Literary language examples of words. The main features of the literary language. Modern Russian literary language is the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of the Russian Federation

Table of contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………….1
Literary language…………………………………………………………….2
Dialect, jargon, argotism……………………………………………………….4
Book and literary colloquial language………………………………...6
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….8
References………………………………………………………………...9

Introduction

“Language is created by the people,” said A.M. Gorky. - The division of the language into literary and folk only means that we have, so to speak, a "raw" language and processed by masters. The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin, he was the first to show how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it.
So what is literary language? There is a clear definition of this phrase.
The literary language is basically a national language, processed and creatively enriched by the masters of the word, therefore it must be considered as the highest achievement of the speech culture of the people. This is the highest form of the national language, the result of the speech creativity of the whole people, led by its outstanding masters of the word. The means and norms of literary expression are not only created by all native speakers, but - which is very important - are carefully and carefully protected by society as a great cultural value. The activity of the masters of the word, as it were, leads and crowns this entire creative process.
But such rigor in the definition of the greatest Russian language is unthinkable. For many centuries, the great Russian poets tried to give the everyday Russian language a literary touch.
In our work, the goal is to consider the emergence of the term "literary language", its changes over time and its varieties.

Literary language

Literary language - mutual language the writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes oral. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.
It is difficult to point to another linguistic phenomenon that would be understood in such a different way as the literary language. Some are convinced that the literary language is the same national language, only "polished" by the masters of the language, i.e. writers, artists of the word; supporters of this view, first of all, have in mind the literary language of modern times, and, moreover, among peoples with a rich artistic literature. Others believe that the literary language is the language of writing, the language of the book, opposed to living speech, the language of conversation. Still others believe that the literary language is a language that is generally significant for a given people, in contrast to the dialect and jargon, which do not have signs of such general significance. Proponents of this view sometimes argue that the literary language can exist in the pre-literate period as the language of folk verbal and poetic creativity or customary law.
The presence of different understandings of the phenomenon denoted by the term "literary language" testifies to the insufficient disclosure by science of the specifics of this phenomenon, its place in the general system of language, its function, its social role. Meanwhile, with all the differences in the understanding of this phenomenon, the literary language is a linguistic reality that cannot be doubted. The literary language is a means of developing social life, the material and spiritual progress of a given people, an instrument of social struggle, as well as a means of educating the masses and familiarizing them with the achievements of national culture, science and technology. Literary language is always the result of a collective creative activity.
The study of a literary language, no matter how it is understood, entails the study of such phenomena as "dialects", "jargons", on the one hand, "spoken language", "written language" - on the other, linguistic, speech and literary "style - from the third. The study of the literary language is closely connected with the study of literature, the history of the language, and the history of the culture of a given people. With some historical uncertainty in understanding the essence of the literary language, it is one of the most effective tools of education and comes into contact with the tasks of education and schools. All this testifies to the paramount scientific and practical significance of the problem of the literary language. one
Literary language can be divided into territorial language (dialects), social language (jargon, vernacular), professional language(argotism). It is also necessary to highlight the division of the literary language into varieties; book literary language and colloquial literary language.

Dialect, jargon and argotism

Dialect - (from the Greek "to speak, to speak") a kind of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by one territory. A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar. Traditionally, dialects were understood, first of all, as rural territorial dialects.
In sociolinguistics and at the everyday level, dialects are opposed to the standard, or literary language. From this point of view, the dialect is characterized by the following features:

social, age, and partly gender limited circle of dialect speakers (in Russia, these are mainly residents of the village of the older generation);
limiting the scope of the use of the dialect to family and everyday situations;
the formation of semi-dialects as a result of the interaction and mutual influence of various dialects and the related restructuring of relations between the elements of dialect systems;
leveling the originality of dialect speech under the influence of the literary language (through the media, books, the education system, etc.) and the emergence of intermediate forms - for example, dialect-colored literary speech.

At the same time, there is another trend: a dialect is any variety of a language that differs slightly from other varieties. That is, each person speaks some dialect, in a particular case, a standard literary dialect. Within this understanding, there are standard dialects (or literary languages) and traditional (or non-standardized) dialects. Their main difference is the fact that the former are used in writing, are supported by special institutions, are taught in schools, and are considered a more “correct” form of the language. Some languages ​​have multiple standard dialects. In this case, one speaks of a polycentric language or a diasystem. For a linguist, there is no more “correct” form of the language, moreover, information from the traditional rural dialect is often more valuable than that obtained from the literary version.
Jargon is a social dialect; differs from the common language in specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of phrases and the special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including those that have already disappeared) social groups. Passing from one jargon to another, the words of their “general fund” can change their form and meaning: “dark” in slang - “hide prey”, then - “cunning (during interrogation)”, in modern youth jargon - “speak unclear, evade from the answer."
The main function of jargon is to express belonging to a relatively autonomous social group through the use of specific words, forms and phrases. Sometimes the term slang is used to refer to distorted, incorrect speech. The vocabulary of jargon is built on the basis of the literary language through rethinking, metaphorization, reformulation, sound truncation, etc., as well as active assimilation of foreign words and morphemes. For example: cool - “fashionable”, “business”, hut - “apartment”, bucks - “dollars”, car - “car”, jerk - “go”, basketball - “basketball”, dude - “guy” from the gypsy language . In the modern language, jargon has become widespread, especially in the language of youth (youth slang). Social jargon first arose in the 18th century among the nobles ("salon" jargon) (example: "plaisir" - pleasure).
Argotisms (French, singular argotisme), words and expressions of colloquial speech, borrowed from various social, professional dialects. In a semantically transformed form, they are used in vernacular and slang, retaining their bright expressive coloring. In the language of fiction, argotisms are used as a means of stylistic characteristics, mainly in the speech of characters, as well as in the author's speech in the "skazka" manner of narration.

Book and colloquial literary language

Book language is an achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main custodian and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect (distant) communication are carried out by means of the book language. Scientific works, fiction and educational literature, diplomatic and business correspondence, newspaper and magazine products and much more cannot be imagined without the literary language. Its functions are enormous and with the development of civilization they become even more complicated. The modern Russian literary language is a powerful communication tool. It has all the means necessary for various purposes of communication, and, above all, for the expression of abstract concepts and relations.
The complex connections traced by scientists and writers in the material and spiritual world are described in scientific language. Oral, colloquial speech is not suitable for this: it is impossible to pass from mouth to mouth syntactically cumbersome texts, saturated with special terminology and complex in meaning. The property of bookish and written speech to preserve the text and thereby enhance the ability of the literary language to be a link between generations is one of the main properties of the bookish language.
The colloquial variety of the literary language is used in various types of domestic relations of people, provided that communication is easy. Conversational speech is distinguished from written and written speech not only by the form (this is oral and, moreover, predominantly dialogic speech), but also by such features as unpreparedness, unplannedness, spontaneity (compare, for example, with reading a report, the text of which is written in advance), the immediacy of I contact between participants in the conversation.
The colloquial variety of the literary language, unlike the written one, is not subject to purposeful normalization, but it has certain norms as a result of the speech tradition. This kind of literary language is not so clearly divided into speech genres. However, here, too, various speech features can be distinguished - depending on the conditions in which communication takes place, on the relationship of the participants in the conversation, etc. compare, for example, the conversation of friends, colleagues, a conversation at the table, a conversation between an adult and a child, a dialogue between a seller and a buyer and etc.

Conclusion

The splendor of the Russian language is famous for all nations. As for the term "literary language", some of its shortcomings are the well-known ambiguity - the ability to use it in two meanings: as a designation of the language of fiction and as a designation of a processed form of language.
On the other hand, the invariable and constant quality of the literary language, which always distinguishes it from other forms of existence of the language and most fully expresses its specificity, is the processing of the language and the selection and relative regulation associated with it.
We have introduced several varieties of the literary language:

Dialect,
Jargon,
argotism,
Book literary language,
Spoken literary language.

Bibliography

1. Vinogradov V. V. “Selected Works. History of the Russian literary language "- M., 1978. - S. 288-297
2. Shakhmatov A. A. "Essay on the modern Russian literary language" - M., 1941.

“ A vast magnificence is right in front of you, the Russian language! The delight calls you, the delight will be delving into the entire immensity of the Russian language and it will capture miraculous laws of Russian”, said Nikolay Vasilyevich Gogol (1809-1852), whose Undercoat is where we all come from.

The standard well-known form of Russian is generally called the Contemporary Russian Literary Language(Modern Russian literary language). It arose in the beginning of the XVIII century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state by Peter the Great. It developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under some influence of the Russian chancellery language of the previous centuries. It was Mikhail Lomonosov who first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755. In 1789 the first explanatory dictionary of Russian by the Russian Academy was initiated. During the end of the XVIII and XIX centuries Russian went through the stage (known as "The Golden Age") of stabilization and standardization of its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, and of the flourishing of its world-famous literature, and became the nationwide literary language. Also until the XX century its spoken form was the language only of the upper noble classes and urban population, Russian peasants from the countryside continued speaking in their own dialects. By the middle of the XX century Standard Russian finally forced out its dialects with the compulsory education system, established by the Soviet government, and mass-media (radio and TV).

"What is language? First of all, it is not only a way to express your thoughtsbut also create your thoughts. Language has the opposite effect. Manwho turns his thoughts, your ideas, their feelings in the language ... it is also, as it were, permeated with this way of expression ".

- BUT. H. Tolstoy.

Modern Russian is the national language of the Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons. The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language, which has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of language existence: processing, normalization, the breadth of social functioning, universal obligation for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various areas of communication.

Russian language is included in the group Slavic languages ​​that form a separate branch in the Indo-European family of languages ​​and are divided into three subgroups: eastern(Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian); western(Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian); southern(Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian [Croatian-Serbian], Slovenian).

is the language of fiction, science, press, radio, television, theater, school, state acts. Its most important feature is normalization, which means that the composition of the dictionary of the literary language is strictly selected from the general treasury of the national language; the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling, and the formation of grammatical forms follow a generally accepted pattern.

Russian literary language has two forms − oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, since they are designed for different types perception - auditory and visual. The written literary language differs from the oral one in the greater complexity of syntax, the predominance of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, mainly international in its use.

The Russian language performs three functions:

1) the national Russian language;

2) one of the languages ​​of interethnic communication of the peoples of Russia;

3) one of the most important world languages.

The course of the modern Russian language includes a number of sections:

■ Vocabulary and phraseology study the vocabulary and phraseological (stable phrases) composition of the Russian language.

■ Phonetics describes the sound composition of the modern Russian literary language and the main sound processes occurring in the language.

■ Graphic arts introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between sounds and letters.

■ Spelling defines the rules for the use of alphabetic characters in the written transmission of speech.

■ Orthoepy studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.

■ word formation explores the morphemic composition of words and the main types of their formation.

■ Grammar - a section of linguistics containing the doctrine of the forms of inflection, the structure of words, types of phrases and types of sentences. Includes two parts: morphology and syntax.

■ Morphology - the doctrine of the structure of the word, forms of inflection, ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the main lexical and grammatical categories of words (parts of speech).

■ Syntax - The study of phrases and sentences.

■ Punctuation - a set of rules for punctuation marks

The Russian language is the subject of a number of linguistic disciplines that study it state of the art and history, territorial and social dialects, vernacular.

This definition requires clarification of the following terms: national language, national Russian language, literary language, modern Russian literary language.

Combination Russian language primarily closely related to the most general concept about the national Russian language.

National language- a socio-historical category denoting the language, which is the means of communication of the nation.

The national Russian language, therefore, is the means of communication of the Russian nation.

Russian national language is a complex phenomenon. It includes the following varieties: literary language, territorial and social dialects, semi-dialects, vernacular, jargons.

Among the varieties of the national Russian language, the literary language plays a leading role. Being the highest form of the national Russian language, the literary language has a number of features.

Unlike territorial dialects, it is supra-territorial and exists in two forms - written (book) and oral (colloquial).

Literary language is a national language, processed by masters of the word. It is a normative subsystem of the national Russian language.

H ormativity is one of the most important features of the literary language .

Language norm (literary norm) - the rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of grammatical and stylistic language means selected and fixed in the process of public communication. Thus, the language norm is a system of particular norms (orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, etc.), which are perceived by native speakers not only as mandatory, but also as correct, exemplary. These norms are objectively fixed in the language system and are implemented in speech: the speaker and the writer must follow them.

The linguistic norm provides stability (stability) and traditional means of linguistic expression and allows the literary language to most successfully perform the communicative function. Therefore, the literary norm is consciously cultivated and supported by society and the state (codified). The codification of a language norm involves its ordering, bringing it into unity, into a system, into a set of rules that are fixed in certain dictionaries, language guides, and textbooks.

Despite the stability and traditional character, the literary norm is historically changeable and mobile. The main reason for the change in the literary norm is the development of the language, the presence in it of various variants (orthoepic, nominative, grammatical), which often compete. Therefore, over time, some of the options may become obsolete. So, the norms of the old Moscow pronunciation of unstressed endings of verbs of the II conjugation in the 3rd person plural can be considered obsolete: dy[jester] , ho[d‘ut] . Wed modern Novomoskovsk pronunciation ho[d‘int], dy[shut] .

The Russian literary language is multifunctional. It serves various areas of social activity: science, politics, law, art, the sphere of everyday, informal communication, so it is stylistically heterogeneous.

Depending on what sphere of social activity it serves, the literary language is divided into the following functional styles: scientific, journalistic, official business, style of artistic speech, which have a predominantly written form of existence and are called bookish, and colloquial style, which is used mainly in oral form. . In each of the listed styles, the literary language performs its function and has a specific set of language tools, both neutral and stylistically colored.

Thus, literary language- the highest form of the national language, characterized by supra-territoriality, processing, stability, normativity, mandatory for all native speakers, multifunctionality and stylistic differentiation. It exists in two forms - oral and written.

Since the subject of the course is the modern Russian literary language, it is necessary to define the term modern. Term modern Russian literary language is usually used in two meanings: broad - the language from Pushkin to the present day - and narrow - the language of recent decades.

Along with these definitions of this concept, there are other points of view. Thus, V.V. Vinogradov believed that the system of the "language of the new time" was formed in the 90s of the 19th - early 20th centuries, i.e. the conditional boundary of the concept of "modern" considered the language from A.M. Gorky to the present day. Yu.A. Belchikov, K.S. Gorbachevich as the lower boundary of the modern Russian language, the period from the late 30s - early 40s is noted. XX century, i.e. considered "modern" language since the late 30-40s. XX century to the present day. Analysis of the changes taking place in the system of literary norms, lexical and phraseological composition, partly in grammatical structure literary language, its stylistic structure in the 20th century, allows some researchers to narrow the chronological scope of this concept and consider the language of the middle and second half of the 20th century to be “modern”. (M. V. Panov).

It seems to us that the most reasonable point of view of those linguists who, when defining the concept of “modern”, note that “the language system does not change at once in all its links, its basis is preserved for a long time”, therefore, by “modern” we mean a language from the beginning of the XX century. in. to the present day.

The Russian language, like any national language, has developed historically. Its history spans centuries. The Russian language goes back to the Indo-European parent language. This single language source fell apart already in the 3rd millennium BC. The ancient homeland of the Slavs is called the land between the Oder and the Dnieper.

It is customary to call the northern border of the Slavic lands Pripyat, beyond which the lands inhabited by the Baltic peoples began. In the southeast direction, the Slavic lands reached the Volga and joined the Black Sea region.

Until the 7th century Old Russian language- the predecessor of modern Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​- was the language of the ancient Russian people, the language of Kievan Rus. In the XIV century. the division of the East Slavic group of dialects into three independent languages ​​\u200b\u200b(Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian) is planned, therefore, the history of the Russian language begins. Feudal principalities rallied around Moscow, formed Russian state, and with it the Russian nation and the Russian national language were formed.

Relying on historical facts in the development of the Russian language , usually there are three periods :

1) VIII-XIV centuries. - Old Russian language;

2) XIV-XVII centuries. - the language of the Great Russian people;

3) XVII century. - the language of the Russian nation.

Big Academic Dictionary describes modern Russian literary language. What is literary language?

Each national language develops its exemplary form of existence. What is it characterized by?

Literary language has:

1) developed writing;

2) the generally accepted norm, that is, the rules for the use of all linguistic elements;

3) stylistic differentiation of a linguistic expression, that is, the most typical and appropriate linguistic expression, determined by the situation and the content of speech (publicistic speech, business, official or casual speech, a work of art);

4) the interaction and interconnection of two types of existence of the literary language - bookish and colloquial, both in written and oral forms (article and lecture, scientific discussion and the dialogue of meeting friends, etc.).

The most essential feature of the literary language is its general acceptance and therefore general intelligibility. The development of the literary language is determined by the development of the culture of the people.

Formation of the modern Russian literary language . Most early period Old Russian literary language (XI-XIV centuries) is determined by the history of Kievan Rus and its culture. How is this time marked in the history of the Old Russian literary language?

In the XI-XII centuries. Fiction, journalistic and narrative-historical literature is being formed. The previous period (from the 8th century) created for this the necessary conditions when the Slavic enlighteners - the brothers Cyril (about 827-869) and Methodius (about 815-885) compiled the first Slavic alphabet.

The Old Russian literary language developed on the basis of the spoken language due to the existence of two powerful sources:

1) Old Russian oral poetry, which turned the spoken language into a processed poetic language (“The Tale of Igor's Campaign”);

2) the Old Church Slavonic language, which came to Kievan Rus along with church literature (hence the second name - Church Slavonic).

Old Church Slavonic enriched the emerging literary Old Russian language. There was an interaction of two Slavic languages ​​(Old Russian and Old Slavonic).

Since the 14th century, when the Great Russian nationality stands out and its own history of the Russian language begins, the literary language develops on the basis of the Moscow Koine, continuing the traditions of the language that developed at the time of Kievan Rus. In the Moscow period, there is a clear convergence of the literary language with colloquial speech, which is most fully manifested in business texts. This rapprochement intensified in the 17th century. In the literary language of that time, on the one hand, there is considerable diversity (folk-colloquial, bookish-archaic and elements borrowed from other languages ​​are used), and on the other hand, there is a desire to streamline this linguistic diversity, that is, to language normalization.

One of the first normalizers of the Russian language should be called Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir (1708-1744) and Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky (1703-1768). Prince Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir is one of the most prominent educators of the early 18th century, he is the author of epigrams, fables, poetic creations (satire, the poem "Petrida"). Peru Cantemir owns numerous translations of books on various issues of history, literature, philosophy.

Artistic and creative activity of A.D. Cantemira contributed to the ordering of word usage, enrichment of the literary language with words and expressions of folk colloquial speech. Kantemir spoke about the need to free the Russian language from unnecessary words of foreign origin and from archaic elements of Slavic writing.

Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky (1703-1768) - the author of a large number of works on philology, literature, history. He tried to solve the cardinal problem of his time: the rationing of the literary language (the speech “On the purity of the Russian language”, delivered on March 14, 1735). Trediakovsky renounces church-bookish expressions, he seeks to lay the foundations of a literary language on the basis of folk speech.

In the 18th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the literary language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical. However, excessive enthusiasm for foreign words did not contribute to the clarity and accuracy of the expression of thought.

M.V. Lomonosov played a significant role in the development of Russian terminology. As a scientist, he was forced to create scientific and technical terminology. He owns words that have not lost their significance at the present time: atmosphere, fire, degree, matter, electricity, thermometer, etc. With his numerous scientific works, he contributes to the formation of a scientific language.

In the development of the literary language of the XVII - early XIX centuries increases and becomes the determining role of individual-author's styles. The greatest influence on the process of development of the Russian literary language of this period was exerted by the work of Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin, Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev, Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov, Ivan Andreevich Krylov, Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin.

M.V. did a lot to streamline the Russian language. Lomonosov. He was "the first founder of Russian poetry and the first poet of Russia ... His language is pure and noble, the style is precise and strong, the verse is full of brilliance and soaring" (V. G. Belinsky). In the works of Lomonosov, the archaism of speech means is overcome literary tradition, the foundations of normalized literary speech are laid. Lomonosov developed a theory about three styles (high, medium and low), he limited the use of Old Slavonicisms, which at that time were incomprehensible and complicated, made speech heavier, especially the language of official, business literature.

The works of these writers are characterized by an orientation towards living speech use. The use of folk colloquial elements was combined with the stylistically purposeful use of book Slavonic words and turns of speech. The syntax of the literary language has been improved. A major role in the normalization of the Russian literary language of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. played an explanatory dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (parts 1-6, 1789-1794).

In the early 90s. 18th century the novels of Karamzin and Letters of a Russian Traveler appear. These works constituted a whole epoch in the history of the development of the Russian literary language. They cultivated the language of description, which was called the "new syllable" as opposed to the "old syllable" of the archaists. The "new style" was based on the principle of convergence of the literary language with the spoken language, the rejection of the abstract schematism of the literature of classicism, and interest in the inner world of a person, his feelings. A new understanding of the role of the author was proposed, a new stylistic phenomenon was formed, which was called the individual author's style.

A follower of Karamzin, writer P.I. Makarov formulated the principle of convergence of the literary language with the spoken one: the language should be the same "equally for books and for society, in order to write as they say and speak as they write" (Moscow Mercury magazine, 1803, No. 12).

But Karamzin and his supporters in this rapprochement were guided only by the "language of high society", the salon of "dear ladies", that is, the principle of rapprochement was implemented distortedly.

But the question of the norms of the new Russian literary language depended on the solution of the question of how and on what grounds the literary language should approach the spoken language.

19th century writers made a significant step forward in bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, in substantiating the norms of the new literary language. This is the work of A.A. Bestuzheva, I.A. Krylova, A.S. Griboyedov. These writers showed what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.

The system of three language styles of the literary language from the last quarter of the 18th century. transformed into a system of functional speech styles. The genre and style of a work of literature were no longer determined by the rigid attachment of a lexeme, turn of speech, grammatical norm and construction, as required by the doctrine of three styles. The role of a creative linguistic personality has increased, the concept of "true linguistic taste" in the individual author's style has arisen.

A new approach to the structure of the text was formulated by A.S. Pushkin: true taste is revealed “not in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, in a sense of proportionality and conformity” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 7, 1958). In the work of Pushkin, the formation of the national Russian literary language is completed. In the language of his works, for the first time, the basic elements of Russian writing and oral speech came into balance. The era of the new Russian literary language begins with Pushkin. In his work, unified national norms were developed and consolidated, which linked into a single structural whole both book-written and oral-colloquial varieties of the Russian literary language.

Pushkin completely destroyed the system of three styles, created a variety of styles, stylistic contexts, welded together by theme and content, opened up the possibility of their endless individual artistic variation.

Pushkin's language is the source of the subsequent development of all styles of the language, which were further formed under his influence in the language of M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunina, A.A. Blok, A.A. Akhmatova, and others. Since Pushkin, a system of functional speech styles was finally established in the Russian literary language, and then improved, which still exists with slight changes.

In the second half of the XIX century. there is a significant development of journalistic style. This process is determined by the rise of the social movement. The role of the publicist is growing social personality, influencing the formation of public consciousness, and sometimes determining it.

Publicistic style begins to influence the development of fiction. Many writers simultaneously work in the genres of fiction and in the genres of journalism (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, G.I. Uspensky and others). Scientific-philosophical, socio-political terminology appears in the literary language. Along with this, the literary language of the second half of XIX in. actively absorbs a variety of vocabulary and phraseology from territorial dialects, urban vernacular and socio-professional jargons.

Throughout the 19th century there is a process of processing the national language in order to create unified grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms. These norms are theoretically substantiated in the works of Vostokov, Buslaev, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Shakhmatov.

The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries. Well-known philologists of that time (I.I. Davydov, A.Kh. Vostokov, I.I. Sreznevsky, Ya.K. Grot and others) publish articles in which they determine the principles of the lexicographic description of words, the principles of collecting vocabulary, taking into account the goals and vocabulary tasks. Thus, questions of the theory of lexicography are being developed for the first time.

The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Dahl received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1863 and the title of honorary academician. (The dictionary contains over 200 thousand words).

Dal did not just describe, but indicated where this or that word exists, how it is pronounced, which means, in what proverbs, sayings it occurs, what derivatives it has. Professor P.P. Chervinsky wrote about this dictionary: “There are books that are destined not just for a long life, they are not just monuments of science, they are eternal books. Eternal books because their content is not subject to time, neither social, nor political, nor even historical changes of any scale have power over them.

Term literary language in Russia began to spread from the second half of the XIX century. Pushkin widely uses the adjective "literary", but this definition does not apply to language and in the sense of literary language he uses the phrase "written language". Belinsky also usually writes about the "written language". It is interesting to note that when writers and philologists of the first half and middle of the 19th century. evaluate the language of Russian prose writers and poets, then they correlate it in general with the Russian language, without defining it either as bookish, or as written, or as literary. “Written language” usually appears in cases where it is required to emphasize its correlation with the spoken language, for example: “Can a written language be completely similar to a spoken language? No, just as a spoken language can never be completely similar to the written one ”(A.S. Pushkin).

AT Church Slavonic and Russian Dictionary1847. the phrase "literary language" is not noted, but in philological works of the middle of the 19th century. it is found, for example, in the article by I.I. Davydov "On the new edition of the Russian dictionary". The name of the famous work of Ya.K. Grot "Karamzin in the history of the Russian literary language" (1867) testifies that by that time the phrase "literary language" had become quite common. Initially literary language understood primarily as the language of fiction. Gradually, ideas about the literary language expanded, but did not acquire stability, certainty. Unfortunately, this situation continues to this day.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a number of works appear in which the problems of the literary language are considered, for example, “Essay on the literary history of the Little Russian dialect in the 17th century” by P. Zhitetsky (1889), “ major currents in the Russian literary language” E.F. Karsky (1893), "Church Slavonic Elements in the Modern Literary and Folk Russian Language" by S.K. Bulich (1893), “From the history of the Russian literary language of the late 18th and early 19th centuries E.F. Buddha (1901), his own "Essay on the history of the modern Russian literary language" (1908).

In 1889, L. I. Sobolevsky created his “History of the Russian literary language”, in which he stated that “due to the almost complete absence of development, we do not even have an established concept of what our literary language is.” Sobolevsky did not offer his own definition of the literary language, but indicated a range of monuments,

whose language is understood as literary: “Under the literary language, we will mean not only the language in which works of literature were written and are being written in the usual use of this word, but in general the language of writing. Thus, we will talk not only about the language of teachings, annals, novels, but also about the language of all kinds of documents like bills of sale, mortgages, etc. ”

Disclosure of the meaning of the term literary language through its correlation with the range of texts recognized as literary, in Russian philology it can be considered traditional. It is presented in the works of D.N. Ushakova, L.P. Yakubinsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradova, F.P. Filina, A.I. Efimova. Understanding literary language as a language of literature (in the broadest sense) firmly connects it with a specific "linguistic material", the material of literature and predetermines its universal recognition as an unquestionable linguistic reality.

As already noted, initially the concepts of our writers and philologists about the literary language (whatever it was called) were associated most of all with the language of works of art. Later, when linguistics "resolutely focused its attention on dialects, namely, mainly on their phonetic study", literary language began to be perceived primarily in terms of correlation with dialects and opposition to them. The belief in artificiality spread literary language. One of the philologists of the early XX century. wrote: "Literary language, legitimization of academic grammar - artificial language, which combines the features of several dialects and is influenced by writing, school, foreign literary languages. Linguistics of that time turned mainly to individual linguistic facts, phenomena, mainly phonetic. This led to the fact that language remained in the shadow as a functioning system, as a real means of human communication. Naturally, as literary language little has been studied from the functional side; sufficient attention has not been paid to those properties and qualities of the literary language that arise as a result of the peculiarities of its use in society.

But gradually these aspects are of increasing interest to researchers. As is known, questions of the theory of the literary language have occupied a significant place in the activities of the Prague Linguistic Circle, addressed, of course, primarily "to the nature and requirements of Czech language practice."

But the generalizations of the Prague school were also applied to other literary languages, in particular, to Russian. The sign of the normalization of the language and the codification of the norm was brought to the fore. As important features of the literary language, its stylistic differentiation and multifunctionality were also named.

Soviet scientists supplemented the most important sign of the standardization of the literary language for the Prague school with the sign of processing - in accordance with the well-known statement of M. Gorky: "The division of the language into literary and folk only means that we have, so to speak," raw "language and processed by masters" . In our modern dictionaries and teaching aids literary language is usually defined as a processed form of the national language, which has written norms. In the scientific literature, there is a tendency to establish as many features as possible literary language. For example, F.P. Owl reads seven of them:

■ processing;

■ normativity;

■ stability;

■ mandatory for all members of the team;

■ stylistic differentiation;

■ versatility; and

■ availability of oral and written versions.

Of course, one or the other literary language, in particular, modern Russian literary language can be defined as having the listed features. But this raises at least two questions:

1) why the totality of these signs is generalized in the concept of "literary" - after all, none of them contains a direct reference to literature,

2) whether the set of these features corresponds to the content of the concept of "literary language" throughout its historical development.

Despite the importance of disclosing the content of the term literary language through a set of specific features, it seems very undesirable to separate it from the concept of "literature". This separation gives rise to attempts to replace the philological term literary term standard. Criticisms about the term standard language were once made by the author of these lines, F.P. Filin, R.A. Budagov. It can be said that an attempt to replace the term literary language term standard language in our philological science has failed. But it is indicative as an expression of a tendency to dehumanize linguistics, to replace substantive categories in this science with formal ones.

Along with the term literary language and instead of it, the terms normalized language and codified language. Term normalized language of all signs literary language leaves and absolutizes only one, although important, but in isolation from other signs, which does not reveal the essence of the designated phenomenon. As for the term codified language, then it can hardly be considered correct at all. A language norm can be codified, but not a language. The explanation of the named term as an ellipsis (a codified language is a language that has codified norms) is not convincing. In the use of the term codified language there is a tendency towards abstractionism and subjectivism in the interpretation of such

the most important social phenomenon literary language. Neither the norm, nor even more so its codification, can and should not be considered in isolation from the totality of the real properties of the really existing (i.e., used in society) literary language.

Functioning and development literary language determined by the needs of society, a combination of many social factors overlapping " internal laws» development of each particular language The codification of a norm (not a language!) is, even if it is carried out not by one person, but by a scientific team, essentially a subjective act. If codification meets social needs, it “works”, it brings benefits. But all the same, the codification of the norm is secondary in relation to language development, they can contribute to the better functioning of the literary language, can have a certain influence on its development, but cannot be a decisive factor in the historical transformations of the literary language.

Reformer Russian literary language, who approved his norms, was not some "codifier" (or "codifiers"), but Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who, as is known, did not make scientific descriptions of the norms of the Russian literary language, did not write a register of prescriptive rules, but created exemplary literary texts of various types. The normative aspect of Pushkin's literary and linguistic practice was linguistically flawlessly defined by B.N. Golovin: “Having understood and felt the new requirements of society for the language, relying on the speech of the people and the speech of writers - their predecessors and contemporaries, great poet revised the techniques and ways of using the language in literary works, and the language shone with new, unexpected colors. Pushkin's speech became exemplary and, thanks to the literary and public authority of the poet, was recognized as the norm, an example to follow. This circumstance seriously affected the development of our literary language in the 19th-20th centuries. .

Thus, the generalization of signs that do not contain direct indications of literature, as signs of a literary language, turns out to be unsteady. But, on the other hand, attempts to replace the term literary language terms standard language, normalized language, codified language lead to a clear impoverishment and distortion of the essence of the designated phenomenon. It is no better to define it in terms of a set of features when considering literary language from a historical perspective. Since the above features in their entirety are inherent in the modern Russian literary language, some philologists “consider it impossible to use the term literary in relation to the Russian language before the 18th century. At the same time, they are not embarrassed by the fact that the existence of Russian literature since the 11th century has never been in doubt. “The historical contradictions in such a restrictive use of the term “literary language,” wrote Vinogradov, “are obvious, since it turns out that pre-national literature (for example, Russian literature of the XI-XVII centuries., English literature pre-Shakespearean period, etc.) did not use literary language, or rather, was written in non-literary language.

Scientists abandoning the term literary language in relation to the pre-national era, they follow a path that can hardly be recognized as logical: instead of taking into account the historical limitations of understanding literary language as a phenomenon that has a complex of the above features, they limit the very concept of national development to the era of national development. literary language. Although the contradiction of such a position is obvious, in special literature we constantly encounter terms written language, book language, bookish— written language etc. when we are talking about the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries, and sometimes even the 18th century.

It seems that this terminological inconsistency is not justified. O literary language one can safely speak in relation to any time when literature exists. All signs literary language developed in the literature. They are not developed immediately, so it is useless and anti-historical to look for them all at any time. It is necessary, of course, to take into account the fact that the content and scope of the very concept of "literature" is changing historically. However, the connection between the concepts of "literary language" and "literature" remains unchanged.

Use instead of a term literary language any other - standard language, normalized language, codified language means the substitution of one concept for another concept. Of course, speaking abstractly, one can construct "constructs" corresponding to the terms standard language, normalized language, codified language, but these "constructs" cannot be identified with literary language as a linguistic reality.

Based on the features of the literary language listed above, many oppositions can be built that characterize the relationship between the literary and non-literary language: processed - unprocessed, normalized - unnormalized, stable - unstable, etc. But such oppositions determine only certain aspects of the phenomena under consideration. What is the most common opposition? What exactly acts as a non-literary language?

“Any concept is best elucidated from oppositions, and it seems obvious to everyone that the literary language is first of all opposed to dialects. And in general this is true; however, I think that there is a deeper opposition, which in essence determines those that seem obvious. This is the opposition of literary and spoken languages. Of course, Shcherba is right that the opposition between literary and spoken languages ​​is deeper (and broader) than the opposition between literary language and dialects. The latter exist, as a rule, in colloquial use and thus are included in the sphere of spoken language. The correlation of the literary language with the spoken language (including dialects) in historical terms was constantly emphasized by B.A. Larin.

On the correlation of literary and spoken languages. Shcherba also pointed out the basis of the structural differences between these varieties of linguistic use: “If we think deeper into the essence of things, we will come to the conclusion that the literary language is based on a monologue, a story, opposed to dialogue - colloquial speech. This latter consists of mutual reactions of two individuals communicating with each other, normally spontaneous reactions determined by the situation or the statement of the interlocutor. Dialog- in essence, a chain of replicas. Monologue- this is an already organized system of thoughts clothed in a verbal form, which is by no means a replica, but a deliberate influence on others. Every monologue is a literary work in its infancy.

Of course, one must clearly understand that, putting forward the concept of dialogue and monologue, Shcherba had in mind the two main varieties of the use of language, and not the special forms of their reflection in fiction. “If you think deeper into the essence of things,” as Shcherba thought, then it is impossible to deny that most of the signs of the literary language that were discussed above arose as a result of the monologic (prepared, organized) use of the language. The processing and then normalization of the language is undoubtedly carried out in the process of constructing a monologue. And on the basis of processing and normalization, universality and universality are developed. As soon as "an organized system of thoughts put into a verbal form" is always associated with a certain sphere of communication and reflects its features, the prerequisites for functional and stylistic differentiation are created. literary language. Monologue use is also associated with stability, the traditional character of the literary language, since the monologue “flows more within the framework of traditional forms, the recollection of which, with complete control of consciousness, is the main organizing principle of our monologue speech” .

The concept of the correlation of dialogue - monologue as the basis for the correlation of conversational and literary language well explains the very process of origin, the emergence of the literary language. This process is based on the transformation of unprepared dialogic use of language into prepared monologue use.

Since opposition is recognized literary language- colloquial language, then it seems to be an illegal term literary colloquial language. The spoken language remains colloquial even in those cases when native speakers of the literary language speak (if we are talking about a real conversation, that is, an unprepared, spontaneous exchange of remarks), and does not become “literary” only because the interlocutors do not speak a dialect . Another thing is the oral form of the literary language. It, of course, leaves a certain imprint on the literary language, leads to the appearance of some specific features of the construction of a monologue, but the monologue nature is obvious.

All of the above related to the component literary in term literary language. Now we need to talk about the component language. Of course, when they speak and write literary language, colloquial language, then mean not different languages, and the two main varieties of the national language (otherwise the ethnic language or ethno-language). More precisely, we mean the varieties of language use: literary and colloquial. So, in the interests of accuracy, one should use the terms literary variety of language use, colloquial use of language. But due to the wide distribution and universal recognition, as well as the greater brevity of the terms literary language and colloquial language, one has to put up with their incompleteness and some ambiguity (the understanding that appears in our specialized literature of the opposition of the Russian literary language and the Russian dialect language, the Russian literary language and the Russian spoken language precisely as an opposition of different Russian languages).

Application of the term literary language in modern Russian studies is not distinguished by unity. The most striking manifestation of this situation is attempts to replace the term literary language with other terms or “add” one or another refinement to the term literary language (codified literary language). There can be only one way to stabilize the meaning of the term literary language - this is the way of specific comprehensive studies of the phenomenon that is called the literary language and which appears as "a linguistic reality beyond any doubt" in literary texts from the time of their appearance to the present day.

A literary language is one in which there is a written language of a certain people, and sometimes several. That is, in this language school education, written and everyday communication takes place, official business documents are created, scientific works, fiction, journalism, as well as all other manifestations of art that are expressed verbally, most often in writing, but sometimes also orally. Therefore, oral-colloquial and written-book forms of the literary language differ. Their interaction, correlation and emergence are subject to certain laws of history.

Various definitions of the concept

Literary language is a phenomenon that is understood in its own way by different scientists. Some believe that it is popular, only processed by the masters of the word, that is, writers. Proponents of this approach have in mind, first of all, the concept of a literary language, referring to the new time, and at the same time among peoples with a richly represented fiction. According to others, the literary language is bookish, written, which is opposed to living speech, that is, spoken language. This interpretation is based on those languages ​​in which writing is ancient. Still others believe that this is a language that is generally valid for a particular people, in contrast to jargon and dialect, which do not have such universal significance. Literary language is always the result of the joint creative activity of people. This is a brief description of this concept.

Relationship with different dialects

Particular attention should be paid to the interaction and correlation of dialects and literary language. How historical foundations certain dialects are more stable, the more difficult it is for the literary language to unite linguistically all members of the nation. Until now, dialects have successfully competed with the general literary language in many countries, for example, in Indonesia, Italy.

This concept also interacts with language styles that exist within the boundaries of any language. They are varieties of it that have developed historically and in which there is a set of features. Some of them may be repeated in other different styles, but a peculiar function and a certain combination of features distinguish one style from the rest. Today, a large number of speakers use colloquial and colloquial forms.

Differences in the development of the literary language among different peoples

In the Middle Ages, as well as in modern times, different peoples the history of the literary language developed in different ways. Let us compare, for example, the role that the Latin language had in the culture of the Germanic and Romance peoples of the early Middle Ages, the functions that French played in England until the beginning of the 14th century, the interaction of Latin, Czech, Polish in the 16th century, etc.

Development of the Slavic languages

In an era when a nation is being formed and developed, there is a unity of literary norms. Most often this happens first in writing, but sometimes the process can take place simultaneously in writing and in oral form. In the Russian state of the period of the 16th-17th centuries, work was underway to canonize and streamline the norms of business state language along with the formation of uniform requirements for colloquial Moscow. The same process occurs in others in which there is an active development of the literary language. For Serbian and Bulgarian, it is less typical, since in Serbia and Bulgaria there were no conditions favorable for the development of a business clerical and state language on a national basis. Russian, along with Polish and, to a certain extent, Czech, is an example of a national Slavic literary language that has retained its connection with ancient written language.

Having embarked on the path of breaking with the old tradition, this is Serbo-Croatian, and also partly Ukrainian. In addition, there are Slavic languages ​​that did not develop continuously. On the certain stage this development was interrupted, so the emergence of national language features in certain countries led to a break with the ancient, old written tradition, or later - this is Macedonian, Belarusian languages. Let us consider in more detail the history of the literary language in our country.

History of the Russian literary language

The oldest of the literary monuments that have survived date back to the 11th century. The process of transformation and formation of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries took place on the basis of its opposition to French - the language of the nobility. In the works of the classics of Russian literature, its possibilities were actively studied, new language forms were introduced. Writers emphasized its richness and pointed out its advantages in relation to foreign languages. There were frequent disputes on this issue. For example, disputes between Slavophiles and Westernizers are known. Later, in Soviet years, it was emphasized that our language is the language of the builders of communism, and during the reign of Stalin there was even a whole campaign to combat cosmopolitanism in Russian literature. And at present, the history of the Russian literary language in our country continues to take shape, since its transformation is continuously taking place.

Folklore

Folklore in the form of sayings, proverbs, epics, fairy tales has its roots in a distant history. Samples of oral folk art were passed down from generation to generation, from mouth to mouth, and their content was polished in such a way that only the most stable combinations remained, and linguistic forms were updated as the language developed.

And after the appearance of writing, oral creativity continued to exist. Urban and worker, as well as thieves (that is, prison camps) and army folklore were added to the peasant folklore in the New Age. Oral folk art today it is most widely represented in jokes. It also affects the written literary language.

How did the literary language develop in Ancient Russia?

The spread and introduction that led to the formation of the literary language is usually associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius.

In Novgorod and other cities of the 11th-15th centuries, the bulk of the surviving ones are private letters that were of a business nature, as well as documents such as court records, bills of sale, receipts, wills. There are also folklore (household instructions, riddles, school jokes, conspiracies), literary and church texts, as well as records that were of an educational nature (children's scribbles and drawings, school exercises, warehouses, alphabets).

Introduced in 863 by the brothers Methodius and Cyril, Church Slavonic writing was based on a language such as Old Church Slavonic, which, in turn, originated from the South Slavic dialects, or rather, from the Old Bulgarian language, its Macedonian dialect. The literary activity of these brothers consisted primarily in the translation of the books of the Old, and Their disciples translated many religious books. Some scholars believe that Cyril and Methodius introduced the Glagolitic alphabet, and not the Cyrillic alphabet, and the latter was already developed by their students.

Church Slavonic

The language of the book, not the spoken language, was Church Slavonic. It spread among numerous Slavic peoples, where it acted as a culture. Church Slavonic literature spread in Moravia among the Western Slavs, in Romania, Bulgaria and Serbia among the southern Slavs, in the Czech Republic, Croatia, Wallachia, and also in Russia with the adoption of Christianity. The Church Slavonic language was very different from the spoken language, the texts were subjected to changes during correspondence, gradually becoming Russified. Words approached Russian, began to reflect the features characteristic of local dialects.

The first grammar books were compiled in 1596 by Lavrenty Zinany and in 1619 by Melety Smotrytsky. At the end of the 17th century, the process of formation of such a language as Church Slavonic was basically completed.

18th century - literary language reform

M.V. Lomonosov in the 18th century made the most important reforms of the literary language of our country, as well as the system of versification. He wrote a letter in 1739 in which he formulated the basic principles of versification. Lomonosov, arguing with Trediakovsky, wrote that it is necessary to use the possibilities of our language instead of borrowing various schemes from others. According to Mikhail Vasilyevich, poetry can be written in many stops: two-syllable three-syllable ones (amphibrachium, anapaest, dactyl), but he believed that the division into spondei and pyrrhia is incorrect.

In addition, Lomonosov also compiled a scientific grammar of the Russian language. He described in his book his opportunities and wealth. The grammar was reprinted 14 times and later formed the basis of another work - the grammar of Barsov (written in 1771), who was a student of Mikhail Vasilyevich.

Modern literary language in our country

Its creator is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, whose creations are the pinnacle of literature in our country. This thesis is still relevant, although great changes have taken place in the language over the past two hundred years, and today there are clear stylistic differences between the modern language and the language of Pushkin. Despite the fact that the norms of the modern literary language have changed today, we still consider the work of Alexander Sergeyevich as a model.

Meanwhile, the poet himself pointed to the main role in the formation of the literary language of N.M. Karamzin, since this glorious writer and historian, according to Alexander Sergeevich, freed the Russian language from someone else's yoke and returned its freedom.

ODA + signs

the presence of a corpus of texts;

1) the presence of writing;


6) prevalence;
7) general usage;
8) general obligatoriness;

Literary and national language.

Comparison. Literary is included in the national

Non-literary forms of language, dialects.

The national language is a form of language that exists in the era of the nation.

The national language is a hierarchical integrity within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena takes place.

National language:

· literary language:

written form (book);

oral form (colloquial);

non-literary forms:

territorial dialects;

social phraseological units;

Prison (argotic vocabulary);

vernacular;

jargon

A dialect is a means of communication between people united territorially (national language + ter. features).

Jargon is a social dialect characterized by specific vocabulary, phraseology, expressive means without affecting the phonetic and grammatical foundations. The main function is to express belonging to an autonomous social group. ( 18th - 19th century based on loanwords)

Slang ( from eng) is a set of special words or meanings of words, also used in various social groups, but with a short lifetime.

Argotic vocabulary - the language of any closed social group, Not affecting the phonetic and grammatical bases.

Vernacular is a distorted, misused form of lit. language, i.e., in fact, a deviation from the literary language norm. (At all language levels) Opposes all other forms, because it distorts the lexical bases. The main features of colloquialism: carelessness, loss of self-control, fuzzy articulation, the presence of erroneous forms, oversimplification. (oral speech is not the same as vernacular)

The history of the formation of the Russian literary language

Indo-European linguistic unity

Common Slavic 1500 BC - 400 AD

Old Russian language

Beginning of formation 14th century

The special role of the Church Slavonic language

Two elements:

Old Russian language (mostly without writing);

Church Slavonic (mostly bookish);

Many borrowings of different time and source.

A large number of dialects of the Old Russian language.

The Russian language was originally part of the East Slavic language (Old Russian), which was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed the Old Russian people within the Kyiv state in the 10th century. With the passage of time (Х1У - ХУ centuries), the Russian language stood out from the general group and formed as independent language, along with ukrainian and belorussian.

The ancient Russian language (the common ancestor of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian) is reflected in the written monuments. Of the surviving and extant manuscripts, the earliest manuscript belongs to the 11th century (dated - 1057).

Until the XIV century. Old Russian existed as a common language of the ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. This group includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to the eastern group, among the Slavic languages ​​there is also a southern group (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian) and a western group of languages ​​(Polish, Slovak, Czech and some other languages). All Slavic languages ​​are closely related, have many common words, are significantly similar in grammar and phonetics. In the XIV century. there was a separation of this East Slavic language (in connection with the formation of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian nation), and since then the Russian language of the Russian people has existed.

From Peter I to the XIX century - the normalization of the Russian language.

Stalinist normalization - Lomanosov.

Later: Ushakov, Vinogradov, Ozhegov...

One can detect the similarity of words in the Indo-European family of languages:

Russian language in the system of languages ​​of the world

Map of language families

Genealogical and typological classifications

language families. Basque language isolated. Japanese isolated. RF (???)

In total, there are about 5,000 languages ​​in the world.

Related languages ​​are called languages ​​that came out of the same “parent” language. All related languages ​​descending from a common ancestor are called language family.

World languages:

· North Caucasian family of languages;

· Indo-European family languages:

Slavic group of languages:

West Slavic subgroup:

· Polish;

· Czech;

East Slavic subgroup:

· Ukrainian;

· Russian;

Belarusian

South Slavic subgroup:

· Bulgarian;

· Macedonian;

Basque family:

The Basque language

Chinese → Eastern language group → Sino-Tibetan language family

There are about 1000 dialects in the Papuan languages ​​*trollface*

Japanese language isolated

Example: the word "house"

Russian language: house

Serbian: house

Polish language: dom

Journalistic style.

A distinctive feature of the journalistic style is considered to be the combination of the opposite in it: standard and expression, strict logic and emotionality, intelligibility and conciseness, informative richness and economy of language means.

The journalistic style is inherent in the periodical press, socio-political literature, political and judicial speeches, etc. It is used, as a rule, for illumination and discussion. actual problems and phenomena of the current life of society, to develop public opinion formed in order to solve them. Let's make a reservation that the journalistic style exists not only in verbal (oral and written) form, but also in graphic, pictorial (poster, caricature), photo and cinematographic (documentary film, television) and other forms.

One of the central functions of the journalistic style of speech is the information function. Realizing it, this style performs another function - the impact on the reader and listener. It is associated with the public upholding of certain ideals, with the conviction of others in their justice and justification.

The journalistic style, in contrast to the scientific one, for example, is associated with simplicity and accessibility of presentation, often uses elements of appeal and declarativeness.

His verbal expressiveness is manifested in the desire for novelty of presentation, in attempts to use unusual, unhackneyed phrases, to avoid repetition of the same words, turns, constructions, to address the reader or listener directly, etc. Publicism is inherent in public accessibility, because it is intended for the widest audience. The stylistics of journalistic speech allows to implement the mass nature of communication.

Another important manifestation of journalistic style is the use of so-called intellectual speech. It is characterized by strict documentaryism, focusing on the accuracy, verification, objectivity of the facts presented. Such speech, as a rule, is replete with professional terminology, but the use of figurative, metaphorical terms is limited in it. She claims to be analytical and factual in the presentation of the material. The author of the speech seeks to draw attention to the significance of the facts cited, the information published, highlights the nominal, personal, personal nature of the speech. In a word, the stylistic core of intellectual speech is its emphasized documentary and factual accuracy.

The most important role in the journalistic style of speech is played by emotional means of expression. Among them is the use of words with a bright emotional coloring, the use of figurative meaning of words, the use of various figurative means. Epithets, lexical repetitions, comparisons, metaphors, appeals, rhetorical questions are widely used. The means of emotional expressiveness are also proverbs, sayings, colloquial turns of speech, phraseological units, the use literary images, opportunities for humor and satire. Emotional linguistic means act in a journalistic style, combined with figurativeness, logic, evidence.

Art style

The artistic style of speech is distinguished by figurativeness, the wide use of figurative and expressive means of the language. In addition to its typical linguistic means, it uses the means of all other styles, especially colloquial. In the language of fiction, vernacular and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, jargon, rude words, professionally business turns of speech, journalism can be used. HOWEVER, ALL THESE MEANS IN the artistic style of speech ARE SUBJECT TO ITS MAIN FUNCTION - AESTHETIC.

If the colloquial style of speech performs primarily the function of communication, (communicative), scientific and official-business function of the message (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact. All language tools included in artwork, change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style.

In literature, language occupies a special position, since it is that building material, that matter perceived by ear or sight, without which a work cannot be created. The artist of the word - the poet, the writer - finds, in the words of L. Tolstoy, "the only necessary placement of the only necessary words" in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express an idea, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author.

All this is accessible ONLY to the LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE, therefore it has always been considered the pinnacle of the literary language. The best in language, its strongest possibilities and the rarest beauty - in works of fiction, and all this is achieved. artistic means language.

Facilities artistic expressiveness varied and numerous. You are already familiar with many of them. These are such tropes as epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc. Tropes - a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some way. The most common types of tropes are allegory, hyperbole, irony, litote, metaphor, metomia, personification, paraphrase, synecdoche, simile, epithet.

For example: What are you howling about, the night wind, what are you complaining about insanely - personification. All flags will visit us - synecdoche. A man with a fingernail, a boy with a finger - litote. Well, eat a plate, my dear - metonymy, etc.

The expressive means of language also include STYLISTIC FIGURES of speech or simply figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, multi-union, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, and intonation.

Each author has his own unique author's style. For example, when publishing classic literary works often retain the author's neologisms and even the author's obvious grammatical and spelling errors to convey the author's style as fully as possible. Sometimes later they even become a new literary norm.

Conversational style

The colloquial style is mostly spoken, but can also be recorded.

Conversational style features:

Vocabulary is neutral, specific-subject;

a large place is occupied by expressive, emotionally colored words;

folk phraseology;

Abstract nouns are uncharacteristic;

almost no participles and participles are used;

Simplified syntax: sentences are usually simple, often incomplete;

word order is free, inversion is easily allowed;

intonation with a clearly noticeable transition from rising to falling;

At the same time, colloquial speech is open to various intrusions, including foreign ones. So, a purely colloquial word, like “to act up” and a term, coexists in it. In a conversational style, you can also talk about a business topic, if it is appropriate for the conditions of communication (for example, if friends are talking). The conversational style is not completely homogeneous: it can be neutral speech, colloquial business and familiar. With all the freedom of colloquial style, it still remains the style of the literary language, that is, it does not go beyond the limits of the language norm. Therefore, it has no place for vernacular and other types of profanity.

Successful colloquial speech prevents conflicts, greatly contributes to the adoption of optimal decisions, the establishment of the desired moral climate in the family and the team.

We emphasize that the colloquial (colloquial-everyday) style fully performs the function of communication. Along with the domestic environment, it is also most widely used in the professional field. In everyday life, the conversational style is manifested both in oral and written form (notes, private letters), in the professional sphere - mainly in oral form.

The everyday situation of communication, especially dialogic, is characterized by an emotional, primarily evaluative reaction. Such communication is characterized by the unity of its verbal and non-verbal manifestations.

The conversational style is also characterized by a sensually specific nature of speech, the absence of strict logic and inconsistency of presentation, discontinuity, the predominance of emotional and evaluative information content, frequent manifestations of violent expression, and the personal nature of speech. All this, of course, has a tangible effect on the functioning of the language units serving the colloquial style, i.e. on the general direction of their use.

The colloquial style is inherent in the active operation of lexical, syntactic and grammatical synonyms (words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning; constructions that match in meaning).

Literary language. Its main features.

ODA + signs

The literary language is an exemplary, standard, codified, processed form of the national language:

the presence of a corpus of texts;

processing and codification;

universal nature of use;

stylistic differentiation;

Literary language - the national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school education, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers given language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in the broadest sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.

Signs of literary language:
1) the presence of writing;
2) normalization is a fairly stable way of expression that expresses the historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Normalization is based on the language system and is fixed in the best examples of literary works. This mode of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;
3) codification, i.e. fixation in the scientific literature; this is expressed in the presence of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing the rules for using the language;
4) stylistic diversity, i.e. variety of functional styles of literary language;
5) relative stability;
6) prevalence;
7) general usage;
8) general obligatoriness;
9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.
The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. Literary language unites the people in terms of language. The leading role in the creation of the literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.
The literary language must be generally understandable, i.e. accessible to all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to follow the rules of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general laws of the development of the language and the optimal conditions for its functioning.

Literary language

- the main form of existence of the national language, accepted by its speakers as an exemplary one; a historically established system of commonly used linguistic means that have undergone a long cultural processing in the works of authoritative masters of the word, in the oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. Functional purpose and internal organization of L. Ya. are due to the tasks of ensuring speech communication in the main areas of activity of the entire historically established team of people who speak this national language. According to its cultural and social status, L. Ya. opposed to folk-colloquial. speech: territorial and social dialects used by limited groups of people living in a certain area or united in relatively small social groups, and vernacular - supra-dialect non-codified oral speech of limited topics. There is a relationship between the forms of the national language: L. i. constantly replenished at the expense of the people-colloquial. speech.

L. i. trace are inherent. the main features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the national language:

1. Normalization. The language norm is a generally accepted use that is regularly repeated in the speech of speakers and is recognized at this stage of development of L. Ya. correct, exemplary. Lit. norms cover all aspects (levels) of the language system and therefore they themselves represent a certain system: lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic, word-formation, orthoepic, spelling norms. The presence of language norms is a condition for the universality of L. I. “To be generally accepted, and therefore generally understandable” is the main property of L. Ya., which “in essence makes it literary” ( L.V. Shcherba).

2. Codification. Codification - a scientific description of the norms, fixing them in grammars, reference books, dictionaries; the most explicit and objectified form of recognition of the normativity of a linguistic phenomenon. Codification lit. norms are updated as changes are made both in the language itself and in the assessments of its means by speakers. In modern society codification lit. norms takes place with the active participation of the scientific, pedagogical, literary community, and the media.

3. Relative stability (historical stability, tradition). Without this quality L. I. the exchange of cultural values ​​between generations would be impossible. Stability L. I. is ensured, firstly, by the action of generally binding codified language norms, and secondly, by the maintenance of stylistic traditions thanks to written texts, i.e. is connected with one more sign of L. I. - the presence of its written fixation. Russian stability. L. i. also contributes to its integrity, the absence of significantly different local options.

4. Multifunctionality. The main forms of L. Ya., which is a dichotomous system, are colloquial and literary and bookish and literary speech (see. literary and colloquial style of speech,), opposed to each other as the largest functional and stylistic spheres. In turn, book speech demonstrates a functional and stylistic stratification into scientific, official business, journalistic, and artistic speech. The concept of "L. I." and "Language of Fiction" are not identical. The first is broader in the sense that it combines several functional and stylistic varieties of the language, the second is broader in another respect - in artistic. works are included, in addition to lit. language means, elements of folk-colloquial. speech (dialectisms, jargon, etc.). Besides, L. I. focused on universality, and artistic. language - on the creative individual originality.

5. Developed variability and flexibility, which provides parallel ways of expression and linguistic freedom of the individual. Formation of various means of expression in the field of vocabulary, phraseology, word formation, grammatical variation in the process of evolution L. Ya. contributed to the expansion of its functions. Gradually, it begins to serve all areas human activity, and this process is accompanied by a functional-style stratification of L. Ya. The variety of replenishing L. I. styles generates a rich synonymy of linguistic means within a single language, makes it a complex, branched system of functions. varieties, which is of interest both for the theory of linguistics and for stylistics, the area of ​​interaction between these linguistic disciplines, the intersection of their problems. Stylistic (expressive-stylistic, functional-stylistic) richness of L. Ya. constitutes the stylistic aspect of L. Ya., the source of the formation and development of stylistics as a science.

L. i. goes through several stages in its development, connected with the history of the people. In the development of Russian L. i. two main eras are distinguished: pre-national, which ends in the 17th century, and national. More detailed periodization of L. I. can be presented next. form: 1) L. I. Old Russian people (XI-beginning of the XIV century); 2) L. I. Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries); 3) L. I. period of formation of Russian. nations (from the middle–2nd half of the 17th century to Pushkin); 4) modern. L. i. (from Pushkin to our time). In a narrower sense, the term "modern. Russian. L. Ya." denotes the language of the XX-XXI centuries. (since 1917). An even narrower interpretation is L. I. new Russia(post-Soviet period).

L. i. - the concept is historical, since at different stages of the development of L. I. its symptoms change. With regard to Russian L. i. these changes were as follows: 1. L. I. originated as a written language (lat. littera - letter, letter). Under the old Russian L. I. refers to the language that has come down to us in the written monuments of the 11th–13th centuries, belonging to various genres, namely: the genres of secular narrative literature (literary and artistic work "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", chronicle narratives, etc.), business written language (code of laws "Russian Truth", contractual, bills of sale, letters of commendation and other letters), church-religious literature (sermons, lives). Rus. L. i. functioned only as a written language throughout the pre-national period. 2. L. i. pre-national era was not uniform: there were several of its types, among which were formed not only on the basis of the language of the Old Russian people, but also on the basis of the Church Slavonic language. 3. In the history of Russian. L. i. has undergone such changes essential feature L. I., as the norm. Norms in the pre-national period had a spontaneous character, were not codified (before the appearance of the first Russian grammars), strictly binding. For each type of L. I. (for example, folk-literary or church-bookish) developed their own norms. They were related only to the written form of the language, since L. Ya. was written. 4. L. I. the pre-national period was distinguished by the narrowness of its use and its functions. It was owned by a limited part of society - representatives of the highest circles and monks. L. i. was primarily the language of.-cases. communication (some researchers, for example, A.I. Gorshkov, do not believe that in the early stages of development of L. Ya. business language can be recognized as L. Ya.); in addition, it was used in art. literature and chronicles. The formation of a system of func. styles within a single L. I. occurs later, at the end of XVIII-beginning. 19th century Patterns of the use of language units are gradually formed depending on the goals of communication in a particular function. sphere (see , ).

In the history of L. I. the work of outstanding masters of the word plays an important role. So, A.S. Pushkin, guided by the principles of proportionality and conformity, achieved in his work a bold synthesis of all the viable elements of L. Ya. with elements of lively folk speech and laid the foundation for the modern. Russian L. i.

Multifunctionality Russian. L. Ya., variability, interaction with various branches of the national language and with other national languages, as well as the history of Russian. L. i. determined its wealth in the field of stylistic resources: a variety of stylistic, expressive and figurative possibilities, a variety of intellectual and expressive-emotional means of expression.

Lit.: Sobolevsky A.I. History of Russian. lit. language. - M., 1980; Shcherba L.V. Fav. works in Russian language. - M., 1957; Istrina E.S. Russian norms. lit. language and culture of speech. – M.; L., 1948; Vinokur G.O. Fav. works in Russian language. - M., 1959; Vinogradov V.V. Essays on the history of Russian. lit. language of the 17th–19th centuries. - 3rd ed. - M., 1982; Him: Problems lit. languages ​​and patterns of their formation and development. - M., 1967; Him: Lit. language // Fav. tr. History of Russian. lit. language. - M., 1978; Prague Linguistic Circle. - M., 1967; Rus. language and Soviet society: In 4 vols. - M., 1968; Itskovich V.A. language norm. - M., 1968; Gukhman M.M. Lit. language // LES. - M., 1990; Semenyuk N.N., Norma (ibid.); Shmelev D.N. Rus. language in its functions. varieties. - M., 1977; Filin F.P. Origins and fate of Russian. lit. language. - M., 1981; Bragina A.A. Synonyms in lit. language. - M., 1986; Belchikov Yu.A. Speech communication as a cultural-historical and historical-linguistic factor in the functioning of lit. language, "Stylistyka-II". – Opole, 1993; Him: Lit. language // Ents. Rus. lang. - M., 1997; His: and. - M., 2000; Rus. language of the late 20th century (1985–1995). - M., 1996; Rus. language (1945–1995). – Opole, 1997.

T.B. Trosheva

Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language. - M:. "Flint", "Science". Edited by M.N. Kozhina. 2003 .

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