the correctness of the solution. Then the opinion of the majority turns out to be the only guideline for behavior for everyone. The situation becomes critical when a member of the group finds that his point of view is contrary to the opinion of others. Then he has an internal conflict: "believe yourself or the opinions of other people." The way out of this difficult situation depends on a number of circumstances, among which the main ones are the following:
- the complexity of the task to be solved: an increase in the complexity of the task leads to a decrease in self-confidence;
- experience in solving this type of problem: if the experience is great, the problem is solved easily, but if it is small, then there are difficulties with orientation in the task - focus on yourself or other people?
- the authority of the individual in this group: if it is high, then you can rely on your abilities, but if it is low, then the opinion of others may become preferable;
- the significance of the group for the one who makes the decision: if a person respects the opinion of the group, and he needs it, then the issue is resolved by agreement with the opinion of the group, if the group is not significant, the choice is focused only on one's own opinion.
Usually, differences of opinion at the beginning of the formation of a group are greater than with the formed structure of relations. To a large extent, common tasks influence the convergence of opinions of group members. In the minds of everyone, they form a readiness to agree rather than dispute the state of affairs. True, exceptions are possible if there is a struggle for leadership in the group. This struggle dictates its own rules of behavior to the members of the group. The struggle for leadership often divides the group into two, with their own leaders in each. This situation is called dual leadership. The resulting factions feed the ego of the leaders, and they complete the split of the group. In this case, a single task acquires two meanings - a separate one for each of the subgroups. Rapprochement of opinions becomes the most problematic in such a situation.
At the heart of the change and convergence of opinions is the mechanism of imitation and suggestion. Academician V. M. Bekhterev believed that imitation and suggestion are often poorly understood by a person. People differ in the degree of awareness and criticality in those cases when they have to change their own judgments. One, for example, is aware of the fact of contradictions and agrees with the opinion of the group or leader-manager, but then returns to his own judgment. Another, unconscious of the effect of imitation and suggestion, is so influenced that he ceases to notice the substitution of his own judgment by someone else's (group, leader). Researchers identify the following circumstances that determine the degree of compliance of group members:
- The maximum inspiring pressure on a group member is exerted by three people with a single opinion. Especially if these persons have authority.
- The influence of the group depends on the position of the person in the group. Persons who are weakly dependent on the group, but highly valued by it, are the least susceptible to suggestion. Usually the abilities of these people are greater than those of the rest of the group, which leads the majority to follow a highly valued leader. It is easier for the more able to choose between the groups in which he has to function.
- The unity of opinion is stronger in groups with a democratic system of relations than in authoritarian groups, but there is more order and precision in the authoritarian type of groups. This is due to the fact that in groups with democratic relations, its members switch to interpersonal communication. If the situation is far from extreme, critical, then the effectiveness of joint activities also decreases. The authoritarian system of relations is more effective in difficult, crisis situations. A more rigid distribution of roles and functions not only streamlines the behavior of everyone, but also increases the accuracy of solving managerial tasks.
- Opinions expressed aloud have a greater inspiring effect than those received in writing. The exception is documents of higher authorities, which are of particular importance in authoritarian societies. Living witnesses are always more valuable, because papers can be destroyed.
- The susceptibility to group pressure depends on the order in which opinions are expressed. Members of the group, who expressed their opinion earlier than others, provide greater influence on the behavior of others. The unity of opinion of a large part of the group members has a stronger influence on the statements of the last speakers. To increase the inspiring effect, the leader, the leader can express his opinion not only at the beginning, but also sum up at the end, choosing the optimal course of action.
- Exposure to influence from others is significant if a difference of opinion exists, but it is not significant. Optimal is a certain degree of reliability of discrepancies, not reaching the point of absurdity.
- In cohesive groups, the pressure of a single opinion on its individual members is stronger than in less cohesive ones. The existing positive relationships bind the members of the group with obligations to each other. In less cohesive groups, its members have little to value, except for their own opinions, so they experience less pressure from each other.
- With the threat of punishment, the effect of public consent most often occurs with internal rejection. Dissent, suppressed in every possible way by totalitarian regimes, leads to external unanimity, which ensures the self-preservation of members of groups and society as a whole. However, this external unanimity makes people indifferent, passive, lack of initiative, which leads to a gradual decrease in labor efficiency with external well-being.
- The opinion developed by the group is more stable than the individual opinion of ordinary members of the group. Group opinion becomes the norm, a "role model". It is no coincidence that lawmaking at the stage of completion and adoption requires mandatory discussion and voting.
- The first type of independent people is characterized by complete trust in their own intellectual abilities and life experience. Usually these are people of the older generation with high authority in the past, and even more so in the present.
- The second type of independent people is characterized by their departure from the pressure of the group while maintaining their own opinion. Such behavior is possible in the presence of other significant groups and authorities.
- The third type of independent people is characterized by significant tension and doubts in terms of choosing decisions. But still, they usually remain unconvinced.
- The first type of dependent people shows sufficient confidence in their intellectual abilities, but the unwillingness to be rejected by the group makes them accept other people's judgments. They can be considered cautious people.
- The second type of dependent people relatively easily accepts the point of view of the majority, since they have little confidence in their own intellectual abilities.
- The third type of dependent people does not notice that their opinion is determined by the point of view of the majority.
Exposure to group influences depends on the type of professional activity. Technologists have more confidence in their own knowledge and the opinion of the group is less important to them. Humanitarians and especially social scientists are less confident in the reliability and truth of humanitarian knowledge and are more likely to change their minds in the face of group pressure.
A person's susceptibility to group influences also depends on his psychological qualities. Persons with the following personal characteristics are more suggestible:
- anxious, emotionally unstable, dreamy and sophisticated
- having a temperament type close to melancholic and a little less often to choleric (stable sanguine and phlegmatic people react poorly to the opinions of others, even authoritative people);
- unsociable, responsible and loving order;
- having original creative thinking and good indicators of theoretical and practical intelligence, although this may seem paradoxical.
Civilized relations between entrepreneurs and managers should be based not on momentary profit, but on the future. To do this, you need to find psychologically acceptable options for business relations.
- Psychology of management and ethics of business communication in a team.
- Group, mass, crowd.
- Groups formal and informal, open and closed, their characteristics. Reference group.
- group device.
- Organizational behavior: role, mask.
- The structure of the informal group.
Since the psychology of business communication - component complex psychological sciences, then it is based on the main categories and principles developed by general psychology. Such basic categories general psychology are those that reflect
Mental processes (cognition, emotions, will),
properties of the human psyche (ability, character, temperament),
as well as manifestations of his consciousness (doubt, uncertainty, conviction, focus on certain actions, etc.).
The most important principles that guide general psychology and all its branches are the following:
1. the principle of causality, determinism, i.e. recognition of the relationship, 2. interdependence of mental phenomena both with others and with material phenomena;
3. the principle of consistency, i.e. interpretation of individual mental phenomena as elements of an integral mental organization;
4. development principle, recognition of transformation, changes in mental processes, their dynamics, transition from one level to another.
Social Psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or perceived behavior of others. The problem of groups into which people are united in the course of their life activity is the most important issue of social psychology.
social group- an association of people based on their participation in some activity, connected by a system of relations that are regulated by formal or informal social institutions. Signs of a social group:
1) the presence of an internal organization;
2) the general (group) purpose of the activity;
3) group forms social control;
4) samples (models) of group activity;
5) intense group interactions
Definition of social group includes four main points:
- social interaction - that is, communicative interaction carried out with the help of sign systems("codes");
- stigmatization - "sticking labels", by which we recognize membership in a group that has taken shape in a social gestalt (an image in the mass consciousness) - the lifestyle of this group;
- identification - an individual's identification of himself with a given group through the opposition "we - others" with the establishment of social boundaries and filters at the "input-output", as well as through the mechanism of social control;
- habitualization - that is, “accustoming”, the development by an individual of a given social position and the formation of attitudes, stereotypes inherent in this group.
Types of social groups:
stand out large, medium and small social groups. AT large social groups (in addition to classes) include aggregates of people that exist on the scale of the whole society as a whole: these are social strata, professional groups, ethnic communities (nations, nationalities), age groups (youth, pensioners), etc. Awareness of belonging to a social group and, accordingly, its interests as its own occurs gradually, as organizations are formed that protect the interests of the group (for example, the struggle of workers for their rights and interests through workers' organizations).
To medium social groups include production associations of employees of enterprises, territorial communities (residents of the same village, city, district, etc.).
To the manifold small groups include such groups as family, friendly companies, neighborhood communities. They are distinguished by the presence of interpersonal relationships and personal contacts with each other.
Any organization (large or small, for-profit or not-for-profit, private or public) is made up of many diverse groups that can be classified in various ways:
According to the principle of formality:
a) formal;
b) informal;
To size:
b) triad;
in) small group;
d) a large group;
By duration of existence:
a) temporary;
b) permanent
By regularity and frequency of interaction:
a) primary;
b) secondary;
According to the degree of cohesion:
a) a group;
b) team;
Leading activity:
a) educational;
b) sports;
c) family;
d) managerial;
e) production, etc.
In terms of existence:
a) nominal;
b) real.
With the general classification of large social groups, it can be said that there is a special variety of them, which in the strict sense of the word cannot be called a "group". These are short-term associations of a large number of people, often with very different interests, but nevertheless gathered together on a specific occasion and demonstrating some kind of joint action. The members of such a temporary association are representatives of various large organized groups: classes, nations, professions, ages, etc. Such a “group” can be organized to a certain extent by someone, but more often it arises spontaneously, is not necessarily clearly aware of its goals, but nevertheless can be very active. Such education cannot be considered a “subject of joint activity”, but its importance cannot be underestimated either. In modern societies, political and social decisions often depend on the actions of such groups. Among the spontaneous groups in the socio-psychological literature, most often there are crowd, mass, public.
Crowd It is formed on the street about a variety of events: a traffic accident, the capture of an offender, dissatisfaction with the actions of a government official or just a passing person. The duration of its existence is determined by the significance of the incident: a crowd of onlookers can disperse as soon as the element of entertainment is eliminated. In another case, especially when it is connected with the expression of dissatisfaction with some social phenomenon(didn't bring food to the store, refused to accept or give out money in the savings bank) the crowd can become more and more excited and move on to actions, for example, to move towards an institution. At the same time, her emotional intensity can increase, giving rise to aggressive behavior participants, elements of the organization can appear in the crowd if there is a person who will be able to lead it. But even if such elements have arisen, they are very unstable: the crowd can easily sweep away the organization that has arisen. The elements remain the main background for the behavior of the crowd, often leading to its aggressive forms.
Knowing the laws of the crowd can also bring significant practical benefits. Le Bon writes: “History teaches us that crowds are extremely conservative. Despite their outwardly revolutionary motives, they always return to what they have destroyed. A crowd is a temporary collection of equal, anonymous and similar people, in the depths of which the ideas and emotions of each tend to express themselves spontaneously. Crowds represent gatherings of people who come together outside and in spite of institutions on temporary grounds. In a word, crowds are asocial and asocial shaped. They are the result of a temporary or continuous decomposition of groups and classes. The main feature of crowds is the fusion of individuals into a single mind and feeling, which obscure personality differences and reduce intellectual ability. Everyone strives to be like the neighbor with whom he communicates. This accumulation of its mass carries it along, as the tide of the sea carries away pebbles. At the same time, no matter what social class, education and culture involved. "WITH The very moment when people find themselves in a crowd, the ignoramus and the scientist become equally incapable of thinking. The state of a person in the mass has always been compared with a twilight state. His consciousness, which has lost activity, allows him to indulge in mystical ecstasy, visions, or, in a state of obscuration, indulge in panic or obsession.
Weight usually described as a more stable formation with rather indistinct boundaries. The mass may not necessarily act as a momentary formation, like a crowd; it can turn out to be much more organized when certain sections of the population quite consciously gather for the sake of some kind of action: a manifestation, a demonstration, a rally. In this case, the role of the organizers is higher: they are usually put forward not immediately at the start of the action, but are known in advance as the leaders of those organized groups whose representatives took part in this mass action. In the actions of the masses, therefore, both the ultimate goals and the tactics of behavior are more clear and thought out. At the same time, like the crowd, the mass is rather heterogeneous, different interests can coexist in it as well as collide, so its existence can be unstable.
Public represents another form of spontaneous group, although the element of spontaneity is less pronounced here than, for example, in the crowd. The public is also a short-term gathering of people to spend time together in connection with some kind of spectacle - on the stadium podium, in a large auditorium, on the square in front of the speaker while listening to an important message. In more enclosed spaces, such as lecture halls, the audience is often referred to as an auditorium. The public always gathers for the sake of a common and specific goal, therefore it is more manageable, in particular, to a greater extent complies with the norms adopted in the chosen type of organization of spectacles. But the public also remains a mass gathering of people, and the laws of the mass operate in it. Here, too, an incident is enough to make the public uncontrollable. Dramatic cases are known, to which irrepressible passions lead, for example, football fans in stadiums, etc.
The term "group" can be interpreted in different ways, depending on the point of view. One of the most profound definitions states that if there is a group in an organization, then its members:
- 1) are motivated to join the group;
- 2) perceive the group as a single union of interaction;
- 3) participate in group processes to varying degrees (i.e., some people give the group more time and energy than others);
- 4) reach agreements and identify disagreements by carrying out various forms interactions.
small group is a small-sized association of people connected by direct interaction.
Most empirical research in social psychology has been done with small groups, and there are several reasons for this. Most of a person's life takes place in small groups: in the family, gaming companies of peers, educational and work teams, neighborly, friendly and friendly communities. It is in small groups that personality is formed, its qualities are manifested, therefore personality cannot be studied outside the group. Through small groups, the relationship of the individual with society is carried out: the group transforms the impact of society on the individual, the individual affects society more strongly if the group is behind it. The status of social psychology as a science, its specificity is largely determined by the fact that a small group and the psychological phenomena that arise in it are the central features in defining its subject. Small groups throughout the history of social psychology have been the main object of empirical research, including laboratory experiments. Finally, the problems of the formation and development of small groups, group methods of teaching, training and psycho-corrective influence, joint labor activity and management of the activities of small groups are traditionally one of the main areas of application of the theory and methods of social psychology in practice.
First of all, consider the device of the group (Fig. 1). (This scheme was proposed by E. Bern, the creator of a psychotherapeutic system called Transactional Analysis.) It has a large outer border. These are the walls of the class where classes are held, the premises where the clinic is located, the fence that does not allow outsiders to enter the factory or military unit.
1. Large outer border
2. Large inner border
3. Small internal boundaries
4. Guide
5. Subordinates
A small circle inside a large one is a large inner border. It separates the leadership of the group from its members. Group members are not always a homogeneous mass. You can successfully manage directly no more than 9-12 people. A group, like a drop of mercury, when a certain size is exceeded, begins to divide into smaller groups. Therefore, when the group begins to exceed the above figure, it is necessary to divide it so that there are 7-9 people in the primary group and a leader is at the head of it. Then the head of a larger scale will have about 10 people in submission. In this regard, the army is quite well arranged. There are 3-4 squads in a platoon. Each department has 10 people. Thus, the platoon commander has 4-5 subordinates at his disposal: his deputy and squad leaders. Where are the other 3? These are the leaders of informal groups, which we will talk about a little later.
Groups are open and closed. Open groups arranged in such a way that some members leave, others come in their place. Not only the members of the group change, but also the leaders. Thus, production teams can be considered as open groups. Closed groups formed at the same time to perform a specific task. After its execution, the group ceases to exist.
And now about informal groups. If the leader does not know about their existence and does not know who the leader is, he will make a number of organizational mistakes. In an effort to "reach every member of the team", he can talk not with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. Then any of his requests, any order will be carried out not directly, but after a conversation with the leader. And if contact is not established with the leader, either disobedience or distorted performance can be observed.
I will mention here one common myth about the indiscipline of people. People are very disciplined, there are just very few leaders who know how to manage according to all the rules of science. The same thing happens in the group. The leader does not talk with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. As a result, his order is distorted by the advice and prohibitions of the leader. Let us remember that the power of the leader is absolute, and the power of the leader is determined by official instructions.
When human reason takes over, the crowd scatters. In the crowd, a person does not act in accordance with his experience, but in accordance with the opinion of the majority or the leader.
The crowd is constantly in a state dyed either black or pink, depending on the impulses received from the external environment. This explains their eternal changeability. One can observe an instantaneous transition from the most bloody ferocity to nobility and heroism in the highest sense. The crowd easily becomes now an executioner, now also a martyr. Why are there crowds now? Now social ties are easily broken. Information is transmitted quickly, the rhythm of urban life is accelerating, and the constant migration of the population is destroying human communities. All this contributes to the creation of new ones, which are recreated in the form of fickle and growing crowds. The mass media, especially television, also contribute to such rallying. By the way, through them it would be possible to organize and educate people. But you won't make much money from this. Yes and smart people they don’t crowd into the crowd and don’t make noise.
Informal groups arise as a result of the impossibility of solving any problem by single-handed efforts and the lack of direct interest in solving it by several members of the organization.
The strength of united labor inevitably creates a community of interests. The collective interest of people is the result of the very fact that they have homogeneous operations, a similar profession or community of interests. The superiority of group activity over individual activity does not take place in solving all problems. However, in a number of cases, collective action is the most successful.
Recent studies conducted by P. Blau, W. Scott, M. Shaw showed that when comparing individual and group performance, the latter had a higher performance - social interaction provided a mechanism for correcting errors.
The superiority of groups over individuals is expressed in the following:
In social interaction, ineffective proposals are screened out, which serves as a mechanism for correcting errors;
social support provided in social interaction facilitates thinking;
· the presence of competition between members of the group for respect mobilizes their energy for a great contribution to solving problems.
Informal group activity is also expressed in the formation of creative groups along with individual creativity. In this form of self-organization, rationalization and invention are manifested. Therefore, within the framework of an informal organization, social, creative needs that contribute to the self-realization of the individual, prestige and recognition can also be satisfied.
The interaction of a person and a group is always bilateral in nature: a person, through his work, through his actions, contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs for security, love, respect, self-expression, personality formation, elimination of anxiety, etc. .P.
It has been noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intra-group life, people have better health and better morals, they are better protected from external influences and work more successfully than people who are in an isolated state or in “sick” groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability. The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.
But the group not only helps a person to survive and improve his professional qualities. It changes his behavior, often making the person significantly different from what he was when he was outside the group. These influences of a group on a person have many manifestations. Let us point out some significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of the group.
Firstly, under the influence of society, changes occur in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, sphere of attention, rating system, etc. A person expands the sphere of attention, the system of assessments due to a closer appeal to the interests of other members of the group. His life is dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and others.
Secondly, in a group a person receives a certain relative "weight". The group not only distributes tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same job, but have a different "weight" in the group. And this will be an additional essential characteristic for the individual, which he did not and could not have, being outside the group. For many members of the group, this characteristic may be no less important than their formal position.
Thirdly, the group helps the individual gain a new vision of his "I". A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his worldview, in understanding his place in the world and his destiny.
Fourth, being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never give out if he thought about the problem alone. The effect of brainstorming on a person significantly increases the creative potential of a person.
Fifth, it has been noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to accept risk than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of changing human behavior is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.
It is wrong to think that the group changes the person as it wants.
Often a person resists many influences from a group for a long time, he perceives many influences only partially, he denies some completely. The processes of adaptation of a person to a group and adjustment of a group to a person are ambiguous, complex and often quite lengthy. Entering a group, interacting with the group environment, a person not only changes himself, but also has an impact on the group, on its other members.
Being in interaction with the group, a person tries to influence it in various ways, to make changes in its functioning so that it is acceptable for him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his duties. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of influence of a person on a group essentially depend both on his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and on the characteristics of the group. A person usually expresses his attitude towards the group in terms of what he considers most important for himself. At the same time, his reasoning always depends on the position that he occupies in the group, on the role he performs, on the task assigned to him and, accordingly, on what goals and interests he personally pursues.
The interaction of a person with a group can be either in the nature of cooperation, or merger, or conflict. Each form of interaction can have its own degree of manifestation. That is, for example, we can talk about a hidden conflict, a weak conflict, or an unresolvable conflict.
In the case of cooperation, a trusting and benevolent relationship is established between a group member and the group. A person considers the goals of the group as not contradicting his goals, he is ready to find ways to improve interaction, positively, albeit with a rethinking of his own positions, perceives the decisions of the group and is ready to find ways to maintain relations with the group on a mutually beneficial basis.
When a person merges with a group, the establishment of such relations between a person and the rest of the group is observed, when each of the parties considers the other as an integral part of the whole with it. A person builds his goals based on the goals of the group, to a large extent subordinates his interests to its interests and identifies himself with the group. The group, in turn, also tries to look at the individual not as the performer of a certain role, but as a person completely devoted to it. In this case, the group takes care of the person, considering his problems and difficulties as his own, and tries to assist him in solving not only production problems, but also in solving his personal problems.
In the event of a conflict, there is a juxtaposition of the interests of the individual and the group and the struggle between them to resolve this contradiction in their favor. Conflicts can be generated by two groups of factors:
organizational,
emotional.
The first group of factors is related to the difference in views on goals, structure, relationships, distribution of roles in the group, etc. If the conflict is generated by these factors, then it is relatively easy to resolve. The second group of conflicts includes such factors as distrust of a person, a sense of threat, fear, envy, hatred, anger, etc.
The conflicts generated by these factors are hardly amenable to complete elimination.
The conflict between a member of a group and the group is wrong to consider only as an unfavorable, negative condition in the group. Evaluation of the conflict fundamentally depends on what consequences it leads to for the person and the group.
But very often the conflict in relations within the group is positive. This is due to the fact that conflict can lead to favorable consequences. First, conflict can increase motivation to achieve goals. It can cause additional energy to act, bring the group out of a stable passive state. Secondly, the conflict can lead to a better understanding of relations and positions in the group, to an understanding by members of their role and place in the group, to a clearer understanding of the tasks and nature of the group's activities. Thirdly, conflict can play a creative role in finding new ways for the group to function, in finding new approaches to solving group problems, in generating new ideas and considerations on how to build relationships between group members, and so on. Fourthly, the conflict can lead to the manifestation of interpersonal relations, to the identification of relations between individual members of the group, which in turn can prevent a possible negative aggravation of relations in the future.
Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of the practical use of the knowledge gained to improve the efficiency of human labor activity. Organizational behavior manifests itself in the following forms, aspects, phenomena:
- - attitudes, values, preferences, inclinations of individuals that are formed in the mind;
- - the behavior of individuals in relation to physical objects in case of unexpected informational and social contacts;
- - the behavior of groups, teams and other groups characterized by face-to-face communication;
- - the behavior of organizational units such as departments, divisions, firms or large concerns; — the behavior of an interrelated group of organizations;
- - the behavior of the internal and external environment of the company, such as the evolution of technology, markets, competition, government regulation, etc.
A role is the behavior that a group expects from a person in the process of performing social functions. During my lecture, I play the role of a lecturer, and the students play the role of listeners. What do students expect from me? Firstly, that I will tell new things for them, secondly, to tell them in an exciting and interesting way, and thirdly, not to offend them. If my behavior matches their expectations (expectations), they behave quietly, listen carefully and write down the most important things (these are my expectations). Otherwise, they impose sanctions on me, that is, they begin to read, draw, mumble, etc. At the same time, they do not correspond to my expectations. If they depend on me, I can reprimand them, but I still won’t force them to listen. I can just force them to sit still. Now it is clear why it is better to organize the work of the group in such a way that the leader depends on subordinates, the client on the customer, the doctor on the patient, the teacher on the student, and not vice versa, as, unfortunately, often happens with us. After all, if students could freely leave me, I would have no other choice but to learn how to lecture well.
If I sincerely play my role, then by my performance one can judge what kind of person I am, what are my abilities, temperament, worldview. But sometimes the role is so automated that it ceases to reflect the personality as such. Then the individual simply changes one role for another, and there is no personality as such, or the role is separated from the personality, by the way a person plays his role, it is no longer possible to understand who he is as a person. The role essentially becomes mask(see below)
I will give a few examples. The teacher, playing the role of a teacher, behaves as expected, from his point of view, the teacher. He is often strict, inexorable to violators of discipline, reads all kinds of notations, requires his students to systematically complete assignments. But then he himself became a student, that is, he went to the Faculty of Teacher Improvement. His behavior changes dramatically. Now he plays the role of a student. He is late for classes, talks during lectures, sometimes does not come at all. Where is his identity? After all, if he sincerely played the role of a teacher, then, becoming a student, he would sympathize with his colleague and would not violate classes.
I know that at the faculty of advanced training of doctors, the most malicious violators of discipline were the cadets of the "Health Organization" cycle. But the contingent of this cycle is the chief doctors of hospitals and their deputies.
A mask is a behavior that a person uses to communicate safely. We have many masks, and we put them on automatically. A mask of joy at a wedding, a mask of sorrow at a funeral, a mask of good manners at dinner parties. Sometimes a mask grows so attached to a person that we forget what he was, and he himself does not know what his essence is. So, sometimes on the street you can immediately recognize a teacher, a military man, a doctor ... A person begins to behave at home as if at work. He is wearing a mask. Quite often it cannot be “pricked”, but it is also impossible to “stroke”! He's wearing a mask! I do not urge you to throw off these masks right away. But it would be better not to keep them in person, but to use them as "cloaks of conventionality." Otherwise, masks sometimes stick to the personality so much that they become their essence.