Enlightenment in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. The Russian school has entered a period of quantitative and qualitative transformations. The number of schools and the number of students increased. Individual zemstvos planned the implementation of a general primary education by the end of the 19th century. Zemstvo schools successfully competed with state educational institutions in the field of primary education. The private school has become an important area of ​​reform. Educational societies, hundreds of public libraries, new pedagogical journals: "Russian School", "Bulletin of Education", "Obrazovanie", etc. The society has realized that new social needs and the level of development of education are coming into ever more obvious discrepancy. The nature of the school itself was revised. The question was raised about the transition from the traditional school of education, which provided knowledge, skills, to the school of labor, which was supposed to prepare not only an executive, but also an enterprising, independent, well-educated person. School and pedagogical problems attracted the attention of philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, specialists natural sciences. In turn, teachers constantly turned to other sciences, using their results in the development of theoretical problems. A significant amount of new literature on pedagogy appears: the works of V.P. Vakhterova, K.V. Elnitsky, P.F. Kaptereva, P.F. Lesgaft and many other scientists. New pedagogical approaches opposed to traditionalism were developed. Domestic pedagogy developed in close cooperation with pedagogical science of leading foreign countries. Our teachers were well aware of everything that was happening in the world school and pedagogy, which could not be said about their foreign colleagues in relation to the pedagogy of Russia. The school and pedagogy of Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. were on the rise. At the same time, their development took place with a sharp increase in internal social tension, in conditions of revolutionary explosions, regional and global wars(revolutions of 1905-1907 and 1917, Russo-Japanese War, first World War). This left a deep imprint on the school and pedagogical science, led to a sharp politicization of school problems. For the first time in Russian history the school question was discussed with the participation political parties: Cadets, Octobrists, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Social Democrats, etc.

Enlightenment in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Enlightenment in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries" 2017, 2018.

The abolition of serfdom, the bourgeois reforms carried out during the 60-70s. 19th century significantly accelerated the formation of capitalist relations in Russia, intensified the processes of social development as a whole. Technological progress, transformation social structure, changes in the management system predetermined the need to improve the education system.

The reform in the field of education was one of the most important among the complex of transformations that followed the manifesto of 1861. In 1864, the “Regulations on primary public schools” were published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions, which were divided into three types: 1. Zemstvo schools, created by local zemstvo institutions. 2. Church schools. 3. Public schools Ministry of Public Education. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which from now on were divided into two types: Classical gymnasiums- in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle and, above all, "classical" languages ​​​​(Ancient Greek and Latin) and Real schools where more attention was paid to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Great strides have been made in the field of women's education. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, in many county towns there are women's progymnasiums and gymnasiums. By the beginning of the 1980s, there were already seven universities in the country. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased.

A feature of the originality of Russian culture 2 half of XIX V. was that concerning low level elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population in Russia was combined with an unusually high rate of development of domestic science, which at that time achieved great success.

Research in the field of natural sciences was especially widely known in the world: I.M. Sechenov (study of the brain and nervous system), I.P. Pavlov (theory of reflexes), I.I. Mechnikov (immunology, embryology, problems of aging, pathology, etc.)

The development of chemistry was marked by remarkable discoveries: A.M. Butlerov (theory chemical structure substances), D.I. Mendeleev ( periodic law chemical elements).

In physics, the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries. was marked by a number of brilliant discoveries: A.G. Stoletov (questions of electricity, magnetism, physical nature of light, the first law of the photoelectric effect), P.N. Yablochkov (arc lamp, “Yablochkov candle”), A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp), A.S. K.E. Tsiolkovsky (a project for the development of near-Earth space using vehicles driven by jet engines).

A special place in Russian science at the turn of the century belongs to V.I. Vernadsky, the former founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. He developed the doctrine of the noosphere, a new evolutionary state of the biosphere (covered by the life of the Earth's surface), in which one of the decisive factors in its development is the rational activity of man.

End of the 19th century was the era of the last great travelers. There are almost no "white spots" left on the map. However, not all earth's surface has been studied uniformly. A significant contribution to the development of geography and ethnography was made by Academician P.P. Central Asia), N.N. Miklukho-Maklai (study of New Guinea and Oceania).

The development of historical science during this period was also significant: In the 2nd half of the 19th century, S.M. Solovyov wrote the most complete and detailed “History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes, which remains to this day; VO Klyuchevsky writes works on hagiography and the history of medieval Rus'.

an event in cultural life Russia had a way out explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language” by V.I.Dal. The collector of Russians was engaged in the study of Russian literature folk tales A.N. Afanasiev. The works of the Russian philologist and art critic F.I. Buslaev gained great fame.

The social upsurge of the 60s affected both the general growth of printed matter (in terms of circulation and titles) and the change in the subject matter of literature. Many textbooks are published in the capital, religious books, fiction, there is an increase in the production of serious socio-economic and natural science literature.

In connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of public publications for the people, for people engaged in self-education, has increased.

But at the same time, the production of popular books is also growing. By the end of the century, the share of translated literature had significantly decreased. This was due to the success of Russian literature, the development of domestic science, social thought. The new industrial upsurge of the late 1980s and early 1990s, the revolutionary movement of the working class, and the activities of the first Marxist organizations contributed to the growth in the production of books and other printed works, and markedly changed the book assortment.

The number of publications by 1901 reached 10318, the total circulation - 56331 thousand copies. Petersburg and Moscow remained the main centers of book publishing in the second half of the 19th century, followed by Kyiv, Odessa, Kharkov.

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Late XIX - early XX century. became an extremely fruitful period in the development national culture. The spiritual life of society, reflecting the rapid changes that took place in the face of the country at the turn of two centuries, stormy political history Russia in this era, was distinguished by exceptional wealth and diversity. “In Russia at the beginning of the century there was a real cultural renaissance,” wrote N.A. Berdyaev. “Only those who lived at that time know what a creative upsurge we experienced, what a breath of spirit captured the Russian souls.” The creativity of Russian scientists, figures of literature and art has made a huge contribution to the treasury of world civilization.

Education

The "cultural renaissance" affected, however, first of all, the upper, educated strata of the population. The problem of introducing the social lower classes to elementary literacy was still very far from being resolved. True, there have been shifts here, too. The literacy rate of the population rose from 31 for men and 13 for women in 1859 to 54 and 26 respectively in 1913. Number primary schools, which were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education, increased from 37 thousand in 1900 to 81 thousand in 1914, and the number of students in them from 2.6 million to 6 million people. In addition, on the eve of the First World War, another 2 million people attended parochial schools. The number of various voluntary educational societies and public universities grew rapidly.

Expenses of the state, local self-government bodies for the needs of education increased at a very high pace. If in the mid-90s of the XIX century. for these purposes, about 40 million rubles were annually allocated, then by 1914 already 300 million. Nevertheless, in terms of financial support for education, Russia was inferior to the most developed states. Thus, by 1914, expenditures on education in Russia, whose population was 4 times larger than the population of England, were only 1.5 times greater than the corresponding expenditures in England.

Education. The "cultural renaissance" did not affect the vast majority of the country's population. As Berdyaev himself admitted, "... all this happened in a rather closed circle, cut off from the broad social movement." A significant part of the peasantry, as well as the working class, by the way, was illiterate, although at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries there were noticeable changes in the field of public education. According to the 1897 census, in Russia there were 21 literate people per 100 inhabitants, including 29 among men and only 10 among women. By 1917, the percentage of literates had increased to 30. The number of schools was growing. If in 1894 there were 32 thousand primary schools in the country, then by 1906 there were already 92.5 thousand.

Slightly less than half of all schools were run by the Synod, and the level of teaching in them was much lower than in schools of public education.

Funding was also weak. The situation improved markedly after the first Russian revolution, when the State Duma adopted several decisions to improve education and even considered a bill to introduce universal primary education in Russia, but due to the outbreak of war it was never adopted. The number of higher educational institutions increased: in 1914 there were 105 of them with 127,000 students.

At the turn of the century, publishing activity acquired an unprecedented scope, and the growth in the production of periodicals continued. These processes became especially noticeable after the first Russian revolution: in 1912, 1,131 daily newspapers appeared in the country, and the number of magazines exceeded one thousand.

Periodicals acquire a multinational character - newspapers were published in 24 languages. In 1913, more than 106 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The range of political orientation of newspapers and magazines was very diverse: from extreme right-wing, Black Hundred publications to extremely radical, left-wing publications. Although the majority still had a liberal-bourgeois orientation.

13. Silver age of Russian culture: general characteristics and features.

Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries is a complex and controversial period in the development of Russian society. The culture of the turn of the century always contains elements of a transitional era, which includes the traditions of the culture of the past and the innovative tendencies of a new emerging culture. There is a transfer of traditions and not just a transfer, but the emergence of new ones, all this is connected with the turbulent process of searching for new ways of developing culture, corrected by the social development of this time. The turn of the century in Russia is a period of major changes brewing, a change in the state system, a change from the classical culture of the 19th century to the new culture of the 20th century. The search for new ways of developing Russian culture is associated with the assimilation of progressive trends in Western culture. The diversity of directions and schools is a feature of Russian culture at the turn of the century. Western trends are intertwined and complemented by modern ones, filled with specifically Russian content. A feature of the culture of this period is its orientation towards the philosophical understanding of life, the need to build a holistic picture of the world, where art, along with science, plays a huge role. The focus of Russian culture late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century turned out to be a person who becomes a kind of link in the motley variety of schools and areas of science and art, on the one hand, and a kind of starting point for analyzing all the most diverse cultural artifacts, on the other. Hence the powerful philosophical foundation that underlies Russian culture at the turn of the century.

Highlighting the most important priorities in the development of Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries, one cannot ignore its most important characteristics. The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century in the history of Russian culture is usually called the Russian Renaissance or, in comparison with the golden age of Pushkin, the silver age of Russian culture.

This period in the development of Russian culture is associated with an upsurge in all spheres of the spiritual life of Russian society: hence the term "spiritual renaissance". The revival of the best traditions of Russian culture in the widest range: from science, philosophical thought, literature, painting, music and ending with the art of theater, architecture, arts and crafts.

silver Age Russian culture seeks to synthesize all the achievements of culture: art - philosophy, religion - everything is interconnected - there is a tendency for the interpenetration of various types of not only artistic, but also spiritual activity in general. Globalization of history, globalization of culture - these are the main characteristics of the culture of the Silver Age.

The Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent active participation of Russia in European affairs brought Russia and Europe sharply closer. led to a colossal rise in national self-consciousness Patriotic War 1812: the age-old foundations of Russian life - autocracy and serfdom - were called into question. There were secret circles of young nobles-guards (future Decembrists). And although Orthodox Church in the previous century it was relegated to the level of a state department, new phenomena began to be traced in it. The activity of monks-ascetics - the elders, who became famous for his wisdom and righteous life, is becoming more and more noticeable. The most famous were Seraphim of Sarov, who was later canonized as a saint, and the elders of Optina Hermitage, a small monastery near Kaluga.

At the beginning of the century, education was recognized as the most important direction public policy. The Ministry of Public Education is created. The number of gymnasiums is increasing, lyceums are appearing. The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was especially famous (where corporal punishment was banned for the first time), from which A. S. Pushkin, the pride of our literature, A. M. Gorchakov, the future Minister of Foreign Affairs, and others came out. Literacy committees functioned in many cities, contributing to the spread of primary education . Universities existed in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Derpt (Tartu), Kazan, Odessa, Tomsk. A series is founded learned societies, periodicals are developing.

In 1839, an observatory was solemnly opened at Pulkovo near St. Petersburg with the most powerful telescope in the world at that time. Professor of Kazan University N. I. Lobachevsky (1792-1856) developed the geometry of curved space, which marked new stage in the development of mathematics. In the field of physics, a number of remarkable discoveries belong to V. V. Petrov and E. Kh. Lenz. A whole galaxy of Russian chemists came to the fore: N. N. Zinin, A. M. Butlerov, A. P. Borodin. In 1832, P. L. Schilling, ahead of S. Morse, created an electromagnetic telegraph. The government instructed him to lay an underground telegraph line connecting all the buildings of the Admiralty. The first steamship was launched in 1803, and the electric ship was created by B. S. Jacobi in 1839. Father and son E. A. and M. E. Cherepanovs in 1834 build one of the first in the world railways at the Ural plant, and then they create a steam locomotive.

A huge step forward was made in the knowledge and understanding of the Russian past. The famous historian and writer N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826) wrote the History of the Russian State. His work gained immense popularity, thanks to him many Russians first learned about the richness and originality of Russian history.

In the second half of the century, a new upsurge of natural science began in Russian Empire. In the field of mathematics and mechanics, Russian science was glorified by P. A. Chebyshev, A. M. Lyapunov, S. V. Kovalevskaya, A. G. Stoletov. The pride of Russian natural science is D. I. Mendeleev, P. N. Lebedev, V. V. Dokuchaev, I. P. Pavlov, A. S. Popov, I. I. Mechnikov.

D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) was an encyclopedic scientist. In his extensive scientific heritage, numbering about 500 works, there are works not only in chemistry, but also in physics, meteorology, aeronautics, agriculture, economics, etc. World-wide fame to the scientist was brought by the periodic law of chemical elements discovered by him in 1869, which are in periodic dependence on the serial number, or charge of the atomic nucleus.

II Mechnikov (1845-1916) - one of the founders of evolutionary embryology and immunology. Together with N. F. Gamalee, he founded the first bacteriological station in Russia. He created the theory of the origin of multicellular organisms, dealt with the problems of aging.

The works of I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) and I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) enriched world physiology and provided a solid scientific basis for a materialistic understanding of such complex phenomena as physiological and mental processes in highly developed animals and humans. A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896) became famous for his research in the field of electricity and magnetism, as well as the photoelectric effect. The history of science included A. S. Popov (1859-1905), the inventor of the radio, and P. N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the inventor of the “arc lamp” (electric lighting). In 1882, according to the drawings of A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890), the construction of a man-piloted aircraft was completed.

19th century especially famous for the discoveries of our travelers. First circumnavigation of the world national history(1803-1806) carried out by I. F. Kruzenshtern. The expedition, led by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev (1819-1821), came close to the "icy continent" - Antarctica, which can be regarded as the discovery of the sixth continent.

Modern brides study photos of wedding dresses on the Internet for a long time before making a choice and making a purchase before the wedding.

Major achievements were also made in the field of geography. P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) was engaged in the study of Central Asia. His associate N.P. Przhevalsky (1839-1888) explored the Ussuri region, Mongolia, China, Tibet. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) traveled and studied the region of Southeast Asia, the islands Pacific Ocean. Scientific activity these scientists have enriched not only world geography, but also climatology, biology, geology, as well as ethnography and history. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay lived among the Papuans of New Guinea. Based on the results of his observations and research, he proved that the backwardness of the island peoples is not related to biological (racial) reasons, but is exclusively of a historical nature. Miklouho-Maclay actively opposed racism and colonialism. The richest ethnographic and anthropological collections brought by him from expeditions are placed in the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg.

The need to democratize society - the abolition of autocracy and the elimination of serfdom - was reflected in the ideological and political currents of Westerners and Slavophiles. Westerners viewed Russia as part of world civilization, believing that it should develop according to progressive models, like advanced countries. Western Europe. From the 40s. a radical wing emerged from this trend in the person of V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen and others, who believed that it was impossible to transform Russian society only through reform. The Slavophiles (brothers I. V. and P. V. Kireevsky, brothers K. S. and I. S. Aksakov, A. S. Khomyakov, Yu. F. Samarin, etc.) believed that Russia had its own, original path historical development, not coinciding with the "rotten" West. They idealized the rural community, saw liberalization in the idea of ​​rebirth Zemsky Sobors, freethinking. The era of the Great Reforms of the 60-70s. began with the abolition of serfdom in 1861. This was the starting point for the transformation Russian state from military-feudal-bureaucratic to bourgeois-democratic.