The number of unemployed registered at the Kazan labor exchange in 1921-1930
|
Was registered as unemployed at the Kazan Labor Exchange |
Including |
|||||
|
adolescents of both sexes |
union members |
arriving from the village |
||||
In 1926-1929, 95-100 thousand people annually arrived from the countryside to the cities and urban-type settlements of the Tatras Republic. A significant part of them settled in Kazan, replenishing the large army of the unemployed. As the statistics presented in the table show, the rise in unemployment in the republic continued until 1929. In the period from 1921 to 1923, on average, each offer on the Kazan labor exchange accounted for 0.85% of demand, and in 1924 this figure fell even lower - to 0.63%. The picture changed only in 1925, when for every supply of labor there was 1.23% demand. This was caused, on the one hand, by the expansion of large-scale industrial production, and, on the other hand, by the development of public works.
Abortion even in the early 1920s by none of the officials in Soviet Russia was not considered as a medical-legal and moral norm. But at the level of mass consciousness, both in pre-revolutionary and in Soviet Russia, artificial miscarriage was considered as a common occurrence. There were many people in the hospital who wanted to carry out this operation on legal terms. In 1924, even a decree was issued on the formation of abortion commissions. They regulated the queue for the production of abortions.
In 1925 in major cities there were about 6 cases of artificial termination of pregnancy per 1000 people - outwardly not too many. According to Soviet law, factory workers used the benefits "for an abortion" out of turn. This was done because women from the proletarian environment, in the old fashioned way, resorted to the services of "grandmothers" and to "self-abortion" with the help of various kinds of poisons. Only one out of three working women who wanted to get rid of pregnancy turned to doctors in 1925. At the same time, material need was the main motive for the abortion. For this reason, 60% of women from the working environment in Leningrad and almost 70% in other industrial cities of Russia did not want to have a child. Almost 50% of female workers have already terminated their first pregnancy. Husbands were 80% of women who had abortions, but this circumstance did not at all increase their desire to become mothers. On the contrary, divorce statistics showed that in proletarian families, pregnancy was the reason for the dissolution of marriage.
Until the mid-1920s, Soviet social policy was aimed at creating the necessary medical support for freedom of abortion. In 1926, abortions were completely banned for women who became pregnant for the first time, as well as those who had done this operation less than six months ago. The Marriage and Family Code of 1926 approved a woman's right to artificial termination of pregnancy. Both in the government and in the philistine discourse, there was an understanding of the fact that the birth rate is not associated with a ban on abortion, despite their certain harmfulness to the female body. AT Russian cities in 1913, 37.2 babies were born per 1,000 people; in 1917 - 21.7; in 1920 - 13.7; in 1923 and 1926 after allowing abortion 35.3 and 34.7 respectively. But with all this, the authorities found ways with their normalizing judgments to discipline female sexuality and reproduction in their own interests. Considering abortion to be a social evil, the Soviet system of maternity care considered induced miscarriage without anesthesia as the norm.
Page 231-233.
After the adoption of the law in 1936, outwardly, the situation with abortion improved. It might even seem that artificial termination of pregnancy turned into a deviation from generally accepted household practices. In the first half of 1936, 43,600 abortions were performed in Leningrad hospitals, and in the second half of the same year, after the adoption of the law, only 735. In general, during 1936-1938, the number of abortions decreased three times. But the birth rate during the same time increased only twice, and in 1940 it generally fell to the level of 1934. On the other hand, criminal abortions became the norm in Soviet society.
According to a secret memo from the Leningrad health authorities to the Regional Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, dated November 1936, for the whole of 1935, 5824 incomplete miscarriages were registered in the city, and only for the three months of 1936 that have passed since the adoption of the law banning abortions - 7912. And these data covered only those women who ended up in hospitals. Illegal abortions were performed by both professional gynecologists and people who had nothing to do with medicine. In 1936, among the persons prosecuted for performing abortions, doctors and nurses accounted for 23%, workers - 21%, office workers and housewives 16% each, others - 24%. Despite the persecution, the underground abortionists had no shortage of clients either in the city or in its environs...
Progress in eradicating illiteracy among Volga Germans in 1920-1923 (p. 326)
|
years |
Number of students in literacy schools |
The number of literacy school graduates |
||
|
men |
women |
men |
women |
|
Daily nutritional norms for children's institutions in Moscow and the Moscow province (data are given in spools; 1 gold = 4.266 grams) (p. 351)
|
Name of products |
For children from 3 to 8 years old |
For children from 8 to 16 years old |
For "defective" children and in sanatoriums |
|
Meat or fish |
|||
|
potato flour |
|||
|
cranberries or compote |
|||
|
Correction |
|||
|
seasoning |
|||
|
20 pcs. per month |
1 PC. in a day |
||
Surkova Yana Nikolaevna
student of the ISm-11 group of the Faculty of Humanities and social sciences Vyatka State University, Kirov
E- mail: yansurkova@ yandex. en
Nikulina Natalya Ivanovna
scientific adviser, candidate of historical sciences, associate professor, Kirov
1917-1920s in the history of Russia - a time of significant changes in the life of the people, a radical restructuring of consciousness and a revision of the values of society. The political revolution of October 1917 was inevitably followed by a cultural revolution. First of all, she touched on the family as the main cell of society, the bearer of the patriarchal way of life and the traditional values of the people.
Based on the Bolsheviks' vision of the bourgeois family as a means of oppressing women and children, and marriage as a trade agreement based on the principle of economic expediency and benefit, one can understand the goals and purpose of the legislative measures of the first years of Soviet power in the field of marriage and family.
First of all, it should be noted the withdrawal of marriage and family relations from the jurisdiction of church law. A unified procedure for registering marriage in the registry office was established, the equality of the rights of men and women in all areas of activity, including marriage and divorce, was legalized. The age of marriage was set at 18 and 16 for men and women, respectively. Divorce was resolved by the free will of the spouses in the registry office, at the request of one - in court. Since 1920, a unilateral divorce could be issued bypassing the judiciary. Declaring the complete equality of men and women, the Family Code of 1918 established the separate ownership of property by spouses.
Since 1920, the decision of the People's Commissariat of Health and the People's Commissariat of Justice legalized the procedure for artificial termination of pregnancy during the first three months in public hospitals. The purpose of the considered set of legislative measures was, first of all, the "liberation" of women from family oppression and its inclusion in the economic life of society. But in itself, liberation was only a means to achieve a much larger goal - the decomposition of the patriarchal system of the family, and through the family and the whole society. Only by getting rid of the remnants of the old system in the form of a patriarchal family, the dependence of a woman and a child on a man, the restriction of a woman's activities to "pots and diapers", it was possible to build a society of equality and justice.
Of course, from the point of view of the values of modern society, the innovations of the Soviet government seem to be progressive. But in order to fully appreciate not only their meaning, but also the consequences, you need to understand the conditions under which they acted. The first years of Soviet power fell on the end of the First World War and the height of the Civil War and intervention - the strongest economic devastation and political destabilization. AT social environment this was accompanied by the destruction of families due to the death of men at the front, an increase in the number of illegitimate children, crime and homelessness. The seeds of, at first glance, progressive reforms fell into not the most favorable soil for this.
In order to assess the consequences of the marriage and family policy of the Bolsheviks, one should turn to the reaction of contemporaries to innovations and their consequences: “... the family, including the proletarian, was shaken,” wrote L. D. Trotsky. “... For some comrades, moreover, party members, divorces take on a completely “chronic” character.” Poet Demyan Bedny aptly exposes the problem of divorces:
“A man’s leapfrog is our divorce
Not quite on the inside.
Family in the wind
Fell apart from the first bad weather.
The devil take them, these easy divorces!
We would add strength to the law ... ".
Indeed, the simplicity of filing a divorce allowed marriages to break up without hindrance. This process drew the attention of the Russian-American sociologist P.A. Sorokin: “For 10,000 marriages in Petrograd, 92.2% of divorces now account for - a fantastic figure, and out of 100 divorced marriages, 51.1% were less than one year old ...” . It should be noted that such scales of divorces were predominantly in cities.
The spread of adultery became no less of a problem, since in the conditions of a decline in morals and the absence of value orientations, nothing interfered with this. According to Golosovker's statistical studies, extramarital affairs were justified by half of the students surveyed, and in fact every third woman was involved in them. Barash's research found extramarital affairs among half of the male workers surveyed.
As for young people, marriage was being completely replaced by ordinary cohabitation or casual relationships among them. As A. M. Kollontai noted: “... such a diversity of marital relations has not yet been known to history: marriage ... and next to a transient free relationship, secret adultery in marriage and open cohabitation, pair and marriage“ threesome ”, and even a complex form of marriage“ foursome ” , not to mention the varieties of corrupt prostitution ... ”The family was perceived by young people as a burden, an obstacle in life and revolutionary activity. The statistics of the 1920s clearly demonstrate the depth of this phenomenon. Thus, surveys of students conducted in the mid-1920s by Gelman show that 85% of men and 53% of women were in premarital relationships. According to D. Lass - 88% and 48%, respectively. Gurevich gives the following figures: 95% and 62%. Barash among the young workers of Moscow identified 97% who had premarital sexual experience. Moreover, if there is nothing surprising in relation to men, since in bourgeois society pre- and extramarital affairs were the norm for them, then the percentage of women testifies to the undermining of the traditional patriarchal values of society. The consequence of the disorderly organization of sexual life was also an unprecedented spread of venereal diseases. The statistics of the military detachments in 1926 revealed a spread in the percentage of cases to those studied from 2.17% in the Pskov province to 30.1% in the Caspian region.
From the freedom of marriage and promiscuity outside of marriage on such a scale follows the problem of the increase in abortions. In 1920, the procedure for artificial termination of pregnancy was legalized. The state sought to build communism, which assumed in relation to children state provision and upbringing, and as long as it could not give it, it was not right to demand from a woman the birth of children. Freedom of childbearing for the Bolsheviks was the main factor in the liberation of women from the "fetters of patriarchal slavery" and equal rights with a man. Also, this measure was necessary to prevent clandestine abortions. Therefore, the woman was given the right to freedom in relation to childbearing. In the context of the degradation of traditional values, the growth of extramarital and premarital relationships, the most difficult economic situation and the threat of starvation has led to a catastrophic increase in abortions, especially in urban areas. In 1924, there were 27 abortions per 100 births in Moscow and 20 in Leningrad, while in 1925 there were already 28 and 42, respectively. “The real tragedies, the real misfortunes, the real death of female youth came from this ...”, wrote A. Lunacharsky. . The influx of people in hospitals was so great that in 1924 abortion commissions were created to establish the order of this procedure.
Another problem, the urgency of solving which in the future prompted the authorities and the public to change course regarding the family and marriage, is the growth in the number of illegitimate children whose mothers did not have the means to support them, which led to a sharp increase in the number of foundlings, overcrowding of orphanages and homes child, homelessness and an increase in juvenile delinquency. The urgency of this problem is also evidenced by the increased attention of women to fatherlessness, the legal status of an illegitimate child, as well as the mechanisms for establishing paternity and paying alimony when discussing reports on the topic of family and marriage at meetings of women's departments.
The state was not economically able to organize the provision and upbringing of children on such a scale, so the only way out of the situation was to strengthen the family. In 1926, a new “Code of Marriage, Family and Guardianship” was adopted, which recognized cohabiting couples as spouses and extended to them all the obligations arising from marriage. The code also determined the procedure for establishing paternity and the obligations of the father in relation to the child. The community of property of the spouses was established. Now, in the event of a divorce, a woman could claim part of the jointly acquired property. The same code expanded maintenance obligations in relation to spouses, parents, children and blood relatives to each other. Also, the new code established a single age of marriage for all at 18 years. In 1926, a ban was introduced on artificial termination of the first pregnancy and on termination of pregnancy more than once every six months, and the propaganda of motherhood, child protection, and traditional family values intensified.
Thus, the new government, in an effort to get rid of the patriarchal way of family and society and thereby accelerate the transition to the communist system, formed legislation and new value orientations based on providing maximum freedom in the field of marriage, divorce and childbearing. In conditions of political instability, economic and social upheavals, a weak material base for supporting reforms (in the form of bodies for the protection and support of motherhood and infancy, the protection of women's labor, the public education of orphans, proper medical care), as well as the ill-conceived family policy and the inconsistency of its goals economic opportunities of the country, society came to an unprecedented chaos of the collapse of old relationships and the spontaneous development of new models of marital behavior. Divorces, life in two families, pair marriages, the displacement of marriage by cohabitation, the spread of venereal diseases, a surge in the growth of abortions, the growth of fatherlessness, child homelessness and crime - all this forced society and the government to take a more balanced attitude to political decisions and ideological decisions by the mid-1920s. work in the field of marriage and family. Has been adjusted the legislative framework and ideological propaganda, taking into account the real possibilities of the state, aimed at maintaining a long-term monogamous union. The ideals of abstinence, asceticism, sacrifice in the name of the family and the child by the end of the 1920s were put in the first place by propaganda. A complete healthy monogamous family was still the basis of society and the only institution capable of fully raising children on a national scale.
Bibliography:
- Gens A. The problem of abortion in the USSR. - M.: State Medical Publishing House, 1929. - 91 p.
- Gernet M.N. Abortion in law and abortion statistics // Abortions in 1925. - M.: TsSU USSR, 1927. - 93 p.
- Hunger, S. I. XX century and trends in sexual relations in Russia. - M.: Aleteyya, 1996. - 192 p.
- The voice of the people. Letters and responses from ordinary Soviet citizens about the events of 1918-1932. / ed. A. K. Sokolova. - M.: ROSSPEN, 1998. - 328 p.
- Code of laws on marriage, family and guardianship of the RSFSR of November 18, 1926 / / SU RSFSR, 1926. No. 82.
- Code of Laws of the RSFSR on acts of civil status, marriage, family and guardianship law of October 22, 1918 / / SU RSFSR. 1918. No. 76 - 78.
- Kollontai A. M. New morality and the working class: Love and new morality. - M.: Publishing house of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets R., K. and K. Deputatov, 1919. - S. 51 - 59.
- Krupskaya N. Marriage and family law in Soviet Russia // Kommunistka. 1920. - No. 3-4. - S. 16-19.
- Lunacharsky A. About life. - L .: State Publishing House, 1927. - 43 p.
- Reports of the department for work among women and protocols of the general delegate women's meetings of the 1st district committee of the city of Vyatka. GASPICO. f. 1, op. 3, d. 234. l. 25 vol.
- Russian state archive socio-political history. f. 17, op. 85, d. 136. l. 64–65.
- Sorokin P. A. Influence of war on the composition of the population, its properties and social organization // The Economist. 1922. - No. 1. - S. 77 - 107.
- Reference book for women. Free supplement to the "Women's Journal" in 1929 - M .: Akts. Publishing house O-vo "OGONEK", 1929. - 264 p.
- Trotsky L. D. Issues of life. The era of "culturalism" and its tasks. - M.: State Publishing House Moscow, 1923. - 164 p.
Where do you see the positive results of continuous collectivization?
What are the negative consequences of Stalinist collectivization?
According to the reports of the GPU, many peasants saw in collectivization a new enslavement. However, the resistance to collectivization was limited, and the collective farm system was established in the countryside for several decades.
Name at least three reasons for successful collectivization. What parallels can be drawn between the collective farm system of the second half of the 1930s? and landlord economy of the period of serfdom? Name at least three common features (parallels).
How did the goals of repression change in the 1920s and 1930s? Why were the so-called "old" Bolsheviks and the top leadership of the Red Army repressed?
What do you understand by the terms centralized system power and control”, “cult of personality”? How were the phenomena reflected in these terms formed? How are these phenomena related?
What is the inconsistency, duality of the Constitution of 1936?
Compare the social policy of the mid-20s. and the period of forced modernization. What were the changes that took place?
Where do you see the positive and negative aspects of the Stakhanovite movement?
What personal qualities and specific actions of Stalin contributed to the formation of the cult of his personality?
Compare the regime of Stalin's personal power with the political regime of the Leninist period.
What achievements of our people in the 30s. can we rightly be proud of?
III level
As I.V. Stalin in 1931, the history of old Russia was that it was constantly beaten for backwardness. Bili Mongolian khans. Turkish beks beat. Beat the Swedish feudal lords. The Polish-Lithuanian khans beat. The Anglo-French capitalists fought. Beat the Japanese barons. They beat everyone - for backwardness. For military backwardness, for cultural backwardness, for state backwardness, for industrial backwardness, for agricultural backwardness, and so on. Further, he noted that we are 50-100 years behind the advanced countries and must cover this distance in 10 years. “Either we do it, or we will be crushed.” The Great Patriotic War began exactly 10 years later. The USSR was not beaten, although they were pretty crushed. Does this mean that the country "ran" 50-100 years, as Stalin predicted, in 10 years?
According to historians O.V. Volobueva and S.V. Kuleshov, the most common are four assessments of the “great turning point” made in our country.
The path was determined basically correctly, although it was carried out with errors.
The path traveled was accompanied by many disasters, but it was impossible to avoid it (the concept of "historical trap").
The NEP option was preferable.
At the turn of the 20s - 30s. no one has been able to find any satisfactory alternative.
Which of the above points of view do you think is the most correct? Why? Perhaps you can offer something of your own?
Keep in mind that during the years of the pre-war five-year plans, agriculture received 680 thousand tractors and 180 thousand combines, while pre-revolutionary Russia was a country of plows, flails. In addition, gross agricultural output on average for the year amounted to 18 billion rubles. in 1909-1913; 22 billion in 1924-1928; 15 billion in 1929-1932; 23.5 billion rubles in 1936-1940
Express your point of view: what is the price of forced modernization? Is it fair to say in this case that "the end justifies the means"? Argument your opinion.
In the 30s. sincere enthusiasm intertwined in the USSR new life and a burst of enthusiasm (the construction of Magnitogorsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Turksib, Dneproges) with the tragedy of unfairly dispossessed peasants, mass famine, political repressions. Why was such a clear paradox possible?
A.I. Solzhenitsyn in his work “The Gulag Archipelago” wrote: “If during mass plantings, for example, in Leningrad, when a quarter of the city was planted, people would not sit in their minks, shivering with horror at every slam of the front door and steps on the stairs, but they would have understood that they had nothing more to lose, and in their anterooms they would cheerfully ambush several people with axes, hammers, pokers, with whatever they had to. After all, it is known in advance that these night caps do not come with good intentions - so you will not be mistaken if you crack at the murderer. Or that funnel with a lone driver left on the street - steal him or pierce the slopes. The authorities would quickly run out of employees and rolling stock, and despite Stalin’s thirst, the damned car would stop!”
Do you think the damn car would stop? Justify your answer.How do you explain the fact that in our society there are still many adherents of Stalin, and not only among the older generation, but also among the youth? What are the goals of modern Stalinists? Do you need to fight them?
Which of the following points of view is correct in your opinion? Explain why.
Stalinism was fatally inevitable, since the very outcome and conditions of the Russian revolution predetermined the establishment of a personal dictatorship.
Stalinism is an accident: if Stalin did not exist, there would be no Stalinism in the history of Russia.
Stalinism has become a possibility: if there had been no Stalin in the history of Russia, then another personal power would have been established, for example, L. Trotsky, because deep civilizational crises, violent social and political revolutions lead to the establishment of the dictatorship of Cromwell, Robespierre, Stalin ...
For 1918 - 1929 9 party congresses and 9 party conferences were held, as well as: 79 plenums of the Central Committee only for 1918 - 1923, 3 congresses and 2 conferences, 16 plenums of the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission for 1930 - 1941.
Data on the participation of the population in elections to city and village councils (in % of total number voters): 1927 - 60% and 50%; 1934 - respectively 90% and 80%, disenfranchised 10% of voters.
The 1936 constitution abolished all restrictions on the electoral system.
Supreme bodies state power(All-Union Congresses of Soviets) from 1922 to 1929 were convened 5 times, from 1930 to 1936. - 3 times. Since 1936, the highest body of the state. authorities - the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and between its sessions - the Presidium of the Armed Forces.
National income (accumulation fund and consumption fund) during the years of the first five-year plan: 1925 - 2.7; 1930 - 5.2; 1931 - 3.9; 1932 - 3.1 billion rubles.
Increase in labor productivity (% in relation to the previous year): 1929 - 15; 1930 - 21; 1931 - 4; 1932 - 0.6.
Accumulation fund:
1925 - 15%; 1930 - 29%; 1931 - 40%; 1932 - 44%.What happened in the 1930s is the only possible, inevitable thing. This is true socialism, and there could be no other way. By 1941, socialism in the USSR had basically been built.
Socialism has not been built. The counter-revolutionary path of Stalin and the huge bureaucratic apparatus was not historically forced and therefore justified. The society built in the 1930s is not socialist.
Analyze data on agricultural production in the 30s.
years | Grain yield (quintals / ha) | Grain harvesting (million tons) | Gross grain harvest (million tons) | Cultivated areas (million ha) | Cattle (million heads ) | Population (million people) |
I.V. Stalin "From a letter to Detizdat under the Central Committee of the Komsomol (1938)". “I strongly oppose the publication of Tales of Stalin's Childhood… The book tends to instill in the minds of Soviet children (and people in general) the cult of personalities, leaders, infallible heroes…. It's dangerous and harmful."
If Stalin opposed the cult of personality, why did the cult of personality still take shape?
What do the numbers below show? Try to explain them.
Draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the system and its relevance to the interests and needs of workers on the basis of the following data:
Experts argue that never in the history of wars has any state known, thanks to its intelligence, as much about the plans of the enemy and his strength as the USSR about Germany in 1941. Why didn’t Stalin and his entourage heed intelligence to increase readiness to repel possible aggression?
Some historians believe that by the end of the thirties there was a crisis in the administrative-command system of managing the economy and the country as a whole, which was partially mitigated by the expansion of the territory of the USSR in 1939-1940. Other historians believe that during this period there was a progressive development of the country, interrupted by an attack Nazi Germany. What do you think about this issue?
Two points of view on the history of the country in the 30s:
Which of the following points of view is correct in your opinion? Why?
Consider that Engels' socialism is: "Association in which the free development of each is a condition for the free development of all."
Soviet culture in 1917-1940.
Topic map 11 "Soviet culture in 1917-1940"
Basic concepts and names:
"cultural revolution"; People's Commissariat of Education (Narkompros); organization of proletarian culture (Proletkult); "Smenovehovstvo"; workers' faculties (workers' faculties); Russian association proletarian writers (RAPP); Left Front of the Arts (LEF); Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR); All-Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (VAPP); atheism; constructivism; points for the elimination of illiteracy (literacy programs); socialist realism (socialist realism); Union of Writers of the USSR; the principle of partisanship in literature; All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. IN AND. Lenin (VASKhNIL).
Main dates:
1919- adoption of the decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population."
1925- the adoption of a law providing for the introduction of universal primary education in the country.
1930- the introduction in the USSR of compulsory universal primary (four-year) education.
1934- I All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers.
Persons:
Lunacharsky A.V.; Krupskaya N.K.; Bogdanov A.A.; Pletnev V.F.; Ustryalov N.V.; Mayakovsky V.V.; Blok A.A.; Yesenin S.A.; Gippius Z.N.; Merezhkovsky D.S.; Bunin I.A.; Bryusov V.Ya.; Brik O.M.; Poor D.; Furmanov D.A.; Pasternak B.L.; Chukovsky K.I.; Bulgakov M.A.; Zoshchenko M.M.; Zamyatin E.I.; Platonov A.P.; M. Gorky; Fadeev A.A.; Sholokhov M.A.; Akhmatova A.A.; Kharms D.I.; Mandelstam O.E.; Sadofiev I.N.; Aseev N.N.; Simonov K.M.; Tvardovsky A.T.; Tolstoy A.N.; Pogodin N.F.; Tsvetaeva M.I.; Prishvin M.M.; Likhachev D.S.; Timiryazev K.A.; Gubkin I.M.; Walden P.I.; Zhukovsky N.E.; Vavilov N.I.; Kapitsa P.L.; Ioffe A.F.; Tsiolkovsky K.E.; Vernadsky V.I.; Zelinsky N.D.; Pavlov I.P.; Bach A.N.; Krylov A.N.; Kurchatov I.V.; Lebedev S.V.; Aleksandrov A.P.; Fersman A.E.; Tupolev A.I.; Ilyushin S.V.; Chkalov V.A.; Grabin V.G.; Degtyarev V.A.; Benois A.N.; Vasnetsov A.M.; Polenov D.A.; Petrov-Vodkin K.S.; Grekov M.B.; Plastov A.A.; Kustodiev B.M.; Falk R.R.; Yuon K.F.; Moore D.S.; Andreev N.A.; Merkurov S.D.; Sherwood L.V.; Mukhina V.I.; Golubkina A.S.; Zholtovsky I.V.; Fomin I.A.; Shchusev A.V.; brothers L.A., V.A. and A.A. Vesnins; Melnikov K.S.; Dovzhenko A.P.; Pudovkin V.I.; Eisenstein S.M.; Meyerhold V.E.; Pyryev I.A.; Gerasimov S.A.; Aleksandrov G.V.; Romm M.I.; Shostakovich D.D.; Prokofiev S.S.; Dunaevsky I.O.; Nezhdanova A.V.; Lemeshev S.Ya.; Kozlovsky I.S.; Ulanova G.S.; Lepeshinskaya O.V.; Isakovsky M.V.; Prokofiev A.A.
Main questions:
The beginning of the "cultural revolution" (in the years civil war).
A new stage of the "cultural revolution" (the years of NEP).
a) Education and science.
b) Literature and art.
Completion of the "cultural revolution" (late 20s - 30s).
a) Ideologization of culture.
b) Education and science.
c) artistic life.
Literature
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, 2001. (CD-ROM for Windows).
Ilyina T.V. Art history. Domestic art. M., 1994.
Maksimenkov L.V. Muddle instead of music: Stalin's cultural revolution 1936-1938. M., 1997.
Planenborg G. Revolution and Culture: Cultural Landmarks Between October Revolution and the era of Stalinism. SPb., 2000.
Pages of domestic artistic culture: 30s. M., 1995.
Reader on the history of Russia in the first half of the XX century / comp. I.S. Khromov. M., 1995.
Multi-level control of knowledge on topic 11 "Soviet culture in 1917 - 1940"
I level
What "cultural revolution"?
Which department dealt with culture after October? Who led it?
What policy did the Bolsheviks pursue towards Russian scientists?
Which of the largest representatives of Russian science began to actively cooperate with the Soviet government?
Which of the representatives silver age”And in what works did he sing of the revolution?
Which of the representatives of the "Silver Age" emigrated from the country after the victory of the Bolsheviks?
What is the essence of the ideology of "Smenovekhovism"?
What were the reasons for the expulsion from the country in the early 1920s of prominent scientists and cultural figures?
What is Proletcult?
In what year was the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the Elimination of Illiteracy" adopted?
What percentage of the population of our country could read and write by the end of the 1920s? 20th century?
Write a transcript of the abbreviation - RAPP, LEF, AHRR.
Who was the director of the famous film of the 20s "Battleship Potemkin"?
What policy did the Soviet authorities pursue towards the Orthodox Church?
What is the name of the direction Soviet culture 30s, which demanded from the authors of works of literature and art not just a description of objective reality, but also a depiction of it in revolutionary development, serving the tasks of “ideological reworking and education of working people in the spirit of socialism”?
What feature films of the 30s do you know?
What was the name of the textbook on the history of the Communist Party, published in 1938 with the personal participation of Stalin, which became the methodological basis for the development of social sciences in the USSR in the late 1930s and early 1950s?
Why are A.V. Nezhdanova, S.Ya. Lemeshev, I.S. Kozlovsky?
Which of the figures of science and culture repressed in the late 1930s can you name?
What changes took place in the 1930s? in the Soviet school?
What are the names of architects of the late 1920s and 1930s that you know?
What Soviet scientists carried out research on problems of microphysics in the 30s?
What is famous for A.I. Tupolev?
II level
What were the features of the spiritual life of the country in the 1920s?
What is the relationship between politics and culture in the 1920s?
Why was atheism the most important ideological principle in the Soviet state?
Indicate the advantages and disadvantages of the cultural life of Soviet society in the 1920s compared to pre-revolutionary Russia.
What kind general processes took place in the 30s in the field of education, science and culture? What were they due to?
Why did the Soviet government establish the most stringent control in the field of humanitarian thought?
Before the revolution, 112 thousand students studied in 91 universities of the country, and in 1927 - 1928 in 148 universities - 169 thousand. At the same time, until 1917, all universities were located on the territory of Russia and Ukraine and only one - in Georgia, and now universities were not only in Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Almost half of the students come from workers and peasants. Their reception was carried out through the workers' faculty. What do these facts indicate? Explain them.
Why, first of all, representatives of the exact and natural sciences came to cooperate with the Soviet authorities?
V. Mayakovsky is talking about the activities of which association: “This is a protocol record of the most difficult three years of the revolutionary struggle, conveyed by stains of colors and the ringing of slogans. These are telegraph tapes, instantly transferred to the poster, these are decrees, immediately published in ditties. This is new form introduced directly by life"?
Where do you see the achievements and shortcomings of the "cultural revolution" in the USSR?
III level
1928 - spending on education in the USSR - 8 rubles a year per capita, in 1937 - 113 rubles.
Over the years of two five-year plans, 40 million people were taught to read and write, literacy in the country reached 81%, in the RSFSR - 88%, Belarus - 81%, Kazakhstan - 84%.
By the end of the 2nd Five-Year Plan, a general elementary education. The task has been set: universal secondary education in the city and seven years in the countryside.
1938 - compulsory study of the Russian language was introduced in all national schools, and since 1940 - teaching foreign languages in secondary schools.
In the mid 30s. in the RSFSR alone, 100,000 teachers were missing, a third of city teachers and half of rural teachers did not have a special education.
1938 - about 1 million teachers worked in Soviet schools, more than half of them were specialists with less than 5 years of experience.
What was the ideological pressure on literary and artistic figures in the 1920s? Express your opinion: why, despite this, were the 1920s a time of creation of outstanding works in various fields of culture?
It is known that many artists created works praising Stalin. Why do you think they did it? Is it possible to assign a certain share of responsibility to the creative intelligentsia for the establishment of a totalitarian regime in the country?
A.M. Gorky lived in Stalin's time. The absolute majority of the intelligentsia praised the "leader of all peoples" without measure. Gorky, even as the head of the Writers' Union, praising the socialist system, never once mentioned Stalin's name and even refused to write his biography. Why? How did he do it? Why, despite such restraint, the writer was not subjected to traditional repression?
Which of the figures of Russian culture of the 1920s and 1930s, in your opinion, is still popular today?
The majority of the Russian intelligentsia before the revolution and especially after it did not accept Lenin's proposals. By the beginning of the 1920s, there were hardly more than 200 thousand people in Russia who could be considered intelligentsia, while the vast majority went into exile. How should you treat people who have left their homeland? Explain your answer. Should citizens have the right to emigrate?
On December 5, 1931, at about 12 noon, several powerful explosions were heard in the center of Moscow. In a little over an hour, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, built with donations from all the people to commemorate the victory over Napoleon, was destroyed. In 1934, the famous Sukharev Tower, the Red Gate in Moscow, was blown up. A similar fate befell other valuable historical and cultural monuments. What is your attitude to the destruction of old monuments? Do you know which monuments were demolished in our city?
The end justifies the means, Stalin believed. And if so, then you can sell the collections of the Hermitage, paintings by Rembrandt, Velasquez, Titian and many other outstanding artists. With this money you can buy tractors, which the country needs very much. What is your attitude towards such actions? Explain why.
In 1933-37. USSR universities graduated 74 thousand specialists annually. By 1938, more students were studying in our universities than in England, Germany, France, Italy and Japan combined. And the number of engineers in the USSR was almost twice the number in the United States. If in 1926 3 million people were mainly engaged in mental work, then in 1939 - 14 million.
In your opinion, can these results be regarded as unconditionally positive? What conclusions should be drawn from these figures?
What conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the data given below on the fulfillment of the task of eradicating illiteracy in the USSR?
Do you think the "cultural revolution" achieved its goal?
The Great Patriotic War. Fighting on the fronts
Topic map 1 “The Great Patriotic War. Fighting on the fronts"
Basic concepts and names:
Blitzkrieg; mobilization; Bid Supreme High Command; State Defense Committee (GKO); civil uprising; soviet guard; strategic initiative; root fracture; surrender.
Main dates:
1944- complete expulsion of the Nazi invaders from the territory of the USSR.
Persons:
A. Hitler; Kuznetsov F.I.; Pavlov D.G.; Kirponos M.P.; Kuznetsov N.G.; Popov M.M.; Tyulenev I.V.; Stalin I.V.; Zhukov G.K.; Timoshenko S.K.; Gavrilov P.M.; Konev I.S.; Panfilov I.V.; Klochkov V.G.; Rokossovsky K.K.; Vatutin N.F.; Eremenko A.I.; Shumilov M.S.; Chuikov V.I.; F. Paulus; Pavlov Ya.F.; Zaitsev V.G.; E. Manstein; Katukov M.E.; Rotmistrov P.A.; Bagramyan I.Kh.; Chernyakhovsky I.D.; Malinovsky R.Ya.; Tolbukhin F.I.; Egorov M.A.; Kantaria M.V.; V. Keitel; Vasilevsky A.M.; Govorov L.A.; Zakharov G.F.; Meretskov K.A.
Main questions:
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The beginning of the Great Patriotic War.
a) Strategic defense of the Red Army.
b) The defeat of the Nazi troops near Moscow.
A radical change in the course of the Great Patriotic War.
a) Battle of Stalingrad.
b) Battle of Kursk.
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The social stand, established in the USSR at that time, was defined essentially as totalitarianism, and in particular as a regime of unlimited personal power of Stalin, who in 1922 was elected its secretary at the 11th Party Congress. The Stalinist regime was characterized by:
1) The cult of personality - the combination of the achievements of the whole people with the name of one person, faith in his infallibility and omnipotence.
2) Mass repressions, the victims of which were:
old intelligentsia. 1928 - "Shakhty case", in which the engineering and technical workers of Donbass were repressed. The beginning of the 1930s - the case of the Industrial Party and the Workers' Peasant Party, in which prominent scientists were shot, in particular Kondratiev and Chelnov
Party and economic cadres. August 1936 - the case of the "Trotskin-Zinoviev center" in which 16 prominent party workers were shot, including Zinoviev and Kamenev. March 1938 - the case of the "Right-Trotsky anti-Soviet bloc" in which 21 party members were shot, including Bukharin and Rykov.
military specialists. 1937-1939 three of the 5 marshals of the USSR (Tukhachevsky, Serov and Blucher) were repressed. Almost all members of the senior command soatava (Yakir, Ugorevich) and half of the middle command staff.
3) The system of forced labor. In 1930, the Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps (GULAG) was created in the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR.
Socio-economic development in 1918-1930s.
The policy of war communism during the civil war of 1918-1920
Maximum centralization of production and management. In December 1917, under the Sov. The People's Commissar created the General Council of the National Economy (VSNKh) with branch departments.
Accelerating the pace of nationalization not only in large but also in small and medium-sized enterprises.
The abolition of money circulation, in January 1919, the surplus appraisal was introduced for the second time (first introduced in 1916) - a system for the procurement of agricultural products when not only surpluses but also the necessary grain and other agricultural products were confiscated from the peasants free of charge, at the same time private trade with /x products.
militarization of labor. In January 1920, general labor service was introduced and the hiring of labor was abolished.
Her results:
By the end of the civil war, the volume of industrial production in comparison with the year 13 was cut by 7 times, and agricultural production by 40%.
An economic and political crisis was born in the country.
Its consequences:
1920-1921 - a mass peasant uprising in Tambov led by Antonov (Antonovshchina), the peasants opposed the food distribution and the power of the Bolsheviks. It was suppressed, one of the leaders of the Red Army was commanded by Tukhochevsky.
February 1921 - an armed uprising of sailors and soldiers in Kronshtat. The Kronstadts were in favor of the soviets, but without the communists. "Power to the Soviets and not to parties" and for the restoration of democratic freedoms.
The crisis of war communism became the reason for the transition to the NEP in 1921-1928.
The commanding heights were reserved for the proletarian state.
Liberalization of the economy. A certain denationalization of medium and small enterprises, which were transferred to private individuals, and on large enterprises, economic accounting was introduced
Money circulation was restored, instead of the direct product-exchange that existed during the period of war communism between the countryside and the city:
a) By decision of the Tenth Congress of the AUCPB (March 1921), instead of prod. Requisitions were introduced prod. A tax, 2 times smaller in size, declared in advance to peasants who received other goods in exchange for agricultural products.
b) In 1922-1924, on the initiative and under the leadership of the People's Commissar for Finance, Sokolnikov G.Ya. a monetary reform was carried out, when the Soviet banknotes were abolished, in exchange for which a stable currency was introduced - a chervonets backed by gold.
c) Restored private trade
Free organization of labor, the abolition of general labor service, permission to hire labor and the opening of labor exchanges.
Her results:
The pre-war level of the economy was reached
Removed the threat of hunger
Increased agricultural productivity
Forced construction of socialism, the Soviet model of industrialization.
Its sources are exclusively internal, the transfer of funds from agriculture to production, the imposition of government bonds on the population, that is, the taxation of citizens increased.
Her personality is fast
Her direction:
Centralized planning for five-year plans.
3 1938-1942 (interrupted by war)
Construction of industrial giants: Dnepro-HPP - the largest power plant in the world, Uralmash, Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works, Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant)
Organization of socialist emulation with the aim of raising the productivity of labour, first in the form of shock work and since 1935 in the form of the Stakhanov movement.
Her results:
Since the late 1930s, the USSR has become an industrial power. A powerful heavy and defense industry was created. Without the industrial transformations of the late 20s and 30s, the USSR would not have won the Great Patriotic War.
During the period between the first and second world wars, its defense potential increased 24 times, and Germany, for example, 2.4 times.
The techno-economic backwardness of the country was overcome
Forced construction of socialism - mass collectivization of agriculture.
Her directions:
The construction of collective farms and state farms, that is, the transfer of agriculture to the rails of large-scale social production.
The liquidation of the kulaks as a class. Not only the prosperous, but also a significant part of medium-sized farms fell under this process, about 3 million peasants became its victims.
The second enslavement of the peasants. During the general passportization in the 1930s, passports were not issued to peasants
To provide technical assistance to the collective farms, state enterprises have been created, for example, Machine and Tractor Stations.
Her results:
By the mid-1930s, the collective farm system had been established in the USSR.
The urban population was provided with a stable supply of food
Increased supplies of agricultural products to the state
In 1932-1933 a massive famine broke out in Ukraine, lower Volga region and North Caucasus
Aggressive kulak revolts constantly arose
In general, by the end of the 1930s, a command-administrative system had developed in the USSR, the basis of which was centralized management of the economy.
In 1938, the “Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” was published, which became the normative book for the network of political education, schools and universities. He gave a Stalinist version of the past Bolshevik Party, far from the truth. For the sake of the political situation, the history of the Russian state was also rethought. If before the revolution it was considered by the Bolsheviks as a "prison of peoples", now, on the contrary, its power and progressiveness of joining various nations and nationalities to it were emphasized in every possible way.
The natural and technical sciences developed more freely. In those years, notable successes were achieved in the field of nuclear physics and electronics (N. N. Semenov, D. V. Skobeltsyn, P. L. Kapitsa, A. F. Ioffe, etc.), mathematics (I. M. Vinogradov, M. V. Keldysh, M. A. Lavrentiev, S. L. Sobolev), physiology (school of academician I. P. Pavlov), biology (D. N. Pryanishnikov, N. I. Vavilov), theory space research and rocket technology (K. E. Tsiolkovsky, Yu. V. Kondratyuk, F. A. Zander). In 1933-1936. the first Soviet rockets launched into the sky. The research of the drifting station "North Pole-1", headed by I.D. Papanin, non-stop record flights of V.A. Chkalov, V.K. Kokkinaki, M.M. Gromov, V.S. Grizodubova gained world fame .
However, the priority for the Soviet leadership was not so much the accumulation of fundamental knowledge or the organization of research enterprises designed for the external effect, but progress in applied sciences that could ensure the technical re-equipment of industry.
The indisputable achievement of domestic scientists was the design of powerful hydraulic turbines and coal combines, the discovery of industrial methods for producing synthetic rubber, high-octane fuel, and artificial fertilizers.
The government invested heavily in the creation of various design bureaus, where the development of new models of military equipment was carried out: tanks (Zh. Ya. Kotin, M. I. Koshkin, A. A. Morozov), aircraft (A. I. Tupolev, S. V. Ilyushin, N. N. Polikarpov, A. S. Yakovlev), artillery pieces and mortars (V. G. Grabin, I. I. Ivanov, F. F. Petrov), automatic weapons (V. A. Degtyarev, F. V. Tokarev).
It experienced a real boom in the 1930s. graduate School. The state, experiencing an acute need for qualified personnel, opened hundreds of new universities, mainly engineering and technical, where six times more students studied than in tsarist Russia. In the composition of the students, the proportion of immigrants from workers reached 52%, peasants - almost 17%. Specialists Soviet style, for the accelerated training of which three times less money was spent compared to pre-revolutionary times (due to a reduction in the period of study, the predominance of evening and correspondence forms), poured into the ranks of the intelligentsia in a wide stream. By the end of the 30s. new replenishment reached 90% of the total number of this social stratum.
Serious changes took place in the secondary school as well. In 1930, universal primary education was introduced in the country, and compulsory seven-year education was introduced in the cities. In May 1934, the structure of the unified general education school was changed. Two steps are abolished and introduced: elementary School- from grades I to IV, incomplete secondary - from grades I to VII and secondary - from grades I to X. The teaching of world and national history was restored, textbooks were introduced on all school subjects, strict timetable.
Finally, in the 30s. illiteracy, which remained the lot of many millions of people, was largely overcome. The all-Union cultural campaign, begun in 1928 on the initiative of the Komsomol, under the motto "Competent, teach the illiterate!" It was attended by hundreds of thousands of doctors, engineers, students, schoolchildren, housewives. The population census in 1939 summed up the results: the number of literates among the population older than 9 years reached 81.2%.
At the same time, the development of writing for national minorities who had never known it was also completed. For the 20-30s. it was acquired by about 40 peoples of the North and other regions.
Explain the meaning of concepts and expressions: "sabotage", repression, "great terror", socialist realism.
1. Explain what is the political meaning of the trials of "bourgeois specialists."
Economy. The economy that had developed by that time is now defined as directive.
She was characterized by:
The State Emblem (image of a sickle and a hammer on the background the globe, in the rays of the sun and framed by ears of corn, with an inscription in the languages of the allied republics “Proletarians of all countries, unite!”) and a flag (golden hammer and sickle, above them a red five-pointed star framed by a gold border on a red rectangular panel) Soviet Union.
In fact, the complete nationalization of the means of production, although the existence of two forms of socialist property was formally legally established: state and group (cooperative-collective farm);
Curtailment of commodity-money relations (but not their complete absence in accordance with the socialist ideal), deformity of the objective law of value (prices were determined in the offices of officials, and not on the basis of market demand and supply);
Extremely rigid centralism in management with minimal economic independence on the ground (in the republics and regions); administrative-command distribution of resources and finished products from centralized funds.
The Soviet model of a directive economy was characterized by the existence of the so-called "subsystem of fear" - powerful levers of non-economic coercion. In August 1932, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR approved the law "On the strengthening of socialist property." According to it, citizens from the age of 12, for example, picking up spikelets on a collective farm field, were declared "enemies of the people" and could receive a sentence of at least 10 years. At the turn of 1932-1933. a passport regime was introduced, separating the village from the city with an administrative wall, because passports were issued only to citizens. The peasants were thus deprived of the right to move freely around the country and were actually attached to the land, to their collective farms.
By the end of the 30s. as a result of mass repressions, the directive economy is becoming more and more distinctly “camp” in appearance. In 1940, the GULAG centralized file included data on almost 8 million people in three categories: those who were imprisoned at that time; who served time and were released; who died in camps and prisons. In other words, during the 10 years of the existence of the Gulag, more than 5% of the entire population of the country stayed behind barbed wire. Camps and colonies produced about half of the gold and chromium-nickel ore mined in the USSR, at least a third of platinum and timber. Prisoners produced approximately one-fifth of the total amount of capital work. Their efforts built entire cities (Magadan, Angarsk, Norilsk, Taishet), canals (White Sea-Baltic, Moscow - Volga), railways(Taishet - Lena, BAM - Tynda).
social structure. The social class structure of society, which by 1939 numbered about 170 million people, consisted of three main elements: the working class - its numbers increased in 1929-1937. almost tripled, mainly due to people from villages, and together with family members made up 33.7% of the total population (in national regions, the growth of its ranks was even more significant: in Kazakhstan - 18 times, in Kyrgyzstan - 27 times), the class of the collective farm peasantry and co-operated handicraftsmen (47.2%), social group employees and intellectuals (16.5%). A small layer of individual peasants and non-cooperative handicraftsmen (2.6%) also remained.
Modern social scientists in the group of employees and intelligentsia single out one more social stratum - the nomenklatura. It included responsible officials of the party and state apparatus of various levels and mass public organizations, who managed all the affairs in the USSR on behalf of the people, alienated in practice from power and property.
The personal income tax is increased. Compulsory subscription to bonds of "industrialization loans" was introduced, which took away a considerable share of wages. And from the end of 1928, city residents were transferred to a rationing system for distributing goods. At fixed prices, they could buy, depending on the established categories, a limited amount of food and industrial goods. The standard of living of the population. Since the end of the 20s. the entire social policy of the Stalinist leadership was subordinated to one goal - to extract additional funds from society for forced industrialization.
In 1929-1930. Moscow workers, for example, received on average per month on cards: bread - 24 kg, meat - 6 kg, cereals - 2.5 kg, butter - 550 g, vegetable oil - 600 g, sugar - 1.5 kg . Card norms of employees were significantly lower. Only scientists were relatively well supplied. In the future, merchandise on cards repeatedly decreased. The situation was somewhat improved by the preserved network of commercial trade (at free prices), the urban collective farm markets opened throughout the country in 1933, as well as ineradicable speculation - illegal private trade.
The situation in the countryside was especially difficult. The peasants received almost nothing from the collective farm cash desks and barns on work days and lived off their subsidiary plots. The famine that struck in 1932-1933. on a village weakened by collectivization, according to various sources, claimed the lives of up to 5 million people. From hunger, cold and overwork, hundreds of thousands of dispossessed people died in remote settlements.
In 1935 the card system was abolished. Soon I. V. Stalin declared that in Soviet country"Life has become better, life has become happier". Indeed, the material situation of urban and rural residents was slowly improving. In the countryside, for example, the consumption of the most important foodstuffs (meat, fish, butter, sugar) increased towards the end of the 1930s. doubled compared to the hungry year of 1933. And yet, Stalin's rosy words were far from the harsh reality - except for the standard of living of the elite, the nomenklatura, which was immeasurably higher than the national average.
Wages of workers and employees in the mid-30s. amounted to about 85% of the 1928 level. During the same time, state prices increased: for sugar - 6 times, bread - 10, eggs - 11, meat - 13, herring - 15, vegetable oil - at 28.
Political system. The essence of the political system in the USSR was determined by the regime of personal power of I.V. Stalin, who replaced the collective dictatorship of the old Bolshevik guard of the Leninist period.
Behind the façade of a purely decorative official power (Soviets at all levels - from the Supreme Soviet to the district and village) was hidden the true supporting structure of the regime of personal dictatorship. It was formed by two systems penetrating the country: party bodies and state security bodies. The former recruited personnel for various administrative structures of the state and controlled their work. Even broader control functions, including supervision of the party itself, were carried out by the state security agencies, which acted under the direct leadership of I.V. Stalin.
The entire nomenklatura, including its core, the partocracy, lived in fear, fearing reprisals, its ranks were periodically “shaken up”, which excluded the very possibility of consolidating a new privileged layer of managers on an anti-Stalinist basis and turned them into mere conductors of will party and state elite headed by I. V. Stalin.
Each member of Soviet society was involved in a hierarchical system of organizations: the elected, the most reliable, from the point of view of the authorities, in the party (over 2 million people) and the Soviets (3.6 million deputies and activists), youth - in the Komsomol (9 million people), children - in pioneer squads, workers and employees - in trade unions (27 million people), literary and artistic intelligentsia - in creative unions. All of them served, as it were, as “transmission belts” from the party and state leadership to the masses, condensed the socio-political energy of the people, which, in the absence of civil liberties, did not find any other legal outlet, and directed it towards solving the “immediate tasks of the Soviet authorities".
Society of State Socialism. Now many are asking the question: what social system was ultimately formed in the USSR by the end of the 1930s? It seems that those historians and sociologists who define it as state socialism are right. Socialism - since the socialization of production took place, the liquidation of private property and the social classes based on it. State - since socialization was not real, but illusory: the functions of disposing of property and political power were carried out by the party-state apparatus, the nomenclature and, to a certain extent, its leader.
At the same time, state socialism in the USSR acquired a distinctly pronounced totalitarian character. In addition to the above-mentioned complete (total) control of the state over the economy, there were other "generic" signs of totalitarianism: nationalization political system, including public organizations, all-pervading ideological control under the conditions of the authorities' monopoly on the media, the virtual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repressions against the opposition and dissidents in general.
Explain the meaning of concepts and expressions: directive economy, card system, "industrialization loans", nomenclature, regime of personal power, state socialism.
1. Fill in the table "Country of victorious socialism: Constitution and reality."
Comparison lines:
1) the political basis of the USSR, the essence of political power,
2) economic basis,
3) social class structure,
4) participation of citizens in political life, rights and freedoms.
2. Compare the social policy of the mid-20s. and the period of forced modernization. What were the changes that took place?
3. Work in groups. Calculate the daily ration of a Moscow worker according to card norms. Using sources, tell us about the life of the peasants - dispossessed, individual farmers, collective farmers. Describe the situation of the Gulag prisoners. Discuss collectively: why were there no mass demonstrations against the authorities in the USSR?
4. Involving information from the course of social science, give a description of the regime of Stalin's personal power. Compare it with the political regime of the Leninist period.
5. Using information from the course of social science, justify or refute the thesis that state socialism in the USSR was a kind of totalitarian state.
6. What are the achievements of our people in the 30s. can we rightly be proud of?
On the main foreign policy direction: the USSR and Germany in the 30s.
Problem. How and why did the role of the USSR change in the international arena in the 1930s?
Remember the meaning of the concepts: fascism, sphere of influence. Answer the questions.
1. Where in the early 30s. Are there hotbeds of international tension?
2. What groups of states can be identified in the international arena in the 30s. (before World War II)
3. What part did the USSR take in the war in Spain?
At the turn of the 20-30s. duality was still characteristic of the Soviet foreign policy. New successes are being achieved along the line of official diplomacy. So, it was possible to restore diplomatic relations with England (1929) and China (1932), defiantly severed earlier on the initiative of the leadership of these countries. In 1932, the USSR concluded a new series of non-aggression pacts with France, Poland, Finland and Estonia.
As for actions along the Comintern line, the failures here did not prevent JV Stalin from concluding in 1928 that "Europe is clearly entering a period of a new revolutionary upsurge." And although this conclusion contradicted reality, the Comintern demanded from the Communist Party in preparation for the "decisive battles of the proletariat" main blow inflict on the Social Democratic parties accused of "assisting the fascists" in order to isolate them from the working masses and establish the undivided influence of the communists there.
Behind all this, one could clearly see a tragic underestimation of the threat posed by the rapidly growing shock forces of world reaction—fascism.
Exacerbation of the international situation. The German fascists, using the deep split of the working class, the dissatisfaction of the masses in the conditions of the world economic crisis of 1929-1933, the help of influential anti-communist forces within the country and abroad, were confidently advancing to power.
In the elections to the Reichstag (parliament) in November 1932, 11.7 million voters voted for the Nazi Party (the Social Democrats received 7.2 million votes, the Communists - 5.9 million). Two months later, in January 1933, German President P. Hindenburg appointed Nazi Fuhrer A. Hitler as head of government (Reich Chancellor).
The fascists immediately set about implementing their programs of arming the country and liquidating bourgeois-democratic freedoms. The foreign policy of the Hitlerite government was subordinated to one goal - preparation for the unleashing of aggressive wars in order to gain dominance over the whole world.
A hotbed of military tension arose in the heart of Europe. Another hearth was already smoldering by that time. Far East: since 1931, Japan waged a war of conquest against China.
By the mid 30s. in the foreign policy of the USSR, the main place is occupied by the problem of relations with the aggressive fascist states (Germany and Italy) and militaristic Japan.
Double diplomacy of Stalin. The Soviet government in December 1933 proposed the creation of a system of collective security through the conclusion of a series of special interstate agreements. They were supposed to guarantee the inviolability of borders and contain obligations for a joint rebuff to the aggressor.
To promote the idea of collective security, the platform of the authoritative international organization - the League of Nations, where the USSR joined in 1934, was actively used. The following year, the Soviet Union signed agreements with France and Czechoslovakia, providing for assistance, including limited military, in the event of an attack by an aggressor. Moscow condemned fascist Italy, which started an aggressive war in Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in 1935, provided massive support - with loans, military equipment, military advisers and volunteers - to China and the anti-fascist forces of Spain, who fought in 1936 -1939 with the army rebel general F. Franco.
These facts are well known. But until recently, we knew practically nothing about the second, behind-the-scenes side of Moscow's foreign policy. Unlike the 20s - early 30s. this line was carried out not through the Comintern (having proclaimed itself since 1935 a supporter of broad anti-fascist fronts with the participation of social democracy, it significantly weakened revolutionary subversive activities in European countries), but through I.V. Stalin - employees of Soviet institutions abroad. She pursued the goal of achieving - in case of insurmountable difficulties in the formation of collective security - certain political agreements with Nazi Germany in order to localize her aggressive aspirations within the framework of the capitalist system, to divert the fire of the outbreak of war from the borders of the USSR .
Western democracies, primarily England, used the means of secret diplomacy in relations with Germany even more vigorously. Their goal was exactly the opposite - to send the Nazi war machine to the East. Soon the official diplomacy of England and France also obeyed this task. “We all know Germany's desire to move to the East,” said British Prime Minister S. Baldwin in 1936. “If it came to a fight in Europe, then I would like it to be a fight between the Bolsheviks and the Nazis.”
Western democracies frankly embarked on the path of appeasement of Nazi Germany, limiting themselves to formal protests whenever the Third Reich took a new step to build up military power and its aggressive aspirations (refusal to pay reparations under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the production of aircraft and tanks banned by it and other military equipment, annexation in March 1938 of Austria).
The Munich conspiracy of England, France, Germany and Italy, aimed at dismembering Czechoslovakia, became the crowning achievement of the disastrous policy of appeasement. In September 1938, Germany received the Sudetenland, where half of Czechoslovakia's heavy industry was located. In March 1939, this state ceased to exist altogether. The Czech Republic was completely ceded to Germany, and Slovakia, which retained the external attributes of sovereignty, was turned into a disenfranchised puppet of Berlin.
Non-aggression pact of 1939. At the turn of 1938-1939. Berlin determined the direction of further expansion. It was planned to capture Poland, and then, having accumulated the necessary forces and strengthened the rear, to oppose France and England. In relation to the USSR, the Nazis took a course towards "staging a new Rapallo stage." Hitler himself described this course in these words, referring to his intention to turn the USSR into a temporary "ally" of Germany striving for world domination and thereby neutralize it for the time being, to prevent Moscow from interfering in fighting on the Anglo-French side.
The seeds of the "new Rapallo" fell on the prepared soil. Despite the failure of the first attempt to “build bridges” between Moscow and Berlin (confidential conversations on this topic were interrupted in mid-1937 at the initiative of the German leadership), I. V. Stalin and his entourage still did not rule out the possibility of rapprochement with Germany as alternatives for another rapprochement—with Western democracies. Meanwhile, the latter became more and more problematic.
The Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations that took place in Moscow in July-August 1939 (first general political, then military missions) revealed tough, uncompromising positions of the parties, which hardly concealed an acute distrust of each other. And it was not accidental. JV Stalin had information about the simultaneous secret negotiations between London and Paris with Berlin, including the intention of England to take another step to appease Germany: to renounce the obligation to protect Poland and carry out at its expense new version"Munich" is already directly at the borders of the USSR. In turn, Western European capitals knew about secret contacts between German and Soviet diplomats of the highest rank (including V. M. Molotov, who headed the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in May 1939). During these contacts, especially intense since July 1939, representatives of the two countries quite quickly found a common language.
In mid-August 1939, JV Stalin made his choice. On August 23, when military negotiations with England and France were still languidly dragging on, V. M. Molotov and German Foreign Minister I. Ribbentrop signed in Moscow a non-aggression pact and a secret additional protocol to it on the division of "spheres of influence" in Eastern Europe. According to the latter, Berlin recognized Latvia, Estonia, Finland, the eastern part of Poland and Bessarabia as the "sphere of influence" of the Soviet Union. In September 1939 this list was supplemented by Lithuania.
Explain the meaning of concepts and expressions: the system of collective security, secret diplomacy, "double diplomacy", the policy of appeasement, the Munich agreement.
1. Give an assessment of the aggravation of the international situation in the 30s. from the position of official diplomacy or from the position of the Comintern.
2. Why in the 30s. Is the struggle for the creation of a system of collective security becoming the main direction of the diplomatic efforts of the USSR? What successes have been achieved on this path?
3. Describe the policy of the USSR and Western democracies towards Nazi Germany. What were the reasons for secret diplomacy in relations with this country?
4. Explain why the Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations ended in failure (July-August 1939).
5. Work in pairs. On behalf of contemporaries of the events, state the arguments for and against the conclusion of a non-aggression pact with Germany. Formulate a conclusion. Will you change your mind if you find out about the secret additional protocol?
6. What are the reasons and consequences of the signing of the non-aggression pact on August 23, 1939 for the USSR? for Germany? for other countries? When answering, use the facts from the course of general history.
On the eve of terrible trials
Problem. How did the USSR prepare for war? Answer the questions.
1. What states and territories became part of the USSR in 1940?
2. When in Nazi Germany was it decided to go to war against the USSR?
3. What events took place in the Red Army in the late 30s?
The beginning of World War II and the Soviet foreign policy. A week after the signing of the pact, Germany attacked Poland. England and France, having been defeated in secret and overt attempts to come to an agreement with Hitler at the expense of the USSR, announced military support for Warsaw. The Second World War. The USSR officially defined its attitude towards the warring states as neutral.
I. V. Stalin considered the main gain from the non-aggression pact to be the strategic pause received by the USSR. From his point of view, Moscow's departure from an active European policy gave the world war a purely imperialist character. The class opponents of the Soviet state mutually exhausted their forces, and it itself got the opportunity to move its own borders to the West (in accordance with a secret agreement with Germany on spheres of influence) and gained time to strengthen its military and economic potential.
In addition, with the conclusion of the pact, it became possible to influence the restless eastern neighbor through Berlin. Behind last years Japan's aggressive policy has already led to two major military conflicts with the USSR (on Lake Khasan in 1938 and on the Khalkhin Gol River in 1939) and threatened with new, even larger clashes.
Japan responded to the event in Moscow even faster and sharper than the Soviet leadership had expected. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact clearly took Tokyo by surprise and seriously undermined its hopes for the help of its strategic ally in hostile actions against the USSR, especially since the latter did not bring success. The Japanese General Staff began to review the plans of the enterprise.
Under the direct influence of the Soviet-German agreements, the political geography was rapidly changing of Eastern Europe. September 17, 1939 Soviet troops entered the eastern lands of Poland, which suffered a complete defeat from Germany. Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were annexed to the USSR - territories that were previously part of Russian Empire, but lost as a result of the Soviet-Polish war of 1920 worthwhile military operations. The central place in them was now occupied by the southern direction - the offensive against the colonial possessions of England and the USA (Malaya, Burma, the Philippines, etc.). Developing success, the USSR in April 1941 signed a neutrality pact with Japan.