Test tasks in social science for the section "Man and Society" for 10kl.
1.Option.
1. The number of subsystems of society as a system includes:
A. economics
B. trade union
B. class of entrepreneurs
G.church
2. Of the listed, the most important institutions of society do not include:
A. natural habitat
B.moral
B. economy
G. family
3. The following do not belong to the sciences studying society:
A. sociology
B. geography
B. philosophy
D. genetics
4. The criteria of truth include:
A. the duration of the existence of a judgment
B. the number of people who adhere to this judgment
C. the possibility of confirming the judgment in practice
D. consistency of judgment with all previous
5. The correct, reliable reflection of objects and phenomena of reality by a knowing person is called:
A. knowledge
B. truth
B.experience
d.submission
6. The features of scientific knowledge include:
A. striving for objectivity and evidence
B. continuity of the cognitive process
B. orientation of knowledge to the sphere of practical activity of people
D. reliance on common sense
7. Sensory knowledge of the world includes:
A. abstraction
B. perception
B. generalization
D.comparison
8. A common feature of society and nature is not:
A. the presence of signs of the system
B. the process of constant change
B. Acting as a creator of culture
D. cyclicity as the basis of existence
9. A manifestation of activity characteristic of a person, expressed in the transformation of the outside world:
A. activity
B. dialectic
B. deed
G. attitude
10. Sign human activity that distinguishes it from animal behavior is:
A. manifestation of activity
B. goal setting
B. adaptation of the world around
D. interaction with nature
11A person's ability to operate with images of the surrounding world, which orients his behavior, is called:
A. consciousness
B. knowledge
B. reflection
D. sensation
12. Practice-proven result cognitive activity called:
A. knowledge
b.feeling
B. concept
D. judgment
13. Self-knowledge is characterized by the ability to:
A. Put yourself in the place of another
B. treat yourself objectively
B. understand loved ones
D. be curious
14. The set of norms that determine human behavior in society and based on public opinion is called:
A. morality
B. right
V.cult
G.dogma
15. The historically established ethnic communities include:
A. classes
B. states
B. nationality
G. outcasts
Option 2.
1. The main features of society as a system include:
A. natural conditions
B. no change
B. public relations
D. stage of historical development
2. The sciences that study society include:
A. anatomy
B. philosophy
B. genetics
G.mathematics
3. The concept of "society" does not include the provisions:
A. part of the material world
B. system
In forms of bringing people together
D. natural habitat
4. Finish the phrase:
"In philosophy, reliable, correct knowledge is called ...".
5. Rational knowledge of the world characterizes:
A.feeling
B. perception
B. performance
D. judgment
6. A common feature of society and nature is not:
A. acting as a creator of culture
B. the presence of signs of the system
B. conscious and volitional activity
D. the ability to exist independently of each other.
7. Ratio of spheres public life characterized by:
A. the defining role of the social sphere
B. dominance of the economic sphere
B. independence of spheres of public life
D. complex relationships and mutual influence of all spheres.
8. Relations between nature and society are that:
A. society and nature are interconnected
B. society does not depend on nature
B. nature is completely dependent on society
D. society does not affect nature.
9. Finish the statement:
“Unlike the actions of an animal, the manifestation of human activity transforms and subjugates the outside world and is called…”.
10. Which science is superfluous in the list of sciences that have the problem of man as their immediate subject:
A. sociology
B. social psychology
B. philosophical anthropology
D. economics
11. Which sign does not reflect the features of "human activity":
A. goal setting
B. motive
B. adaptation to the outside world
D. transformation of the world around
12Knowledge in contrast to labor:
A. presupposes a goal
B. requires special training from the subject
B. directed at an unknown object
G. has a useful character
13. Rational knowledge, in contrast to sensual knowledge, involves:
A.feeling
B. perception
B. performance
D. abstraction
14. Finish the statement "A set of ethical values based on certain norms and commandments is called ...".
15. The specific property of religion as a cultural phenomenon is:
A. faith
B. belief in the supernatural
B. connection with the world of human experiences
D. special attitude
Answers
1.Option 2.Option.
1-1 1-3
2-1 2-2
3-4 3-4
4-3 4-true
5-2 5-4
6-1 6-2
7-2 7-4
8-2 8-1
9-1 9-activity
10-2 10-4
11-1 11-3
12-1 12-3
13-2 13-4
14-1 14-morality
15-3 15-2
Test2
Option 1
1. In the process of development, society:
A. isolated itself from nature, but remained inextricably linked with it;
B. became isolated from nature and became independent of it;
V. remained a part of nature;
G. ceased to influence her;
2.characteristic feature evolutionary processes in public life is:
A. spasmodic change;
B. the revolutionary nature of the changes;
B. gradual processes;
D. irreversibility of processes;
3. A person differs from an animal in that he:
A. has natural instincts;
B. has a large brain size;
V. does not depend on natural conditions;
G. has articulate speech;
4. A person as a person is characterized by:
A. features of the body structure;
B. social activity;
B. features of temperament;
D. state of health;
5 The forms of sensory cognition include:
A. judgments;
B. observation;
B. sensations;
D. conclusions;
6. The creation of an artistic image is necessarily present in the activity:
A. film director;
B. politics;
B. scientist;
G. teacher;
7. Culture in the most general sense means:
A. the level of education;
B. all transformative activity person;
B. production and use of tools;
D. following the rules of ethics;
8. The position of a person in society is:
A. social status;
B. social role;
B. social mobility;
D. social adoption;
9. Deviant behavior is:
A. any changes in a person's life;
B. movement of a person within his group;
B. non-compliance with accepted norms of behavior in society;
D. change in the status of a person;
10. Tribes and nationalities are:
A. ethnic communities;
B. historical types of society;
B. social strata;
D. demographic groups;
11. The functions of political parties in a democratic society include:
A. participation in commercial activities;
B. control of the private life of citizens;
B.creation of armed groups;
D. participation in the election campaign;
12. The Russian philosopher A.F. Losev wrote: “For science to be a science, only a hypothesis is needed, and nothing more. The essence of pure science is only to put forward a hypothesis and replace it with another, more perfect one, if there are grounds for that. What is a hypothesis? What are hypothesis tests?
13. Economy. “Wealth is not in the possession of treasures, but in the ability to use them.”
(Napoleon-1).
In the answer, one should use the relevant concepts of social science and, based on the facts of social life and one's own life experience, give the necessary arguments to substantiate this position.
Option 2.
1.Nature:
A. is part of society;
B. determines the development of society;
B. has an impact on society;
G. does not depend on society;
2. What sphere of social life includes people's attitudes about power:
A. economic;
B. political;
B. social;
G. spiritual;
3. Both humans and animals have inherent needs for:
A. social activity;
B. purposeful activity;
B. care for offspring;
D. habitat change;
4. The result of sensory cognition, in contrast to rational cognition, is:
A. a generalized judgment about the subject;
B. a specific image of the subject;
B. explanation of the reasons for changing the subject;
D. the concept of the subject;
5. Deviant behavior has:
A. only positive consequences;
B. only negative consequences;
B.positive and negative consequences;
Consequences that do not affect the development of society;
6. Historical varieties of an ethnic group are:
A. state;
B. tribes;
B. community;
G. classes;
7. The activity of political parties is characterized by:
A. protecting the interests of certain segments of the population;
B. meeting the spiritual needs of the population;
B. collection of taxes;
D. development of fundamental scientific problems;
8. The activity that is associated with the transformation of objects of nature is called:
A. spiritual;
B. consumer;
B. value-oriented;
G.practical;
9 The forms of sensory cognition include:
A. judgment;
B. observation;
B. sensation;
D. inference;
10. The form of vertical social mobility is:
A. creation of a family;
B. impeccable production activity;
B. permanent residence in the city;
D. promotion;
11.K social norms relate:
A. moral norms;
B. technological norms;
B. medical standards;
D. sports standards;
12. Match:
A. game; A. mastering the experience of previous generations;
B. labor; B. transformation of the surrounding world;
B. study; B. transformation of information in the process of interaction;
D. communication; D. implementation of a real action by imaginary means;
13. State your thoughts on the problem raised by the author. In the answer, one should use the relevant concepts of social science and, based on the facts of social life and one's own life experience, give the necessary arguments to substantiate one's position.
A. Philosophy. "Man is of value to society only in so far as he serves it." (A. France).
Test 2
Answers.
1.Option. Option 2.
1-A 1-B
2-B 2-B
3-G 3-B
4-B 4-B
5-V 5-V
6-A 6-B
7-B 7-A
8-A 8-G
9-B 9-B
10-A 10-G
11-G 11-A
12. Hypothesis - this is not yet a confirmed assumption put forward by a scientist to explain certain phenomena;
1. theoretical construction and calculations;
2 observation;
3.experiment;
4.simulation;
12.G B A V.-2 option.
Test3.
1.Option.
1. The concept of "society" does not include the provision:
A. part of the material world;
B. system;
B. forms of association of people;
D. natural habitat;
2. The concept of "social progress" is defined by the sign:
A. the immutability of public life;
B. transition from higher to lower;
B. return to obsolete social relations
D. transition from lower to higher;
3. Finish the phrase:
“In philosophy, it is more reliable, correct knowledge is called ...”
Test
Option 1.
1. Match the events:
1700-1721 1. Seven Years' War
1757-1762 2. Russian-Turkish war
1768-1774 3. Pugachev's uprising
1773-1775 4. Northern war
2. What do the words mean: "college", "mandate", "poll tax", "secret office", "county".
3. What role did the Northern War play in the reform?
4. Can the Conditions of 1730 be regarded as an attempt to limit autocracy?
One of the associates of Peter I was Swiss in the Russian service, commanded the fleet in the Azov campaigns and headed the Great Embassy.
6. Arrange the following events in chronological order:
1. "Battle of the Nations"
2. Battle of Austerlitz
3. Capture of Plevna
4. Caucasian war
5. Defense of Sevastopol
6.Patriotic war
7. Accession of Central Asia
7. Explain the words: “military settlement”, “world mediator”, “otkhodniks”, “okhrana”, “censor”.
8. The events of December 14, 1825 are assessed differently by historians. What was it from your point of view: rebellion, uprising, putsch. Justify your point of view.
9. Why did Alexander 2 not limit himself to the abolition of serfdom, but also carried out other reforms?
Option 2.
1. Match events and dates:
1709 1. Accession of part of the territory of Poland
1714 2.Poltava battle
1762 3.First victory at sea
1772 4. "Manifesto on Liberty to the Nobles"
2. What do these words and expressions mean: “conditions”, “recruit”, “protectionist policy”, “senate”, “revision”.
3. How were the reforms of Peter I interconnected?
4. Paul 1 adopted decrees to limit the power of the landowners over the peasants, but in history he has a reputation as a tyrant. Why?
5. Determine who it is:
Favorite of Catherine II, one of the organizers of the palace coup in 1762, for the conquest of the Crimea and the development of Novorossi received the nickname "Tauride".
6. Arrange the events in chronological order:
1.Congress of Vienna
2. Defense of Sevastopol
3. Abolition of serfdom
4. Reign of Paul 1
5. Battle on the Berezina River
6. Tilsit peace treaty
7. Explain the meaning of the words: “reform”, “muridism”, “intervention”, “convention”, “sovyanophiles”.
8. The Decembrists called themselves "children of 1812". How could the war affect their worldview?
9. What is the "Eastern question" and how did it affect the Russian Empire?
Analysis of the work of the MO teachers of history, geography, biology for the 2007-2008 academic year.
1. The topic on which the MO is working is "Education of patriotic feelings through a lesson in the conditions of developing education."
2. MO has been working on this topic for 6 years.
3. Tasks: - to cultivate a sense of patriotism through a lesson and extracurricular activities in conditions of developing education;
To organize an optimal educational process on the basis of RO (D.B. Elkonina-V.V. Davydova), to introduce elements of RO technology into the content of education that contribute to the development of intellectual, cognitive, research skills.
track professional competence teachers in order to correct the methodological work;
Carry out diagnostics and monitoring in order to determine the starting level and further monitor the development of students, determine the dynamics in comparison with previous diagnostic studies and plan work for the next academic year;
Create an integrated system of work with highly motivated students;
Preserve and strengthen the health of studying children through the optimization of educational, psychological, physical activity.
4.5. These tasks were partially completed because their implementation is designed for the entire period of schooling for students, for the constant professional growth of teachers.
6.In current academic year 4 meetings of the MO were held on the following topics:
Software and methodological support in subjects, thematic planning by subjects;
Preparation and holding school olympiads in subjects, preparation and conduct of LEU;
Conducting a student knowledge test and adjustment methodological approaches to learning;
Preparation for examinations, analysis of examination material, results of the year.
7,8,9,10, MO teachers work on the following topics:
Serikova G.I. - "Patriotic education of students through a lesson in the conditions of developing education."
Meleshchenko M.I. - "Patriotic education of students through a lesson."
Mishina V.A. - "Optimization of the educational process."
Ryazantseva R.A. "The moral education of students through the lesson."
Petunin R.V. - "Patriotic education of students through a lesson in the conditions of developmental education."
Berdnikova N.F. - "Development of students' interest in the subject, based on the use of information technology."
Korbova G.E. - "Education of a responsible attitude to the ecology of the environment through a lesson."
11.12. Thematic pedagogical councils and seminars of the Moscow Region have affected the professional growth of teachers.
Took part in the preparation of articles for the almanac of the Ministry of Education of the Omsk region "Moral education of the younger generation." (Meleshchenko M.I. Serikova G.I.)
We took part in the All-Russian competition of methodological developments of extra-curricular activities "Raising Patriots of Russia." (Serikova G.I. Meleshchenko M.I.)
Conducted thematic lessons on the history of the Fatherland with the participation of a veteran of the Great Patriotic War Puryshev S.A.
(Serikova G.I. Meleshchenko M.I., Petunin R.V.)
Conducted thematic lessons with the participation of LIR "Heritage".
13To control the quality of work, the following activities were carried out:
Visiting and analyzing lessons;
Carrying out and analysis of control works;
Checking workbooks;
Systematic work with school documentation.
14.15. To increase the motivation of students, work was carried out to prepare children for participation in district, city, and regional events. The students showed the following results:
1st place in the district Olympiad in social studies (Petunin R.V.)
1st place in the district Olympiad in civil law- Citizen's suffrage. (Serikova G.I.);
Laureates of the city NOU Murashova D., Gnedaya S. (Meleshchenko M.I.)
Laureate of the regional NOU Babanova L., the work was published in the collection of creative works of students (Meleshchenko M.I.);
Winners of the Regional creative competition students "Memory Watch - 2008" (Meleshchenko M.I., Serikova G.I.)
They took part in the Regional competition in natural science "Through the thorns - to the stars", the students showed good results (Serikova G.I., Meleshchenko M.I., Mishina V.A., Berdnikova NJF.).
They took part in the telecommunication projects "Etiquette from A to Z", "Our City".
16. The scientific and methodological base is replenished by teachers' own acquisitions methodological literature, training discs.
17. MO takes part in the review of classrooms. The cabinets are in good condition.
18. 19. To improve professional skills, the following work was carried out:
Mutual attendance of lessons;
Participation in competitions;
Participation in the preparation and holding of thematic teachers' councils.
20. The level of preparation of students over the past two years has not decreased, which is confirmed by the results of the final and intermediate certification I am studying.
21. The Ministry of Education takes part in the preparation of documentation, examination folders, and the acquisition of methodological materials for the classroom. When preparing teachers for certification of the current or intermediate, a discussion of data for a certain period of time is carried out.
What is a society? How is its existence possible? What is the original cell of society? Throughout the history of the existence of sociological science, scientists have been looking for answers to these crucial questions. E. Durkheim saw the fundamental principle of society in the collective consciousness. According to M. Weber, society is a product of social actions. From the point of view of K. Marx, society is a developing set of relations between people, emerging in the process of their joint activities.
With all the diversity in approaches to the interpretation of society on the part of the classics of sociology, what they have in common is the consideration of society as an integral system of elements that are in close relationship. This approach to society is called systemic. Within its framework, society is presented as an integral functionally connected social system, the elements of which are closely interconnected and often interdependent.
When considering and studying society, the spheral principle is often used, according to which a society includes the following spheres:
1. economic- material, production relations between people and their associations;
2.political- activities of political institutions and organizations, authorities, law enforcement agencies, social and political movements, political leaders of various levels;
3.spiritual- education, science, public consciousness, religion, culture, art;
4.social- interacting communities of various kinds of people: classes, ethnic groups, social strata, groups, organizations.
All spheres of the life of society operate in the closest relationship, performing certain functions and being complex social subsystems.
So, society- it is a historically developing integral system of relations and interactions between people, their communities and organizations, taking shape and developing in the process of their joint activities.
Consider the distinguishing features of society:
1. sociality (from lat. socialis - joint), expressing the social essence of people's lives, the specifics of their social relations, social interactions and social ties;
2. the ability to maintain and reproduce a high intensity of interactions between people who act relative to each other;
3. the territory on which many features of society depend (for comparison, you can take the lifestyle, customs, culture and religion of the Eskimos, inextricably linked with the characteristics of the Arctic territory and the same characteristics of the inhabitants of Eastern Europe - Belarusians, Ukrainians, Russians);
4.existence in social space and social time;
5. a high level of self-affirmation and self-regulation, which allows society to create a high level of organization of social interactions without outside interference, ensuring its sustainable self-development and self-reproduction, satisfaction of people's vital needs;
1. the presence of special bodies for the implementation of self-regulation - social institutions;
2. the existence of subjects of social development (individuals, groups, communities, institutions), without the consciousness, will and activity of which social changes are impossible;
3. the presence of a social structure, the elements of which can be:
social institutions;
Social communities;
Social groups, classes, layers;
Social organizations;
human individuals.
Most sociologists agree that there are certain trends and patterns in the development of society. It is argued that in the evolution of society there is law of accelerating social development, which says that each subsequent stage takes place in a shorter period than the previous one. Also in the development of human societies operates law of uneven political, economic, social and spiritual development, as a result of which some countries and peoples develop faster and more intensively than others. Finally, the history of the development of various types of societies shows that with all sorts of zigzags, deviations from the main path of social evolution, even with forced stagnation and setbacks, there is an upward trend in this evolution. (law of social progress).
The term "society" has several definitions.
In the broad sense of the word society
are forms of organization and ways of interaction between people and social groups, which are isolated from nature, but are closely connected with it, and are part of the material world.The concept of society
in a narrow sense, it is presented in several variations:1. Society as a collection of people united by a certain common feature, interests (a society of book lovers).
2. Society as a characteristic of a certain historical stage in the development of mankind (medieval society).
3. Society as distinctive features life of a particular country (Russian society).
4. Society as the entire population of the Earth as a whole (the human race).
Signs of society:
a) integrity - means that society consists of interrelated components (elements of society);b) openness - society is open to the emergence of something new;
c) sustainability - society strives for self-preservation
d) dynamism - society is in constant motion; Society is not static.
Society functions:
→ reproductive - reproduction of the genus.→ production - the production of material and spiritual wealth.
→ regulating - the establishment of rules for the behavior of people in society.
→ socializing - introducing a person to the achievements of civilization.
Society and nature are closely interconnected with each other.
The entire material world (planet Earth) consists of two parts: society and nature.Their interaction can be both constructive and deconstructive.
An example of constructive interaction between society and nature: the first settlements along the rivers, agricultural production.
An example of deconstructive interaction: drainage of water bodies, deforestation, environmental pollution.
As society can influence nature, so nature can influence society.
An example of the impact of society on nature → changes in the riverbed.
An example of the impact of nature on society → natural disaster (hurricane, earthquake, tsunami).
culture - all transformative human activity.
Under the influence of what society develops:1. Idealists believe that - society changes under the influence of human ideas.
2. Materialists believe that - society changes under the influence of a person's desire to live in comfort.
3. Naturalistic approach - society changes under the influence of the forces of nature.
4. Most scientists agree that - society is changing not under the influence of any one approach, but under the influence of several.
Society is a dynamic system.
Dynamic - because it is in constant motion, static society is not characteristic.The system - because it consists of interrelated elements, subsystems of society.
Spheres of society (subsystems/elements):
a) society
b) politics
c) economy
d) spiritual world
public process - spatio-temporal concept, which includes the life milestones of different generations of people.
Public Process Trends:- progress (movement from lower forms to complex ones)
- regression (on the contrary, degradation).
Criteria of social progress:
progressive development of production
the degree of development of science
standards of living
the level of protection of the honor and dignity of the individual
level of morality
Forms of social change:
1. Evolution
2. Revolution
3. Reform
4. Modernization
Society- a social organism, which includes all types of communities, is characterized by integrity, dynamism, openness, self-organization, spatio-temporal existence. Society is holistic, so all elements are in interaction. This interconnection forms a unity of a higher order: groups, social communities, individuals, entering the system, acquire new forces and master more effective way actions.
Sociology uses the fundamental position in its subject general systems theory: the order, the organization of the whole, the system, is always higher than that of the individual parts.
social system there is integrity, acting in the form of social communities, institutions and organizations, the main elements of which are people, their norms and interactions.
Integrity is a system-forming quality of society, manifested in the production of material goods, ideas, the production of the person himself. But the main thing is that the main elements social system are people, their norms, sanctions, connections, relationships. The basis of the social system is the activity aimed at the reproduction of the system itself.
Stability- this is a state of the system in which it is able to function and change, while maintaining the stability of its structure and functions to strong external influences. The system is able to adapt to changes and respond positively to them.
Instability, instability- this is a state when the impact, both external and internal, exceeds some critical values, while urgent measures are required to save the system. If this does not happen, then the system passes into another qualitative state. For example, low incomes of the population, low living standards, strikes, etc. may be within the normal range. But when the norm is violated, the system degrades, crime grows, the quality of consumption decreases, people's health deteriorates, life expectancy decreases, and so on.
Society needs to maintain stability. The mechanism for maintaining stability is that it is necessary to achieve and maintain a balance of interests of social groups and social actors. It should be noted the importance of "social programs" that provide a living wage, support human potential (children, pensioners, the disabled in the first place). The share of social programs in the state budget is an indicator of the stability of society.
The destabilization of the social system contributes to the creation of coercive measures, voluntary and totalitarian) bans on strikes, on elections, the introduction of various moratoriums, etc.
sociological concept the systemic nature of society includes the doctrine about social time and social space. Social time is a form of real movement of any social system, regardless of how it is comprehended and experienced by us. The sociologist focuses on the carriers of social time: the individual, social communities, society as a whole. The term social time itself appeared in the middle of the 20th century. In sociology, there is a difference between the time of society and natural time. time in society appears in the form of activity. This is the duration of the event, the number of hours to create an item, the lifetime. This means that time also expresses the qualitative side of being, i.e. the content of the social process (slowdown, acceleration, rise, fall, regression, progress). social science discovered the non-physical form of time - working time, which is: 1) a quantitative measure of labor; 2) the main content of the time of human civilization. This means that in society there is always not some single, monolithic time, but a spectrum of social rhythms determined by the nature of individual social communities.
Thus, social time is a living form of activity that acts both as calendar time and as the total time of an individual, social community, society as a whole, and as function, conditions and measure of social action.
Exist problem of social space. Space (socially organized space) is a form of existence of the material-objective and personal environment of society. It is characterized by objectivity, territorial distribution of the population, social distance between the individual and communities. social space- this is the space of the natural environment of society and the space of "humanized" nature. This is a "living space", i.e. the space of social interaction of communities, associations, collectives, their "location" in the system public relations. And also this is the space of individual existence (places of residence and work, recreation areas, area of interpersonal communication).
Thus, the most significant for sociological analysis are the following systemic features of society: integrity(as an internal quality coinciding with social production), sustainability(relatively constant reproduction of the rhythm and mode of social interactions; dynamism -(generational change, continuity, slowdown, acceleration ; openness (the social system preserves itself thanks to the exchange of substances with nature, which is possible only if it is in equilibrium with environment and getting enough energy and matter from external environment); self-development (its source is within society, it is production, distribution, consumption based on the interests and incentives of social communities); spatio-temporal forms of being, as well as ways of organizing it (people are united by activities, goals and needs).
The concept of society and social system. Sociology considers society in the following aspects. E. Durkheim considered society as a supra-individual reality based on collective ideas. M. Weber believed that society is the interaction of people, which is the product of social actions. T. Parsons defined society as a system of relations between people, the connecting beginning of which are norms and values. K. Marx characterizes society as a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of joint activities of people.
These definitions reflect such an approach to society as an integral system of elements.
In everyday language, the term "society" used in very early meanings. At first glance, it seems that the answer to the question "What is society?" not difficult. Indeed, the concept of "society" has long and firmly entered our scientific and everyday vocabulary. But as soon as we attempt to give a definition, we are immediately convinced that there can be many such definitions.
Let's try to remember the stable phrases familiar to us, which would include this word. For example: a society of book lovers, a noble society, etc. AT this case By society, we mean a certain group of people united for communication, joint activities, mutual assistance and support for each other.
But here is another series of related concepts: primitive society, feudal society, French society. Here already, using the concept of "society" we have in mind certain stage historical development of mankind or a specific suffering. If we continue to move in this direction (from the particular to the general), then humanity as a whole is also called society - in its historical and prospective development. This is the entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples. We can say that this is a part of the material world isolated from nature, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification.
In sociology, the concept of "society" has a broader universal meaning. Society is a universal way of organizing social ties and social interaction, ensuring the satisfaction of all the basic needs of people, self-sufficient, self-regulating and self-reproducing. Society arises as social ties are streamlined, strengthened, special institutions and norms appear that support and develop these ties.
Society is not just a collection of united people, original and cultural individuals of collectives, interacting and exchanging services with each other. All these collectives form a society by virtue of their existence under a common authority, which exercises its control over the territory marked by boundaries, maintains and propagates a more or less common culture. It is these factors that turn a set of relatively specialized original corporate and cultural groups into society (Shiels E. Society and Societies: A Macrosociological Approach / / American Sociology. - M., 1972).
The irreducibility of society to a simple sum of individuals is the main problem of its study.. It is important behind the originality and originality of each person to identify, catch, analyze the steadily recurring, typical in the life of society. This is the main task of the science of society. Systems analysis can be the most productive method in investigating these problems.
Many prominent sociologists have attempted to view society as a system. But due to the ambiguity of the methodological positions of the authors of the study, they seem too contradictory and diverse.
System It is something whole that is not reducible to the sum of its elements. The originality of the whole is provided in a special way, the order of interconnection and interdependence of its parts. Any system is characterized by a certain integrity of its highly contradictory elements. Society, considered as a system, is a complex, moving set of the most diverse contradictory and even mutually exclusive processes and structures. But for each of them there is a place, all of them are necessary for the functioning of the system and ensuring its balance and stability.
The study of the system can be started with the study of its main structural components, mechanisms of functioning and interaction. The presence of different approaches to the structuring of society explains the complexity of the phenomenon itself. Let's remember only the main types of organization of social life that make up society: social ties and relationships, social institutions, social communities, groups, strata, social organizations, values, norms, social roles.
Further, when considering society as a system, it is necessary to determine the way in which its elements are organized. At first glance, it is rather difficult to determine what unites, links religion and government, especially in a country where the church is separated from the state? What unites production and family relations in modern society, where the family is not included in the production structure. What do a car factory and a theater have in common?
Many answers to all questions lie in the field of functional analysis. Each of the above elements performs a specific function in society; serves to satisfy a certain group of needs of individuals. Society unites its structural units not by establishing direct interaction between them, but on the basis of their functional dependence.
Functional dependency- this is what gives the totality of elements as a whole such properties. Which none of them have on their own. The merit of T. Parsons is that he attempted to analyze the social system from the definition of basic functional requirements, without which the system cannot exist. The system, according to Parsons, is interdependent parts, striving for self-maintenance of the order of interconnections, i.e. balance. But equilibrium is not identical to the order of relationship. Rather, equilibrium is a stable order, more precisely self-sustaining.
The real system is often in a non-equilibrium state and, as open system exchanges matter, energy and information with the environment.
According to the general theory of systems, in some cases the system under consideration is characterized by different rates of processes, is influenced by neighboring systems, some of which can, as it were, overtake, while others can lag behind it. As a result, the processes inherent in the past, present and future are intensified in it. Under the influence of all these circumstances, a situation arises in which the processes characteristic of the past and the present begin to prevail in the center of the system, and not the periphery - the processes characteristic of the present and the future. Let us note here that in relation to society, the concept of "periphery" does not necessarily have a geographical meaning, it can be social, political, cultural, economic, etc. We can talk about remoteness from the center of the system, which determines at the moment its essence. Therefore, in this case, the essence of systems and subsystems, the nature of real, albeit contradictory, connections between them, is of great importance.
According to Parsons, society as a system can only function if the following requirements (functions) are met:
1) it must have the ability to adapt, adapt to changing conditions and the increased material needs of people, be able to rationally organize and distribute internal resources;
2) it must be goal-oriented, capable of setting the main goals and objectives and supporting the process of achieving them;
3) it must remain stable on the basis of general norms and values assimilated by individuals and relieve tension in the system;
4) it must have the ability to integrate, to be included in the system of new generations. Having singled out the main functions of the system, T. Parsons determines the real performers of these functions in society. He dwells on four subsystems (economics, politics, culture and kinship) that are responsible for each of these functions. Further, he indicates social institutions that, within the framework of each subsystem, directly regulate adaptive, goal-setting, stabilizing and integration processes (factories, banks, parties, the state apparatus, church, school, family, etc.).
Then he gives a set of social roles, the fulfillment of which is based on the observance of norms arising from fundamental values and, as a result, corresponding to the main functional imperatives.
The stability of the social system depends on the consistent implementation of the functional division of activities at the level of institutions and social roles. Chaos, on the other hand, gives rise to the performance by some institution of functions that are unusual for it and, by increasing the internal tension of the system, leads to an increase in social entropy. In sociology, entropy refers to phenomena that are opposite to the concept of social order. The social order is characterized by a certain level of order in the organization of social ties and interactions, which makes it possible to speak of mutual consistency and predictability of people's actions.
Any social system, above all society, must have a sufficient level of internal order, which is achieved mainly due to the functional expediency of the actions of individuals and social institutions.
Long before T. Parsons, sociologists singled out functional subsystems. There were disagreements in determining the quantity and functional purpose.
In our domestic science, it is customary to single out economic a subsystem that ensures the production of goods necessary to meet the material needs of individuals; spiritual and cultural, allowing a person to realize his spiritual needs and contributing to the normative regulation of society as a whole.
social, regulating the consumption and distribution of all goods ; political , carrying out the general management and management of the company.
What is the significance of old functional subsystems? The selection of these raises the question of which of them determines the appearance of society as a whole. In sociology, the search for this foundation, which gives new knowledge a unique look, has been going on for more than a decade, and there is no single solution yet.
K. Marx preferred economic system. The mode of production of material goods, of material life, determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general.
The events of the distant 1917 marked the beginning of the perversion of all the postulates of non-economic determinism: the political revolution was not the result, but the beginning of a change in the economic basis. The impact of politics on social life was very strong, all spheres of society were under its total control.
The problem of economic and political determinism worried post-Marxists, because. touched upon the fundamentals social theory Marx, and the real practice of "building socialism". In Western countries, politics and economics functioned without interfering with each other, discussions were between supporters of technological and cultural determinism.
Supporters technological determinists tend to see the determining factor of social life in material production. In their opinion, the nature of labor, technique, technology determine not only the quantity and quality of material goods produced, the level of consumption, but also the cultural needs of people.
Adherents cultural determinists believe that the core of society is generally accepted norms and values, the observance of which ensures the stability and uniqueness of society itself. Differences in cultures predetermine differences in the actions and actions of people, in their organization of material production, in the choice of forms of political organization.
Apparently, it is still considered obvious that society can function normally eachwhen the subsystem sequentially performs its functional purpose.
The functional approach made it possible to systematize knowledge about society, but this approach also has certain limitations. As part of this approach, which requires recognition for each institution, each social education performing a useful function for society, it is difficult to explain the causes of "crises" of conflicts of disintegration of systems. Western sociologists (R. Merton) suggested talking not only about explicit, positive functions, but also about latent functions that pose a threat to stability, give rise to various deviations from generally accepted norms and rules, which are a kind of source of tension.
In drawing conclusions, it should be noted that when we raise the question of the functioning of society, we must accurately represent the problem that we want to get an answer to. The elements of structural-functional analysis should be addressed in the event that for us the main thing is to clarify the sustainability, stability of society as a system.
Through the understanding of society as an integrity, we can come to the identification of specific functions that are performed by its structural components, ensuring the unity of the entire social organism. If we are interested in the causes of changes in society, we should turn to theories of social conflict.
Typology of societies
Modern societies currently present a rather motley picture with obvious and implicit differences (language, culture, geographical position, level of stability, degree social integration, an opportunity for self-realization of the individual).
Society is an extremely complex, multi-level formation; any universal classification is hardly possible here. From the variety of features characteristic of society, it is necessary to make them type-forming, and on this basis to create your own typology.
The most stable in sociology is the division of society into traditional and industrial. Traditional is understood as a society with an agrarian way of life, with sedentary structures and with a method of socio-cultural regulation based on tradition. Today we perceive such a society as backward, primitive. It is characterized by extremely low rates of development of production, satisfying the needs at a minimum level. The individual's behavior is strictly controlled, regulated by customs, norms, and social institutions. Thoughts about possible transformations look blasphemous and seditious.
The term "industrial society" belongs to Saint-Simon, where a different production basis of society is emphasized. An industrial society is characterized by the flexibility of social structures that change depending on the needs and interests of people, social mobility developed system of communications.
This is a type of organization of social life that ensures the performance of an integrative function by society not on the basis of strict control over individuals and their unifications, but by creating flexible structures that make it possible to reasonably combine the freedom and interests of the individual with the general principles governing their joint activities. “Industrial society is the coordination of machines and people for the production of goods,” D. Bell noted.
The period of the 60s is characterized by the emergence of new concepts of post-industrial society, developed in American (D. Bell) and Western European (A. Touraine) sociology.
These concepts arose naturally and logically - structural changes took place in the economy and culture of the most developed countries, suggesting a completely different view of society itself as a whole.
It is generally accepted that a post-industrial society involves extensive automation of production, the use of robots and computers, high technologies, etc. In fact, the main content of the transition to a post-industrial society lies not only in the automation of production processes, not in mass computerization or the introduction of biotechnologies. These are only external, although important forms of manifestation of post-industrialization.
The first stage of the scientific and technological revolution (1950-1960s) in developed countries was associated with an increase in the consumption of workers, with their transformation into socially developed individuals. The current, second stage, called the “microelectronic revolution”, with the individualization of the labor process, turning it into a kind of creative activity, means of self-realization.
The formation of a post-industrial society is a profound revolution: social, economic, technological, spiritual, which can be compared with the Neolithic revolution at the beginning of human history. It means “the end of utopia”, the previously seemingly utopian idea of liberating a person from the power of economic expediency, from alienating labor, from the need to earn one’s bread by the sweat of one’s brow – this idea is now beginning to be put into practice in the most developed countries of the world.
Like every profound revolution in the past in the West, modern post-industrialization began primarily as a revolution of consciousness. From the change in the value orientations of the active minority from “to have” to “to be” (E. Fromm) - from the desire to acquire material goods to self-expression, from dominance over nature to harmony with nature, from looking at labor as a means of earning money to understanding labor as a means to realize one's abilities and assert oneself - this is where the formation of a post-industrial society began. In the process of this formation, the leading social type personality of Western man and the nature of social relations. It can be defined as a "rich individuality", a "multidimensional person" (Fromm). He has a choice between employment and his own business, between various ways of self-expression and material success.
The new labor motivation is inseparable from economic democracy, including the conscious participation of workers in decision-making and production management, as well as from labor humanization measures, which become not only a means of reaching agreement between employers and staff, but also a technological and production necessity.
A characteristic feature of the forcing post-industrial society is a two-story, two-sector economy, consisting of a sector for the production of material goods and services, where market relations dominate, and sectors of “human production”, where human capital is accumulated and there is no place for market relations (O. Toffler, USA). At the same time, "human production" is less and less the prerogative of the "welfare state" and more and more - the civil society itself.
The new world order on a post-industrial basis does not at all imply that the world should be unified according to a single Western or East Asian model. On the contrary, this world order can take shape only as an organic unity of the diversity of civilizations. The role of socio-cultural characteristics of each country, each major region planet in the process of formation of a post-industrial society does not weaken, but, on the contrary, increases, because in a post-industrial society, the importance of spiritual production is greater than ever in history... desirable and possible for everyone ”(D. Bell).
“On the threshold” of our history is the information society. Much of it will still have to be understood, explained, but it is already quite clear: the information society will not be able to establish itself on its own, without the purposeful action of people.
It is widely believed that mankind has already entered that stage of its development, which is called the information society, that it will inevitably replace the post-industrial society. This is evidenced by the unprecedented development of computer technology, space communications, information technology, etc.
But there are also qualitatively different opinions that refer the information society to the concepts of the distant future, considering it premature to discuss its features. Everything that we observe in the development of the information sphere is a simple improvement of the post-industrial society.
N.N. Moiseev, developing this topic, believes that entry into the information society should be associated with the approval of the Collective General Planetary Mind, with a qualitatively new stage in the development of civilization, and not only with electronics and computer engineering. The problem of becoming information society imposes on the person the burden of new responsibilities. In the context of a crisis on a global scale, humanity needs a new paradigm, other principles for the development and existence of a person on Earth as species. It is obvious that the traditional civilization, which we call post-industrial, has largely exhausted its potential. Having given mankind unprecedented power, she did not teach how to use them. The mismatch of needs with the ability to satisfy them is one of the main contradictions of our time.
A. Touraine in 1969 wrote the book "Post-Industrial Society", where the main idea can be traced: the industrial society is transformed into an information society. On the basis of technological, informational progress, processes have developed that have caused serious concern. Thanks to preferential access to the most important socio-political information, proximity to electronic media, the state, the ruling elite become the owner of a colossal opportunity to influence the masses. It is precisely this danger - the growing role of the technocratic state and the gradual subordination of the civil state to it, Touraine notes in his work.
Marxism puts differences in production relations at the basis of typology. Accordingly, societies are distinguished: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois societies and communist or socialist societies.
The existing different points of view show that the typology of complex education, which is society, cannot be unified and universal. It depends on the methodological approach of a particular researcher. It is necessary to understand the scientific and cognitive task of one or another approach and decide for yourself what is useful and valuable is the concept of a particular researcher.
Considering the basic principles systems approach to society, let us define its basic concept.
System- this is a certain way ordered set of elements interconnected and forming some integral unity. The internal nature, the content side of any integral system, the material basis of its organization is determined by the composition, the set of elements.
The social system is a holistic formation, the main element of which are people, their connections, interactions and relationships. These connections, interactions and relationships are stable and are reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.
According to the literature, there are several main parameters, signs, characteristics society as a social system.
1. Self-regulation. The ability of the system to adjust its activities, taking into account the reverse influence of the environment. This means that each new stage of human activity that wants to change social relations takes into account previous efforts to transform the structure of society. Self-regulation is carried out by a spontaneous mechanism of reproduction and development of the structure of society. And it can also be carried out through conscious and systematic management.
From the point of view of self-regulation, in order for a society to function successfully, it must meet the basic functional requirements: adaptation, goal achievement, integration, retention of the model (control over its environment, primarily economic); to have a goal towards which social activity is directed, through the right to streamline relations between the elements of the system: individuals, institutions, to try to preserve and maintain the values of society.
2. openness. This is the ability of the system to exist due to the exchange with the environment, nature, with other systems of society, information, energy, matter. It is carried out in the form of open activity of people to create and preserve living conditions, develop the exchange of activities, create material and spiritual values.
3. information content. This is the ability of society to use social information that gives the experience of generations. It allows you to make a diagnosis to society, as well as to predict future development, using complex and targeted programs in management.
4. determinism. It is predestination, conditionality, dependence. It means that society in its development is dependent on previous states. The productive forces and methods of human activity today will certainly affect the lives of future generations in the general direction of their development. And specific forms, methods, rates of development are determined by specific conditions.
5. Hierarchy means that society is a multifaceted system, characterized by a combination of different levels and links of organization and subordination, subordination, dependence between them.
6. Centeredness. It means that some element and activity is announced in the development of society, which make up the building, its basis, the foundation of society. Many scientists declare as the center of society - the method of production of material goods, labor, religion, private property, knowledge, peace.
7. Integrity- this is an objective attitude towards a person, groups, communities of people, thanks to which conditions are created and their life activity is organized. Integrity signs:
a) social integrity has no parts and elements;
b) social space has no trifles, and social time is irreversible;
c) the abilities of each of the subjects of human activity are inimitable and unique.
8. Anti-entropy. It means that a qualitative indicator of the progress of society is the reduction of labor costs per capita. And this means that the share of economic activity in public life as a whole is decreasing due to the increase in labor productivity, management efficiency and the growth of the level of culture. This leads to an increase in the role and importance of the spiritual principle, free time in people's lives. At the same time, labor is any activity that is aimed at satisfying social needs. He is opposed to anti-labor. It threatens the existence of society. It embodies the processes of social disorganization, degradation, social decay. It manifests itself in one-dimensional thinking, narrowness of interests, short-sightedness of actions, one-dimensionality of feelings.
Any universal classification of society, according to scientists, is difficult, since it is an extremely complex, multi-level formation.
According to a number of domestic sociologists, the criteria of society should include the following:
the presence of a single territory, which is the material basis for the social ties that arise within it;
universality (general character);
autonomy, the ability to exist independently and independently of other societies;
Integrativity: society is able to maintain and reproduce its structures in new generations, to include more and more new individuals in a single context of social life.
Some sociologists consider the systemic definition of R. Koenig to be the optimal signs of society, according to which society is understood as:
1. Specific type of lifestyle.
2. Concrete social unities formed by peoples.
3. Treaty-based economic and ideological associations.
4. Whole society, that is, the totality of individuals and groups.
5. Historically specific type of society.
6. Social reality - the relationships of individuals and the structures and social processes based on these relationships.
Historical processes development of society by many analysts are determined by various criteria.
Thus, the outstanding German scientist, philosopher G. Hegel presents the world emergence and development of society in four periods: Eastern world, Greek world, Roman world, Germanic world.
The French scientist C. Fourier believed that mankind had gone through periods in its development: “slavish” primitiveness, savagery, barbarism, and entered a period of civilization. In the future, humanity will go through "guarantorism", "socialism", "harmonism".
The American scientist W. Rostow called the stages of development of society "stages of growth."
First stage- a traditional society, which was an agrarian society with primitive technology, with a class structure and the power of large owners.
Second stage- this is a "transitional society", a period of transition to capitalism.
Third stage- this is the era of "take-off", rise, that is, the period of industrial revolutions in the countries of the West.
fourth stage- this is the period of "maturity", that is, an industrial society.
Fifth stage This is a period of "high mass consumption".
The French thinker J. Condorcet divided the process of the formation of society into ten eras: first era- the era of the primitive state; second- the era of transition from the pastoral state to agriculture; third- this is the era of specialization and division of labor between people; fourth-fifth are epochs Ancient Greece and ancient rome; sixth and seventh- This is the era of the Middle Ages; eighth- this is the era of printing and the flourishing of science; ninth- this is the era that preceded the formation of the French Republic; tenth This is the era of bourgeois society.
The American sociologist N. Smelser identified four types of society: hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, agrarian societies, and industrial societies.
The French sociologist R. Aron divided the entire history of human society into two epochs: pre-industrial and industrial.
A. Toynbee, a famous English scientist, taking religion as a criterion for assessing the historical stages of the development of human society, identified five major living civilizations:
1) Orthodox-Christian, or Byzantine society, located in South-Eastern Europe and Russia;
2) an Islamic society centered in an arid zone running diagonally across North Africa and the Middle East from Atlantic Ocean to the Great Chinese wall;
3) Hindu society in tropical and subcontinental India to the South-East of the arid zone;
4) Far Eastern society in the subtropical and temperate regions between the arid zone and the Pacific Ocean;
5) Western Christian society (countries of Western Europe, America, Australia, where Catholicism and Protestantism are widespread).
In recent decades, sociologists have been talking about the emergence of a completely new type of society. The main trend of advanced industrial societies today is to shift the focus from the sphere of production to the sphere of services. The USA was the first country where more than 50% of the labor force was employed in the service industries. America's example was soon followed by Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe, Japan. Now post-industrial society refers to a society based on information, services and high technologies rather than on raw materials and production.
An information chip is an invention that transforms society, and with it social relations.
The list of these changes is almost endless.
Among modern theories a prominent place is occupied by the concept of post-economic society proposed by V.L. Inotsemtsev.
The post-economic society, in his opinion, follows the post-industrial one. Its main feature is the emergence of individual human interests from a purely material plane, the colossal complication of social reality, the multiplication of the diversity of models of social life and even options for its development over time.
V.L. Inozemtsev, in this regard, identifies three large-scale eras: pre-economic, economic and post-economic. Such periodization is based on two criteria: the type of human activity and the nature of the relationship between the interests of individuals and society. In the early stages of history, the motive for activity was explained by instinctive urges, as in all biological beings. Further, the conscious nature of the activity had a goal - the creation and consumption of the material product of labor. A new round of development led to the orientation of the individual to improve himself, his abilities, qualities.
In this case, there is a typology of forms of activity: pre-labor instinctive activity; work; creation.
As for the second criterion - the nature of the subordination of the interests of individuals and society, then V.L. Foreigners notes:
1) in the early periods, the collective interest of the group or community strongly dominates the individual
2) in an economic society based on labor, personal gain, personal material interest dominate the interests of the community, competition develops.
3) post-economic society is characterized by the absence of a struggle of personal interests, the desire for material success is not the main thing. The world becomes polyvariant and multidimensional, people's personal interests intertwine and enter into unique combinations, no longer opposing, but complementing the arcs of a friend.
This means that the post-economic society has an intensive and complex economic activity, but is no longer determined by material interests, economic expediency. Private property in it is destructive, society returns to personal property, to the state of non-alienation of the worker from the instruments of production. A new type of confrontation is inherent in the post-economic society: the confrontation between the information and intellectual elite and all the people who are not included in it, employed in the sphere of mass production and, because of this, forced out to the periphery of society.