It is best to adhere to the generally accepted form of the report on the studies performed. At the top title page the organization, circle, school, etc., where the author of the work studies (studies) is indicated. In the upper third of the sheet, the full name of the topic of the observations is written. Information about the author is placed below (last name, first name, age of the performer or class of his education at the time of handing over the work to the supervisor or submitting it to any competition). The surname, name and patronymic of the head of work (if any) must be indicated. In the middle of the lower part of the sheet, the year of the report is given, which should not be confused with the year of the observations, they may not coincide.
The text is written (printed) only on one side of the sheet. For registration of the report, standard A4 paper is used. The next page should begin with the full title of the completed work. If it includes the names of plants or animals, then it is customary to duplicate them using Latin. Then the sections of the work itself follow.
Place and time of observation. In this section, you need to give the geographical location of the territory in sufficient detail: name the administrative region and district in which your research took place, indicate the natural zone (subzone) in which they are located, provide a description of the landscapes and main biotopes of the area, indicate the timing of the work.
Purpose and objectives of the study. In this section, it is necessary to formulate the main idea of the work, its purpose. It often happens that a brief statement of the purpose of the study to some extent coincides with the title of the work. I would like to draw the attention of those who do not yet have experience in independently developing the goals and objectives of the forthcoming work to this feature.
When the strategic goal is defined, it is necessary to develop research tactics, identify questions that need to be answered and formulate them in the form of specific tasks. They may sound like this:
To study the nature of the distribution of research objects ...
Explore the nature of the interaction...
Monitor daily temperatures...
Determine the qualitative and quantitative composition ... and the like.
Solving specific problems in the course of work will allow you to achieve the desired result - the purpose of the study.
It is very important not to confuse working (research) tasks with technical tasks related to the researcher's self-education. For example, studying the literature necessary for conducting a study, analyzing the material obtained, mastering the methods, etc. are not the working tasks of the study.
In the same section, you can indicate the reason for choosing the topic and its relevance, elaboration by other researchers, and formulate a working hypothesis. It is not necessary to do this when doing academic work. Agree that the relevance of the work of a novice researcher lies mainly in the educational component of his actions and in satisfying his own curiosity. By the way, the last statement is true for the adult scientific community. In any case, remember that this section should not exceed one page (preferably less), and should be placed before the purpose and objectives of the study.
Material and technique. Describe the methodology by which the work was carried out, that is, how the answers were obtained, the questions formulated in the research tasks and what material you managed to obtain. In this paragraph, mainly quantitative data are reported: how many kilometers have been traveled, taking into account (in total and in different biotopes), how many geobotanical sites have been described and in which biotopes, how many daily observations have been made, nests have been examined, etc., that is, the volume of collected material.
The discussion of the results. This is the main part of the work, in which the collected material is presented, its analysis is carried out, a comparative description of the data obtained is given, graphs, tables, diagrams, etc. are provided. At the same time, the graphic material is necessarily commented, and the logical conclusions are argued. Illustrative material is usually divided into two groups: drawings (diagrams, diagrams, graphs, etc.) and tables. Numbering of figures and tables is separate. Illustrations are placed in the text near the place of their first mention. Numbers and titles of tables and figures are printed above them. The name should include a semantic part (what this material reflects) and an address part (where and when the material was collected). The work should not contain embellishing lustrations, for example, landscape photographs of the research site, portrait photographs of research objects, and even more so of the author of the work. When selecting figures, it is necessary to proceed from their expediency in the argumentation of the research material. It is not recommended to cite work tables in the text (including in the appendix). Working tables are usually called tables in which the primary material of the study is entered. In the text of the work, tables containing the analyzed, generalized results of the study, which serve as confirmation of the provisions of the work, will be appropriate. If necessary, this section of the work is divided into subsections.
Findings. They contain a brief summary of the main results of the work, which follow from the material presented in the previous section. Conclusions should correspond to the stated purpose of the study and the tasks set. In fact, the conclusions are the answers to the questions of the research tasks. Naturally, you understand that the word "questions" in this context is somewhat broader than just a phrase with a question mark at the end. That is why work tasks are rarely formulated in interrogative form. As a rule, the conclusions quantitatively coincide with the tasks set in the study, there may be more of them, but it is not worth artificially increasing this section with a large number of small conclusions. If there are fewer conclusions than the tasks were set, this means that the study has not been fully completed.
Applications. This section contains large tables, graphs, figures and other graphic materials, which for one reason or another are inconvenient to place in the text of the main section. All of them, regardless of which section of the work they are in, are assigned their own serial number. The numbering of tables and figures in this case is end-to-end - Appendix No. ... All of them, except for the number, are given a specific name. And in the work itself, it must be indicated which of the tables or figures should be referred to at one time or another while reading the text.
Literature. Keep in mind that the object of your observations is unlikely to have come to the attention of a naturalist for the first time. It would be nice to get acquainted with the articles and books available on this problem and supplement the report with a comparison of our observations with the literature data. Reference to the used literature is made as follows.
Example one. “This method of study was used even (1946) in the study…”. The numbers in parentheses indicate the year of publication of the work you are citing. The author's surname and year of publication will help the reader to find the full title of the article or book in the bibliography at the end of the report.
Second example. "This approach to taking soundings is described in detail in the literature (Oshmarin, Pikunov, 1990)". In this case, the names of the authors and the year of publication of the cited work are indicated in brackets. Note that in this case the initials of the authors are omitted. If a reference is made to several literary sources at once, then the next one is indicated after a semicolon (;) inside the same brackets. Try to place links of this kind at the end of sentences.
Third example. “The tendency of this species to settle in groups was also noted in other parts of its range - in the Subpolar Urals (Bobrinsky et al., 1965), in the Yenisei taiga (personal communication) and in Tuva (Sidorov, 1990c).” In this case, the references are given sequentially, since the phrase contains a listing of natural regions studied by various authors. This example shows how you can refer to data that has not yet been published, naturally with the permission of the author of the observations. If the cited source has more than two authors, only the first one can be indicated in the reference, but all of them will need to be indicated in the bibliographic list. If for a comparative analysis of your material you use several works of the same author published in the same year, then letters are added to the year of publication, which will allow you to determine which of his articles you are citing.
Fourth example. “Information about the biology of the species is given in the book “Hunting Animals and Birds” (1968). However, the full name of the cited source is rarely given in the text. This is allowed in cases where it is justified from an informative point of view or makes the text more readable.
The bibliographic list of used literature is given in the last section. It is arranged in alphabetical order, starting with the last name of the author of the article or book. For example:
, Sanin of various ways of counting the elk // Biological bases for accounting for the number of hunting animals. Tver. 1990. S. 4 - 21.
Formozov tracker. M.: Publishing House of Moscow. University of Moscow State University. 19s.
Chelintsev winter route accounting of game animals // Bull. MOIP, dep. biol., 1999, v. 104, no. 6. P. 15 - 21.
The sign "//" separates the title of the article from the title of the collection in which it is published. In a number of editions, they are replaced by another frequently used option for indicating punctuation marks at the end of the article title - a dot and a dash (. -). In particular:
, 1990. Analysis of different ways of counting elk. - In: Biological bases for accounting for the number of game animals. Tver. pp. 4 – 21.
In any case, the range of pages that the article occupies must be given. If it is published in any periodical, the number (volume) of the corresponding issue is indicated. When referring to the entire book, the total number of pages is reported. After the title of the book write the name of the city in which it was published. In the case of Moscow and St. Petersburg (Leningrad), abbreviations are used (M. or St. Petersburg (L.), respectively), in other cases the name is given in full.
In collections or magazines, unlike books, the name of the publisher is usually not indicated. Some editorial boards also refused to mention the publisher in the cited books. If it is given, then usually through a colon (:) after the name of the city.
, 1952. Pathfinder's Satellite. Moscow: MOIP, 360 p.
, 1990. Pathfinder's Satellite. Moscow: Moscow State University (or Publishing House of the Moscow University), 320 p.
, 1968. Hunting animals and birds. M.: Lesn. prom., 308 p.
This example suggests that the book was published in 1952 by the publishing house of MOIP (Moscow Society of Naturalists) on 360 pages and in 1990 by the publishing house of Moscow State University (Moscow State University) on 320 pages, and the monograph was published by the publishing house "Forest Industry ".
Thanks. Young researchers should not forget about scientific ethics. Someone helped to organize research, advised, helped to establish the species of hard-to-identify objects, etc. These people, mentors and colleagues, should be thanked for their help. Acknowledgments are usually written very briefly, in one or two sentences, and are placed either at the end of the Material and Methods section, or at the end of the work, but before the appendices and bibliographic list. Acknowledgments are usually italicized in many scientific journals. Small differences in the design of the work may depend on your personal style, the nature of the work, the scientific school to which you and your supervisor belong. The main thing when writing a research paper is to preserve the general principle of its construction and not lose the logic of the presentation of the material.
Why ordering a test is easier than doing it yourself
Independent solution of control tasks often causes difficulties, especially if the student is studying the exact sciences: mathematics, physics, astronomy. One thing is a test, where the correct answer is often chosen intuitively. It is quite another thing to carry out a written decision, which shows the logic of reasoning, the ability to stay within the limits of discipline, the ability to experiment and general intellectual abilities.
What difficulties do you face when doing R&D on your own?
The implementation of research and development work is associated with the creation of theoretical and practical parts. They are quite voluminous. In the first part, the student shows how well he knows the theory, and in the second, he applies knowledge in practice. Both parts should be logically connected.
In the scientific community, not only the ability to discover new things is valued, but also to analyze the results obtained using various methods: statistical, factorial, cluster and regression analysis, etc. You need to think globally, understand the topic well and look into the future.
Research is carried out in the form of a control, abstract, report or project. Each of the types requires taking into account the special requirements of the teacher and educational institution, the characteristics of the subject and design.
How do we help with research work?
We offer the right experts for you
We establish direct communication between the customer and the contractor
We give a guarantee for the work performed
How to avoid difficulties with R&D?
Difficulties with writing and designing a research paper can be avoided if you turn to Studently experts for help.
They have enough knowledge and skills to quickly and efficiently cope with a large amount of work. It doesn't matter if it's practice or theory. They do not just record the results, but also evaluate and systematize them.
Topic 2. Stages of research work
Stages of research work. Feasibility study (feasibility study) of the topic. Justification of the relevance and significance of the work for the industry and the national economy of the country. Solution methods, tasks and stages of research. Estimated (potential) economic effect. Estimated social outcomes. Feasibility study approval. The purpose of theoretical research. Substantiation of the physical model, development of the mathematical model. Analysis of preliminary results. Methodological instructions for conducting the experiment. Working plan of experimental works. Introduction of fundamental and applied scientific research into production. State tests.
Federal Law "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" dated August 23, 1996 N 127-FZ (current version, 2016)
Types of R&D and their main stages
Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied.
Types of research work
| Research types | Research results |
| Fundamental R&D | Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research |
| Exploratory research | Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns |
| Applied Research | Permission of specific scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods. Determining the possibility of conducting R & D (experimental design work) on the subject of research |
Fundamental and prospecting works are usually not included in the product life cycle. However, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into R&D projects.
Applied research is one of the stages of the product life cycle. Their task is to answer the question: is it possible to create a new type of product and with what characteristics?
The procedure for conducting research is regulated by GOST 15.101-98.
The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.
Stages of scientific research and their summary.
Any particular study can be presented as a series of steps.
1. Choice of research topic.
2. Definition of the object and subject of research.
3. Definition of goals and objectives.
4. Formulation of the title of the work.
5. Development of a hypothesis.
6. Drawing up a research plan.
7. Work with literature.
8. Selection of subjects.
9. Choice of research methods.
10. Organization of research conditions.
11. Research (collection of material).
12. Processing of research results.
13. Formulation of conclusions.
14. Registration of work.
Each stage has its own tasks, which are often solved sequentially, and sometimes simultaneously.
Choice of research topic. Scientific research always involves the solution of some scientific problem. Lack of knowledge, facts, inconsistency of scientific ideas create grounds for scientific research. The formulation of a scientific problem involves:
Detecting the existence of such a deficit;
Awareness of the need to eliminate the deficit;
Formulation of the problem.
It is preferable to investigate those problems in which a person is more competent and which are related to his practical activities (sports, educational, organizational, teaching or technical, etc.). At the same time, the proposed topic must be assessed from the point of view of the possibility of conducting an experiment, i.e. the presence of a sufficient number of subjects to form experimental groups (experimental and control), research equipment, create appropriate conditions for conducting the process in the experimental group, etc.
Help in choosing a topic can be provided by viewing catalogs of defended dissertations, review publications in special scientific and methodological periodicals.
The topic should be relevant, i.e. useful to meet the scientific, social, technical and economic needs of society.
Definition of the object and subject of research. An object research is process or phenomenon, which are selected for study, contain a problem situation and serve as a source of information necessary for the researcher. (Technological process, managerial task, social issues of employees).
However, it is recommended that the object of study be formulated not indefinitely broadly, but in such a way that it is possible to trace the circle of objective reality. This circle should include thing as the most important element, which is characterized in direct relationship with other constituent parts of a given object and can be unambiguously understood only when compared with other aspects of the object.
The subject matter is more specific and includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this work.
From what has been said, it follows that object what is being investigated is the subject, and that which receives a scientific explanation in this object is the subject. Exactly thing research defines the research topic. For example: “The effect of adding cumin essential oil for the expiration date(or: palatability) sausage products (Hungarian sausages) ».
Definition of purpose and objectives. Based on the object and subject, you can begin to determine the purpose and objectives of the study. The goal is formulated briefly and extremely precisely, in a semantic sense expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do, what end result he is striving for. The purpose of research within the framework of term papers and theses can be the development of new product formulations, new methods for determining the components of food products, the introduction of new components into food products, the development of functional nutrition formulations, etc.
The goal is concretized and developed in the objectives of the study.
Several tasks are set, and each of them, with a clear formulation, reveals the side of the topic that is being studied. When defining tasks, it is necessary to take into account their interconnection. Sometimes it is impossible to solve one problem without first solving another. Each task must have a solution reflected in one or more conclusions.
The first task, as a rule, is associated with the identification, clarification, deepening, methodological justification of the essence, structure of the object under study.
The second is related to the analysis of the real state of the subject of research.
The third task is related to the transformation of the subject of research, i.e. identifying ways and means of increasing the efficiency of improving the phenomenon or process under study (for example, developing an experimental methodology for introducing a new component).
The fourth - with an experimental verification of the effectiveness of the proposed transformations.
Tasks should be formulated clearly and concisely. As a rule, each task is formulated in the form of an assignment: “Study...”, “Develop...”, “Reveal...”, “Establish...”, “Justify...”, “Define... ”, “Check…”, “Prove…”, etc.
Formulation of the title of the work. Having defined the topic and specific tasks, specifying the object and subject of research, it is possible to give the first version of the wording of the title of the work.
The title of the work is recommended to be formulated as briefly as possible, exactly in accordance with its content. It must be remembered that the subject of research should be reflected in the title. Vague wordings should not be allowed in the title of the work, for example: "Analysis of some questions ...", as well as stamped wordings such as: "To the question of ...", "To the study of ...", "Materials to ..." .
Finding a complete and concise wording right away is not an easy task. Even in the course of research, new, better names may emerge.
Hypothesis development. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption that requires experimental verification and theoretical justification, confirmation. Knowledge of the subject of research allows us to put forward a hypothesis. All hypotheses are divided into descriptive and explanatory. The first describes the relationship between the quality under study and the result of experimental activity (for example: essential oils have antimicrobial activity - can increase the shelf life by suppressing pathogenic microorganisms;) the second - explanatory - reveals internal conditions, mechanisms, causes and effects.
Sources for developing a hypothesis can be generalization of experience, analysis of existing scientific facts and further development of scientific theories. Any hypothesis is considered as an initial canvas and a starting point for research, which may or may not be confirmed.
Drafting a research plan. The research plan is a planned action program that includes all stages of work with the definition of calendar deadlines for their implementation. The plan is necessary in order to properly organize the work and give it a more purposeful character. In addition, he disciplines, makes you work in a certain rhythm.
In the course of work, the initial plan can be detailed, supplemented and even changed.
Literature work. The place of this stage of work is determined conditionally, since in reality the work with literature begins in the process of choosing a topic and continues until the end of the study. The effectiveness of working with literary sources depends on the knowledge of certain rules for their search, the appropriate methodology for studying and taking notes. A "literary source" is a document containing any information (monograph, article, theses, book, etc.).
Selection of subjects. Any study is ultimately comparative.
You can compare the results of the experimental system (sausage product) i.e. system in which the new component was used, with the results of the control system (in which the usually accepted recipe was saved for comparison).
You can also compare the results of "today's" studies with the results that were obtained earlier (for example, the same material - a sausage product, with the addition of dry cumin or other essential oils)
Finally, you can compare the results obtained on this model with those standards that exist in the food industry.
It is known that any research is carried out on a relatively small number of models. At the same time, conclusions are drawn in relation to all similar systems (all sausages of the same grade). Such a transfer of experimental results is based on the statistical law of large numbers. The objective effect of this law makes it possible to use the sampling method in statistics, in which not all units of a particular population are studied, but only a selected part of them. In this case, the generalized characteristics of the selected part (sample population) apply to the entire population (general population). The main requirement for the sample is that it should maximally reflect the features of the general population (ie, be representative - representative).
Using the sampling method, each experimenter solves two problems: what choose as research and how many they must be chosen.
Choice of research methods. A research method is a way of obtaining the collection, processing or analysis of data. Various methods of scientific knowledge from other areas of science and technology are widely used in research. On the one hand, this phenomenon can be considered positive, since it makes it possible to study the issues under study in a comprehensive manner, to consider the diversity of connections and relationships, on the other hand, this diversity makes it difficult to choose methods appropriate for a particular study.
The main guideline for choosing research methods can be its tasks. . It is the tasks set before the work that determine the ways to solve them, and therefore the choice of appropriate research methods. At the same time, it is important to select methods that would be adequate to the uniqueness of the phenomena being studied.
In the practice of conducting research in the food industry aimed at solving various problems, the following methods are most widely used:
Analysis of scientific and methodological literature, documentary and archival materials;
Poll (conversation, interview and questioning);
Control tests (testing);
Expert assessment;
Observation;
Experiment;
Methods of mathematical processing.
These groups of methods are closely related. They cannot be used in isolation. For example, to conduct an observation or experiment, it is necessary to first obtain information about what is already in practice and theory, that is, use the methods of analyzing scientific and methodological literature or a survey. The factual material obtained during the research will not be reliable without the methods of mathematical processing.
The essence of any experiment is a combination of several of these methods.
Organization of research conditions. The organization of the experiment is associated with the planning of its implementation, which determines the sequence of all stages of work, as well as with the preparation of all conditions that ensure a full-fledged study. This includes the preparation of the appropriate environment, raw materials, instruments, means, instruction of assistants, planning of observations, selection of experimental and control groups, evaluation of all the features of the experimental base, etc.
For a successful experiment, certain conditions are necessary: the presence of a base (----), appropriate inventory (-----). The question of the place of the experiment in practice, especially at the initial stage, is most often decided on the basis of the personal agreement of the experimenter (for example, the technologist-director of the company). In all cases, the permission of the head of the organization in which the experiment is supposed to be carried out must be obtained for the experiment.
Conducting research. At this stage of work, using the selected research methods, the necessary empirical (experimental) data are collected to test the hypothesis put forward.
Initial, intermediate and final studies provide for obtaining indicators using methods for collecting current information, and conducting classes ensures the direct implementation of the intended process (the use of new tools, methods, etc.).
The time intervals between the initial, intermediate and final studies are extremely variable and depend on many reasons (tasks and research methods, real conditions for organizing the experiment, etc.).
The study is carried out on the basis of the general program of the experiment, the programs of conducting classes in the experimental and control groups, as well as the program of conducting observations.
The program indicates the content and sequence of all actions(what, where, when and how will be carried out, observed, verified, compared and measured; what will be the procedure for measuring indicators, their registration; what equipment, tools and other means will be used; who will perform the work and what).
Processing of research results. Primary data processing. It is important to process the results of each study as soon as possible after its completion, while the experimenter's memory can suggest those details - which for some reason are not fixed, but are of interest for understanding the essence of the case. When processing the data collected, it may turn out that they are either not enough, or they are contradictory and therefore do not give grounds for final conclusions. In this case, the study must be continued, making the required additions to it.
In most cases, it is advisable to start processing with the compilation of tables (pivot tables) of the received data.
For both manual and computer processing, initial data is most often entered into the original pivot table. Recently, computer processing has become the predominant form of mathematical and statistical processing, so it is advisable to enter all the features you are interested in in the table in the form of a decimal number. This is necessary because the data format for most used computer programs imposes its own limitations.
Mathematical data processing. To determine the methods of mathematical and statistical processing, first of all, it is necessary to evaluate the nature of the distribution for all the parameters used. For parameters that have a normal distribution or close to normal, you can use parametric statistics methods, which in many cases are more powerful than non-parametric statistics methods. The advantage of the latter is that they allow testing statistical hypotheses regardless of the form of distribution.
The most important statistical characteristics are:
a) arithmetic mean
b) standard deviation
c) coefficient of variation
Focusing on these characteristics of the normal distribution, one can estimate the degree of closeness of the considered distribution to it.
One of the most common tasks in data processing is to evaluate the validity of differences between two or more series of values. In mathematical statistics, there are a number of ways to solve it. The computer variant of data processing has now become the most common. Many statistical applications have procedures for estimating differences between parameters of the same sample or different samples. With a fully computerized processing of the material, it is not difficult to use the appropriate procedure at the right time and evaluate the differences of interest.
Formulation of conclusions. Conclusions are statements that briefly express the meaningful results of the study, they reflect in the thesis form what is new that the author himself has obtained. A common mistake is that the author includes in the conclusions generally accepted in science provisions that no longer need proof.
The solution of each of the tasks listed in the introduction should be reflected in the conclusions in a certain way.
Registration of work. The main task of this stage of work is to present the results obtained in a publicly accessible and understandable form, allowing them to be compared with the results of other researchers and used in practice. Therefore, the design of the work must comply with the requirements for works sent to print (qualification work-requirements).
An approximate list of works at different stages of research is given in the table.
Stages of R&D and the scope of work on them
| Stages of research | Scope of work |
| Development of technical specifications (terms of reference) for research | Scientific forecasting Analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research Study of patent documentation Accounting for customer requirements |
| Choice of research direction | Collection and study of scientific and technical information Compilation of an analytical review Conducting patent research Formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR of R&D and their comparative assessment Selection and justification of the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems Comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of R&D results with existing indicators similar products Evaluation of the estimated economic efficiency of new products Development of a general methodology for conducting research Preparation of an interim report |
| Theoretical and experimental studies | Development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions |
| Identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values of the parameters necessary for calculations | |
| Development of a methodology for experimental studies, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment | |
| Conducting experiments, processing the obtained data | |
| Comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies | |
| Correction of theoretical models of the object Conducting additional experiments if necessary | |
| Conducting feasibility studies Preparation of an interim report | |
| Generalization and evaluation of research results | Summarizing the results of the previous stages of work Evaluation of the completeness of solving problems development of recommendations for further research and R&D development of a draft TOR for R & D preparation of the final report Acceptance of R&D by the commission |
The development of a new recipe at food industry enterprises ends with the preparation of regulatory documents (TU, STO); obtaining Certificates, Declarations; making amendments to the technological process (if required) - writing instructions, etc.
The researcher must write the paper logically, correctly using the necessary terminology, and during the defense clearly state his thoughts and give specific arguments. R&D has several classifications:
- fundamental, the acquisition of new theoretical knowledge, scientific data and patterns in the area under study;
- search, development of the latest formation forecasts in science and technology, as well as the search and discovery of patterns that did not exist;
- applied, solving certain scientific problems to create new solutions (development of methods, recommendations and step-by-step instructions).
Compiling a scientific work, the student must independently conduct research that can solve specific problems. The work should fully reveal all the accumulated knowledge and skills of the student. R&D sets certain goals for the student, which are important to consider when researching and writing all the material:
- develop skills for independent research that can be applied to solve actual problems;
- a thorough study of existing works, both in our country and abroad;
- the ability to independently study the chosen problem;
- demonstration of skills to analyze and systematize the data obtained during the research;
- develop an interest in R&D.
As soon as the student receives the assignment, he should familiarize himself with it and, if necessary, do not hesitate to ask questions. There is no need to postpone the work for later, as it can be delayed. It is necessary to work on scientific work regularly, qualitatively fulfilling all the tasks and recommendations of the head. R&D needs to be done regularly and given a lot of time, but it's worth it, because in just a few semesters you can get really high-quality work. It is important not to get upset if something does not work out, because everyone is learning and there is nothing to worry about. The student needs to remember four basic rules that will help to successfully cope with the task:
- work regularly;
- the leader does not have to completely direct all the steps of the student;
- do not hesitate to take the initiative;
- understand that everyone has the right to make mistakes.
Theme, task and material of the research work
Subject- this is a very broad understanding, which may change in the course of writing the work. The topic can be directed in any direction convenient for the student, so that it favorably emphasizes his knowledge and understanding in the chosen work.
Task- this is a more specific concept, since it has a clear statement, it is also called DNA (what is Given, what is to be found and what are the Criteria for solving the problem). Tasks are more complex and easier, the leader independently chooses the student based on his skills.
Material This is information that is provided exclusively in electronic form. This may be a proof of a theorem, various graphs, a draft report, the results of experiments and experiments. Over the years of study, the student must learn to present their work in the format that is required.
Selecting an appropriate research topic
Two practical steps have been developed to help you choose the right topic for writing a scientific work. A teacher can choose a topic for a student, or he chooses a topic on his own, depending on his knowledge and preferences. The choice can be made in favor of many sciences:
- mathematics ("Limiting figures", "Dense packings and periodicity", "Trigonometry and complex numbers", "Equations and systems", "Mathematics and music", etc.);
- physics (“Structure of the Galaxy”, “Influence of the moon”, “Space masers”, “Ionic layers of the space system”, “Problem of launching the Republic of Belarus into space”, etc.);
- physics and chemistry (“General physics, chemistry and development of physical chemistry”, “Limits of the Periodic system”, “Dense packings, shells and nuclei”, “Ionization and dissociation energies”, etc.);
- chemistry (“The past and future of periodic systems”, “Chemistry as the basis of biology”, “The concept of phlogiston as an electron”, “Chemistry and transformations of sugar”, etc.);
- biology ("Classes of Plants", "Mysteries of Sleep", "Analysis of Mortality", "Electrograms of Various Organs", "Vavilov-Lysenok Project", etc.);
- biology and chemistry (“The need for potassium content in the body”, “The role of radioisotopes in biology”, “The development of the green revolution”, “Main causes of death”, etc.);
- man, society, state (“Nervous and Mental Diseases and Disorders”, “German Psychology, Goethe's Analysis”, “SOS-Complex”, “Right of Offense”, “Rights of Students”, etc.);
- introduction to economics;
- story.
Research structure
All scientific work must be drawn up in accordance with established standards, so it must be presented in this way:
- title page (the first page filled out according to certain rules);
- content (second page, chapters and paragraphs with their corresponding pages are indicated on it);
- introduction (the problem is indicated, as well as its relevance and practical significance of the problem);
- the main part (it is necessary to fully reveal the essence of scientific work);
- conclusion (succinctly formulate the conclusion of the material);
- conclusion;
- Bibliography;
- applications.
How to write a research paper correctly
Experienced specialists have developed a single correct algorithm that will help you write a high-quality research paper. The student should carefully study this development and adhere to these recommendations. Then he will be able to carry out his plan without any problems:
- it is necessary to collect all available information on this issue;
- conduct a thorough analysis and summarize the knowledge gained;
- develop a well-planned action plan;
- choose a method for conducting research;
- conduct research;
- carefully process the information received;
- it is necessary to arrange the material in writing in the form of a holistic text;
- submission of work for review;
- granting for protection;
- work protection.
Research work (R&D) - how to write correctly updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru
R&D is Research and Development Works (abbreviation of the name by the first letters: "N", "I", "O", "K", "P")Research and Development (R&D) or R&D (Research and Development* (English))- this is a set of activities / services, including both scientific research, experiments, search, research, and the production of experimental and small-scale product samples (prototypes or test samples), prior to the launch of a new product / service or technology / system into industrial production. Expenditure on R&D (Research and Development Works) is an important indicator of the innovative activity of a company or enterprise. However, R&D expenses are recognized whether they are positive or not.
To carry out R&D, it is required to allocate budgets (financing) for R&D, as well as the availability of highly qualified personnel whose tasks include the implementation of the R&D complex. R&D activities should be carried out in accordance with a clear action plan broken down into stages.
Very often, R&D works and services (Scientific Research and Development Works) are accompanied by the following types of work:
What is the main difference between R&D and other activities?
The main difference between research and development (R&D) and related activities at the enterprise is the presence of an element of novelty in the development. At the same time, we are talking about the creation (development) of a new type of technology, product, service, etc.
What is R&D for?
R&D can reduce the costs of enterprises after the introduction of innovations, increase the velocity of capital circulation, bring a new product or service to the market, reducing risks, etc.
A little history about R&D and attitude to it
Until recently R&D considered as one of the areas of activity of commercial organizations. However, since the mid-90s of the last century, R&D has become an independent type of business. A large number of companies appeared that carried out research and development work for various economic entities (including the state). In Russia, such organizations include numerous research institutes, design bureaus, scientific departments of universities, etc.
Global R&D market, general trends in R&D market dynamics
According to research institutes, global spending on R&D is on the rise around the world and represents a market worth more than a trillion USD (US dollars). The first places in terms of R&D are occupied mainly by countries with developed economies, such as the USA, Japan, Great Britain, European countries, etc. (their market shares and positions in the ranking are constantly changing).
Recently, emerging economies such as China and India have become very active. Russia is among the top ten world leaders in R&D and its share in the R&D services market is constantly increasing.
Thanks to the choice of a development course with a focus on the domestic market (import substitution), Russia has a special and paramount interest in the development of the R&D market.
BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS IN THE DIRECTION OF R&D
Scientific development
Scientific development- carried out by order of a company / firm and / or their organizations, may differ in the following types of work: research (R&D), experimental design (R&D), technological work, or other research work aimed at obtaining and using new knowledge on activities of a given company or organization (hereinafter abbreviated as R&D).
Innovation - innovation
Innovation activity- activities that result in the creation of a particular new product, the creation or improvement of existing technology, the development of new equipment, automation tools, software systems, organizational and management decisions in the structure of an organization / company.
R&D life cycle
R&D life cycle- the period from the beginning of scientific research to the termination of obtaining useful results from the use of this development.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of R&D
At evaluating the effectiveness of R&D the calculation period is used, which is divided into steps (0.1...) and measured in years. It includes the following stages: scientific research, development work, manufacturing of industrial designs, mass production, use of manufactured products or technologies in industrial and economic practice, elimination (utilization) of products.
For scientific developments not related to the creation of new technology, the calculation period usually includes scientific research and the direct use of its results of proposals in the production and economic activities of the company / enterprise.
R&D performer
R&D performer- a scientific, design or engineering organization that is one of the parties to a contract for scientific development concluded with a company or organization and/or its subsidiaries/enterprises.
R&D efficiency
R&D efficiency- the effectiveness of scientific development is understood as a category that reflects the compliance of this development with the goals and interests of the company/enterprise-customer of R&D.
Types/Types of R&D Efficiency
There are different types of R&D efficiency:
Each of the types of efficiency is characterized by different indicators or forms of manifestation of efficiency.
R&D Implementation Program
R&D System Implementation Program- a set of technical, economic and organizational measures, providing for the practical use of scientific results. It includes, in the general case, economic justifications, R&D, production of prototypes, testing of new equipment, its experimental use in organizations, serial production, mass use, maintenance, repair and disposal (liquidation).
Investments
Investments- cash, securities, other property, including property rights, other rights having a monetary value, invested in objects of entrepreneurial and (or) other activities in order to make a profit and (or) achieve another beneficial effect.
Operating (current) expenses
Operating (current) costs of production and sales of products- economically justified costs associated with the production and sale of products, determined in accordance with the rules of accounting.
Cash flow
Cash flow (net cash receipts, real money balance, net income)- the difference between the inflow and outflow of funds for the billing period. When calculating R&D cash flows, only cash inflows and outflows associated with this R&D and its implementation are taken into account.
Cash inflow
Cash inflow from operating activities- the total amount of cash receipts from the results of the implementation of R&D.
Cash outflow
Cash outflow- expenses associated with R&D and its implementation.
Discounting
Discounting- bringing the income or expenses of future years to the present (or other - base) point in time. It is carried out in the course of efficiency calculations by multiplying the corresponding values of income or expenses by discount factors. The value of these coefficients depends on the discount rate (E) established by the enterprise and the time of use of the R&D results.
The integral effect of R&D
Integral effect of R&D (net present value)
The integral effect of R&D (net present value) is the sum of discounted cash flows from scientific development and the full implementation of the program for implementing its results over the entire life cycle of this development.
R&D efficiency index
R&D efficiency index = ratio of the integral effect of R&D to:
a) discounted costs of R&D;
b) discounted costs for conducting and implementing R&D.
The first indicator (a) is used, as a rule, when ranking the effectiveness of scientific research.
The main goal of the R&D rules is to create conditions for the concentration of financial and other resources of the organization on the most effective scientific developments and the productive use of their results, which increases the efficiency of the use of funds invested in R&D.
Typical areas of application of R&D rules in an enterprise: The main goal of the R&D rules is to create conditions for the concentration of financial and other resources of the enterprise on the most effective scientific developments and the productive use of their results, which increases the efficiency of the use of funds invested in R&D at the enterprise. The rules provide for the establishment of uniform corporate requirements for the economic justification of R&D at various stages of their life cycle. The methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of R&D, set out in the R&D rules, has a commercial focus and takes into account the economic, social, environmental and other goals and interests of the enterprise and / or affiliated organizations.
The R&D rules provide for the establishment of uniform corporate requirements for the economic justification of R&D at various stages of their life cycle.
The methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of R&D, set out in the rules on R&D, has a commercial focus and takes into account the economic, social, environmental and other goals and interests of companies.
The effectiveness of scientific developments
The effectiveness of scientific development should be assessed:
At the stage of an application for scientific development and the formation of a corporate R&D plan - to resolve the issue of the appropriateness of its implementation and inclusion of development in the plan;
At the stage of completion of scientific development - to evaluate the obtained scientific results and decide on the appropriateness of their use;
At the stage of implementation - to determine the scope of implementation of the development, evaluate the actual results, proposals to stimulate the implementation of the development.
R&D expertise
Based on the results of the evaluation of the effectiveness of scientific development (R&D), an examination is carried out, on the basis of which a decision is made to include R&D in the plan for financing or continuing research, and a conclusion is also given on calculations at the stage of completion and implementation of scientific developments.
Development of R&D rules at the enterprise/company
R&D rules are usually developed taking into account the “Methodological recommendations for evaluating the effectiveness of investment projects” within companies (organizations) interested in R&D procedures/services.
The rules for evaluating the effectiveness of R&D determine the procedure for calculating the effectiveness of R&D at various stages of their implementation.
R&D efficiency assessment is based on comparison of income and expenses of the organization/enterprise of the R&D customer related to R&D and implementation of the obtained scientific results. Evaluation of the effectiveness of R&D can be carried out by basic and simplified methods.
Calculations of the effectiveness of scientific research should take into account the following main provisions and conditions:
R&D assessment is given within the calculation period;
It is obligatory to take into account the time factor (changes in costs and results over time, unevenness of income and expenses at different times);
The calculations take into account the discount rate established by the customer enterprise at the time of evaluation, which is the same for all considered scientific developments;
At the initial stage of R&D, only future expenses and incomes related to the implementation and implementation of scientific development are taken into account;
When calculating the actual efficiency, the actual costs and income associated with R&D and the implementation of its results are taken into account;
The price system that is in effect at the time of the calculations, tariffs, taxes, etc. is used. (with the obligatory indication of this moment), inflation is not taken into account;
Uncertainty and risk factors are indicated, as well as ways to reflect them in the calculations;
The principle of comparison “without a project (without innovation) and with a project (with innovation)” is used, that is, the evaluation of the effectiveness of scientific research is carried out by comparing the cash flows associated with the conduct of research and the use of its results, with the cash flows that would take place if research and, accordingly, implementation would not be carried out;
Evaluations of the effectiveness of R&D, with rare exceptions, should be expressed in monetary terms.
The rules for evaluating the effectiveness of R&D provide for the use of two indicators of the effectiveness of R&D: the integral effect of scientific development (Ei), the efficiency index (IE).
Justification of the effectiveness of scientific development is carried out at the following stages (stages) of its life cycle:
At the application stage, inclusion in the R&D plan and conclusion of an agreement (assessment of the potential effect);
At the stage of completion of development (assessment of the expected effect);
At the implementation stage (calculations of the actual effect).
At the final stage of assessing the effectiveness of R&D, the results of work in the areas of their use - in capital construction, in the development of natural resources, etc. should be reflected.
The responsibility for preparing a justification for the effectiveness of R&D and the reliability of the calculations performed at all stages of the development life cycle, including the stages of its completion and implementation, rests with the functional customer.
When forming an assessment of the effectiveness of R&D, it is necessary, first of all, to identify and assess the change in efficiency in the production, economic and other activities of an organization/company when implementing scientific development. Changes of this kind can be characterized by factors of efficiency (efficiency, usefulness) of R&D.
The implementation of scientific results can positively affect the main performance indicators of an organization/company due to:
1. Increasing income from the growth of product sales:
Increasing the productivity of the main technological equipment and improving its use over time;
Increasing technological and organizational innovations and activities;
Increasing the production of hydrocarbon raw materials by increasing gas, condensate and oil recovery;
performance increase;
Increase in the active volume of products in the company's warehouses (if it is possible within the technological process of the organization/enterprise);
Increasing the depth of product processing (if it is possible within the technological process of the organization / enterprise);
Increasing export opportunities;
Accelerating the pace of construction;
Saving expenses for own needs, and reducing losses;
Improving accounting, volumes and quality of products, as a result of reducing the error of measuring instruments for metrological control.
2. Reducing material and energy costs due to:
Use of new equipment, new technologies and technological processes;
Innovations aimed at reducing the consumption of material resources;
Use of import-substituting materials;
Replacement of materials, raw materials or semi-finished products used in production with cheaper ones;
Optimization of schedules and methods for the production of capital and current repairs;
Reducing the cost of capital and current repairs;
Improving the maintainability of equipment;
Innovations aimed at reducing penalties for non-compliance with product parameters;
Reducing the cost of diagnostics, monitoring the effectiveness of protection and inspection of the condition of structures.
3. Reducing the cost of living labor due to:
Use of new equipment, new technological processes;
Rational organization of production processes and personnel management;
staff development;
Improving the norms and standards, the system of stimulating the remuneration of employees;
Reducing the loss of working time;
Reducing occupational diseases and injuries.
4. Developments aimed at saving time:
Reducing the time of non-technological breaks and downtime during the transition from one stage of the production process to another;
Reducing the time to obtain high-quality control information;
Increase in overhaul periods;
Increasing the level of intensification of production.
5. Capital investment savings:
Improvement of technical, technological and organizational solutions in the construction of buildings, structures and facilities;
Extending the useful life of machines, equipment, vehicles and other types of fixed assets;
Optimization of corporate capital construction programs;
Use of progressive technical, technological and organizational solutions;
Optimization of gas transport and transport flows.
6. Factors related to improving the quality of finished products, changing prices, optimizing financial flows and taxation.
In market conditions of management, a significant effect can be obtained from the results of scientific developments, which, in their practical implementation, provide:
Increasing competitiveness, expanding the sales market for products and services in the Russian and foreign markets;
Increasing the market value of the company's shares;
Increasing the total capitalization of the company;
Reducing the risks associated with the production and economic activities of the company;
Receiving income from the sale of patents and licenses;
Receiving income from the acquisition or sale of real estate, financial investments, other operations in the stock and financial markets;
Growth of income from the restructuring of the Company and improvement of the management system of the Company and its subsidiaries.
Factors for the implementation and implementation of scientific developments
The effectiveness of R&D is largely determined by the very process of conducting and implementing scientific developments. The most important factors in this process, in terms of its effectiveness, are:
The volume of costs for R&D and their distribution over time;
The duration of the period from the completion of R&D to the start of implementation of the obtained scientific results;
The volume of implementation and its distribution in time throughout the entire life cycle of innovation;
The duration of the period of growth in the volume of implementation and the dynamics of the volume of implementation;
The system of relationships between the various participants (organizational and economic mechanism) of a scientific project, including the relationship of implementing organizations with the company/enterprise R&D customer, scientific organization, the relationship of the company/enterprise and implementing organizations with state authorities and local self-government.
To facilitate taking into account the specifics of scientific developments in terms of substantiating their effectiveness and economic feasibility at a large enterprise/organization, all R&D activities are divided into separate groups dividing R&D works/services by type.
A sign that R&D is included in the classification group is the predominant type of effect that is realized during the implementation of research and development. The assignment of R&D to a specific classification group determines the nature of the rationale for the development efficiency. In the above example of R&D classification, only a small part of the R&D groups is reflected. The R&D classifier can contain many types of groups depending on the type of enterprise, sales markets, the number of products or services, its size and business interests, and other factors.
So, here are some R&D groups at the enterprise:
Group "A1" includes R&D with a predominant commercial effect. The group includes scientific developments related to the improvement of technology, technology, management and organization of production.
The group "A2" includes scientific developments, mainly aimed at solving problems and tasks to improve the management of all aspects of the company's activities. This group includes the justification and development of company development programs, regulatory documents (for example, author's support for projects), analytical developments and software for management processes. The type of effect implemented in these developments can be characterized as managerial.
The A3 group includes developments on the application of new or improvement of existing financing schemes, recommendations on conducting individual operations in the financial and stock markets, debt restructuring programs of the Company and its subsidiaries, etc.
Group "A4" includes scientific developments, the effect of which can only be determined by their subsequent use as part of applied scientific work. A characteristic of such work is the expansion of knowledge in the fields of science, engineering and technology - the basic for applied research of the company. In these works, new connections and regularities between phenomena are established, new technical ideas are put forward. Economic justifications, calculations for such developments are not carried out. Developers need to prepare proposals for research, projects, areas of research that can use the results of exploratory research (discoveries), but a potential assessment of their economic results in this group may not be carried out.
We provide a full range of works (services) for R&D
The Servotekhnika company provides services for the implementation of various projects related to scientific research and experimental design development of R&D and R&D. The defining advantages of choosing Servotechnika are the following:
- Accumulated experience. For more than 12 years, the engineering department of Servotechnika has been successfully developing various projects of any complexity for commercial and government organizations in various industrial sectors.
- Wide range of equipment. The ability to use various mechanical components of both imported and domestic production for the implementation of projects allows not only to fulfill the task as accurately as possible, but also to do it at the lowest economic cost.
- Warranty. The reputation of the company depends on the guarantee of the quality of its work in each specific case, so Servotekhnika strives for long-term and successful relationships with customers.
It is thanks to these factors that Servotekhnika's clients are such companies as Gazprom, Rosatom, Russian Railways, MSTU, MAI, as well as various other enterprises and universities.
ORDER FOR R&D SERVICES
You can order a full range of R&D services from us. Fill out a simple order form, describe the required set of works or tasks that need to be solved.
Completed R&D projects
Servotechnika has rich and diversified experience in R&D services. We have more than 15 years of experience, and hundreds of successfully implemented projects and development projects in various fields of science and technology.
Experienced engineers, designers and developers are ready to assist in the implementation of any project. Moreover, we have our own modern production (manufacturing plant), which is equipped with CNC machines (a wide range of manufacturing processes), assembly/production lines, and qualified personnel.
With the implementation of the latest developments R&D can be found below.
Implemented (implemented) R&D projects
