Data processing is aimed at solving the following tasks:
1) ordering the source material, converting a lot of data into an integral system of information, on the basis of which further description and explanation of the object and subject under study is possible;
2) detection and elimination of errors, shortcomings, gaps in information; 3) revealing trends, patterns and connections hidden from direct perception; 4) discovery of new facts that were not expected and were not noticed during the empirical process; 5) finding out the level of reliability, reliability and accuracy of the collected data and obtaining scientifically based results on their basis.
Data processing has both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Quantitative processing there is a manipulation with the measured characteristics of the studied object (objects), with its properties "objectified" in the external manifestation. Quality processing- this is a way of preliminary penetration into the essence of an object by identifying its non-measurable properties on the basis of quantitative data.
Quantitative processing is mainly aimed at a formal, external study of an object, while qualitative processing is mainly aimed at a meaningful, internal study of it. In a quantitative study, the analytical component of cognition dominates, which is also reflected in the names of quantitative methods for processing empirical material that contain the category "analysis": correlation analysis, factor analysis, etc. The main result of quantitative processing is an ordered set of "external" indicators of an object (objects ). Quantitative processing is implemented using mathematical and statistical methods.
In qualitative processing, the synthetic component of cognition dominates, and in this synthesis the unification component prevails and the generalization component is present to a lesser extent. Generalization is the prerogative of the next stage of the research process - interpretation. In the phase of qualitative data processing, the main thing is not to reveal the essence of the phenomenon under study, but so far only in the appropriate presentation of information about it, which ensures its further theoretical study. Usually the result of qualitative processing is an integrated representation of a set of object properties or a set of objects in the form of classifications and typologies. Qualitative processing largely appeals to the methods of logic.
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative processing (and, consequently, the corresponding methods) is rather conditional. They form an organic whole. Quantitative analysis without subsequent qualitative processing is meaningless, since by itself it is not able to turn empirical data into a system of knowledge. And a qualitative study of an object without basic quantitative data in scientific knowledge is unthinkable. Without quantitative data, qualitative knowledge is a purely speculative procedure that is not characteristic of modern science. In philosophy, the categories "quality" and "quantity", as is known, are united in the category "measure". The unity of quantitative and qualitative understanding of empirical material is clearly seen in many methods of data processing: factorial and taxonomic analyses, scaling, classification, etc. But since science traditionally divides into quantitative and qualitative characteristics, quantitative and qualitative methods, quantitative and qualitative descriptions, we will accept quantitative and qualitative aspects of data processing as independent phases of one research stage, which correspond to certain quantitative and qualitative methods.
Quality processing naturally spills into description and explanation studied phenomena, which is already the next level of their study, carried out at the stage interpretations results. Quantitative processing is fully related to the stage of data processing.
6th stage the focus group is dedicated to the qualitative processing and interpretation of data. Processing of the focus group data (previously compiled transcript) is carried out in accordance with the purpose, objectives and hypothesis of the study, which is reflected in the questions posed. The following analysis strategies can be used.
Strategy A
First, the available answers for each of the questions are analyzed, and then the conclusions for individual questions are compared.
Strategy B
Based on the results of the first (possibly incomplete) acquaintance with the transcript, certain assumptions are formed, then statements are recorded in the entire text of the transcript that confirm or refute this assumption.
Other analysis strategies are also possible, the choice of which depends on the tasks set, the experience and scientific intuition of the researcher. It should be noted that when analyzing focus group data, it is possible to use not only qualitative, but also quantitative approaches. When working with a significant volume of transcript material, it is possible to use a qualitative-quantitative method of document analysis - content analysis. The conditions for its implementation are described in the 3rd chapter of the manual.
An example of the use of qualitative content analysis or focus group data categorization can be found in a study conducted by psychology students in the spring of 2005. The study looked at the perceptions of morality among undergraduate psychology students. The main hypothesis was the assumption that morality is a personal category, individually formulated.
The developed topic guide included the following questions.
- 1. How do you understand morality? What is morality for you?
- 2. Please give some example from life where morality is manifested?
- 3. Compare the concepts of "morality" and "conscience": how do they differ, what is common?
- 4. What role do parents play for you in shaping ideas about morality?
- 5. Do you consider yourself a moral person?
- 6. How do you feel about abortion?
In the content analysis of the focus group transcript data, the category of analysis was “definition of morality”. An analysis of the transcript made it possible to identify such subcategories as “individual factors for determining morality” (indicators of the category: “I myself formulated, composed, determined”, “for me”, “I follow”, etc.) and “public factors for determining morality” (indicators : "general", "public", "common", "for all", etc.).
As a result, it was revealed that although the participants in the discussion pay great importance the opinion of parents in the formation of ideas about morality, yet “morality” for them is, first of all, an individual category. Students determine the rules of behavior for themselves independently, evaluating their morality in accordance with individually formulated ideas about morality. The results obtained are important for analyzing the attitude of modern youth to the problem of morality, as well as for studying the dynamics of ideas about moral behavior.
The use of content analysis at the final stage of a focus group study allows formalizing the data obtained and facilitating the process of their processing. Content analysis allows you to identify the degree of expression of a particular position among the participants in the discussion. However, it should be remembered that a significant number of statements in favor of one of the positions does not always reflect the actual representation of this opinion in the group under study. Considering the possibilities of applying content analysis in the processing of focus group data, S. A. Belanovsky gives an example of a study by D. Morgan and M. Spanish, devoted to the study of risk factors for heart attacks. According to the authors, the most commonly cited causes of seizures were stress, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle. The legitimacy of the conclusion about the significance of these factors is questioned due to the fact that these factors are mentioned in the explanatory work of doctors with patients. Therefore, when analyzing the discussion data, it is necessary to identify not only the most common statements, but single ones. The analysis of such unique representations can help in the critical evaluation of the studied representations.
Understanding Data Processing
Processing of psychological research data - a separate section experimental psychology, closely related to mathematical statistics and logic. Data processing is aimed at solving the following tasks:
Organizing the received material;
Detection and elimination of errors, shortcomings, gaps in information;
Identification of trends, patterns and relationships hidden from direct perception;
Discovery of new facts that were not expected and were not noticed during the empirical process;
Finding out the level of reliability, reliability and accuracy of the collected data and obtaining scientifically based results on their basis.
Quantitative processing- this is work with the measured characteristics of the object under study, its "objectified" properties. It is aimed mainly at a formal, external study of the object, qualitative - mainly at a meaningful, internal study of it. In quantitative research, the analytical component of cognition dominates, which is also reflected in the names of quantitative methods for processing empirical material: correlation analysis, factor analysis, etc. Quantitative processing is implemented using mathematical and statistical methods.
Quality processing is a way of penetrating into the essence of an object by revealing its non-measurable properties. With such processing, synthetic methods of cognition predominate. Generalization is carried out at the next stage. research process- interpretive. In qualitative data processing, the main thing is the appropriate presentation of information about the phenomenon under study, which ensures its further theoretical study. Usually the result of qualitative processing is an integrated representation of a set of object properties or a set of objects in the form of classifications and typologies. Qualitative processing largely appeals to the methods of logic.
The contrast between qualitative and quantitative processing is rather conditional. Quantitative analysis without subsequent qualitative processing is meaningless; since in itself it does not lead to an increase in knowledge, and a qualitative study of an object without basic quantitative data is impossible in scientific knowledge. Without quantitative data, scientific knowledge is a purely speculative procedure. The unity of quantitative and qualitative processing is clearly represented in many methods of data processing: factor and taxonomic analysis, scaling, classification, etc. The most common methods of quantitative processing are classification, typology, systematization, periodization, and casuistry. Qualitative processing naturally results in the description and explanation of the studied phenomena, which constitutes the next level of their study, carried out at the stage of interpreting the results. Quantitative processing is fully related to the stage of data processing.
3.1. Primary and secondary quantitative processing
The process of quantitative data processing has two phases: primary and secondary.
Primary quantitative processing is aimed at organizing information about the object and subject of study obtained at the empirical stage of the study. The main methods of primary processing include: tabulation, diagramming, histograms (step chart), distribution polygons (the upper points of the central axes of all sections of the histogram are connected by straight segments) and distribution curves (distribution polygon, but smooth curved lines). Diagrams reflect discrete distribution, other graphical forms - continuous.
Secondary quantitative processing consists mainly in the statistical analysis of the results of primary processing. Here it is important to get answers to three main questions.
1. What is the most typical value for the sample?
To solve this issue, the so-called. "measures of central tendency". These are generalizing values, and they include: arithmetic mean, median, mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean. In psychology, the first three are usually used.
The arithmetic mean (estimate of the mathematical expectation) is calculated by the formula:
where x i is each observed feature value, i is an index indicating the ordinal number of the given feature value;
n is the number of observations.
Median (Me) – this is a point on the measuring scale, above and below which exactly 50% of the values of the series (observations) are located. It is determined by the median rank according to the formula:
That is, to calculate the median, it is necessary to rank a number of values (observations). The resulting median value may not correspond to the value of the series, but is between two adjacent values, then the arithmetic mean of these values is calculated.
For example, we have a row of 3-5-6-7-9-10-11-12. Having ranked it, we have 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8. Rank median in this series: Me=8+1/2=4.5. This rank corresponds to the middle between the members of the original series with ranks 4 and 5. Therefore, the median of this series is 8 (7+9/2). It should be noted that there is no value 8 in the series, but this is the value of the median of this series.
Fashion (Mo) – this is the value that occurs most frequently in the sample. Example: 2, 6, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10; Mo=9.
If all values in the group occur equally often, then it is considered that there is no mode. If two neighboring values have the same frequency and are greater than the frequency of any other value, the mode is the average of these two values (for example: 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7; Mo=3). If the same applies to two non-adjacent values, then there are two modes and the feature value group is bimodal (example: 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 7; Mo=1 and 4) .
Usually, the arithmetic mean is used when striving for the greatest accuracy, and when the standard deviation will subsequently need to be calculated. Median - when there are atypical data in the characteristic values (for example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 26, 13). Mode - when high accuracy is not needed, but the speed of determining the measure of the central tendency is important.
2. Is there a large scatter in the data around the mean?
To answer this question, measures of variability (scattering, dispersion) are used. They make it possible to judge the degree of homogeneity of the resulting set, its compactness, and indirectly, the reliability of the results obtained. The most used in psychological research: range, mean deviation, variance, standard deviation, quartile deviation.
The range (P) is the interval between the maximum and minimum values of the attribute. It is determined easily, but is sensitive to randomness, especially with a small amount of data. Example: (0, 2, 3, 5, 8; P=8); (-0.2, 1.0, 1.4, 2.0; P=2.2)
The mean deviation (MD) is the arithmetic mean of the difference (modulo) between each value in the sample and its mean:
where d=│XM│; where M is the sample mean; X is a specific value; N is the number of values.
The set of all specific deviations from the mean characterizes the variability of the data, but if they are not taken modulo, then their sum will be equal to zero, and we will not receive information about their variability. MD shows the degree of data crowding around the mean (sometimes Me or Mo are taken instead of M).
Dispersion (D) ( from lat. - scattered).
D \u003d ∑d 2 / (N-1) or σ x 2 \u003d ∑ (x i -x cf) 2 * (m i / N-1),
where m i is the number of occurrences of x i values in N observations.
For large samples (N≥30), the denominator is simply N.
Standard deviation or standard deviation. In psychology, it is customary to denote this value σ (sigma):
σ = √∑(x i – x) 2 /n-1
The coefficient of covariance is a relative dispersion characteristic and is calculated by the formula:
V \u003d (σ x / x cf) * 100%
Quartile deviation (Q) . In practice, it is often important for us to find out not a point, but an interval of values, therefore, the accumulated frequency axis (if all values are placed on the axis) is divided into an equal number of intervals. This is an S-curve (cumulative frequency axis), where M is the overall average. The function of this curve looks symbolically as follows:
F(X) = (1/σ√2π*)∫((-(t-µ) 2)/ 2σ 2)dt
Points on the axis of the accumulated frequency, dividing it in a fixed proportion, are called quantiles (hence the name of quantile standardization of tests). Among quantiles, quartiles, quintiles, deciles, percentiles are distinguished. For example, 3 quartiles (Q 1, Q 2, Q 3) divide the sample into 4 equal parts (quarts) in such a way that 25% of the subjects are below Q 1, 50% below Q 2, 75% below Q 3, 99 percentiles divide the sample per 100 equal parts(percent), etc.
The first quartile is calculated by the formula: Q 1 =(R 1 +R n/2)/2, i.e. half-sum of the first and last ranks of the first - to the left of the median - half of the series;
Third quartile: Q 3 \u003d (R n / 2 + R n) / 2, i.e. half-sum of the first and last ranks of the second - to the right of the median - the middle of the row.
The obtained rank values correspond to certain values in the original data series. To characterize the Distribution, the mean quartile deviation is calculated:
Q \u003d (X 1 (Q 3) -X 2 (Q 1)) / 2,
where X 1 and X 2 are the values of the series corresponding to the third and first quartiles.
It is clear that with a symmetrical distribution, Q 2 and Me will coincide. In general, the point on the axis corresponding to Q 2 is determined after separating 50% of all sample values.
3. Is there a relationship between the individual data in the available population, and what is the nature and strength of these relationships?
To solve this issue, it is necessary to calculate the measures of connection (correlation). Relationship measures reveal relationships between two variables. These relationships are calculated using correlation coefficients.
The Karl Pearson correlation coefficient is calculated by normalizing the covariance of variables by the product of their standard deviations:
r xy =(∑(x cf -x i)(y cf -y yi)/√∑(x cf -x i) 2 ∑(y cf -y yi) 2 .
The coefficient value can vary from -1 to +1.
Charles Edward Spearman's rank correlation coefficient:
r s \u003d 1-6 * ∑d 2 / (N (N 2 -1))
Its obtained value must be compared with the tabular one (in reference books, textbooks on statistics, special editions, etc.).
3.2. Types of quantitative data analysis
Statistical analysis data included in the procedure for processing the results of the study includes, in addition to the above, the following.
1. Analysis of variance (DA). Unlike correlation, it can reveal the relationship between two, three, etc. variables. Changes in the studied trait can be caused by both several variables and their interaction, which can reveal DA.
2. Factor analysis. Allows you to reduce the dimension of the data space, i.e. it is reasonable to reduce the number of measured features by combining them into certain aggregates (factors). The basis of the analysis is the correlation matrix, i.e. tables of correlation coefficients of each feature with all the others. Depending on the number of factors in the correlation matrix, there are:
Single factor (according to Spearman);
Bifactorial (according to Holzinger);
Multifactorial (according to Thurston.
The rather complex mathematical and logical apparatus of factor analysis often makes it difficult to choose a variant of the method that is adequate to the tasks of the study.
3. Regression analysis. The method allows one to study the dependence of the mean value of one quantity on the variation of another (other) quantity. The specificity of the method lies in the fact that at least one of the considered quantities is random. Then the description of dependence falls into two tasks: 1) identification general view dependencies and 2) refinement by calculating dependency parameter estimates. The solution of the first problem is a matter of skill and intuition of the researcher, because There are no standard methods for solving it. The solution of the second problem is essentially a finding of an approximating curve. Most often, this approximation is carried out using mathematical method least squares.
The idea of this method belongs to Francis Galton, who noticed that children of very tall parents were somewhat smaller, and children of very tall parents were taller. He called this pattern regression.
4. Taxonomic analysis. This is a mathematical technique for grouping data into classes (taxons, clusters) in such a way that objects included in one class are more homogeneous in some way compared to objects included in other classes. As a result, it becomes possible to determine the distance between the studied objects in one or another metric and give an ordered description of their relationships at a quantitative level. Due to the insufficient elaboration of the criteria for the effectiveness and admissibility of cluster procedures, this method is considered as additional or supplemented by other methods, in particular, factor analysis.
Methods of psychology can be divided into two groups:
- cognitive (research) methods;
- methods of active influence on people.
Consider the first group of methods. Process psychological research consists of a number of stages: preparation, collection, processing, interpretation of actual data and formulation of conclusions.
On the preparatory stage, they study the state of the problem under study, conduct preliminary observations, interviews, questioning, determine the purpose and objectives of the study. An important element of this stage is the hypothesis - the idea of the expected result of the study.
All the starting points call for planning the study, choosing the contingent and the number of subjects, the place and time of the experiments, technical equipment, obtaining preliminary experimental data, forms of protocols, a plan for quantitative (statistical) and qualitative data processing and interpretation.
At the stage evidence collection use empirical methods (experiment, observation, testing, conversations, etc.). The experimental data are recorded in the protocol, which should be sufficiently complete and purposeful, including the registration of all the necessary parameters of the experimental situation and mental properties.
Stage data processing provides quantitative and qualitative analysis and synthesis of recorded data.
On the last step research is interpretation of data and formulation of conclusions, establish their compliance or non-compliance with the original hypothesis, discover new questions and problems, on the basis of which they form a research program.
According to the stages of psychological research, it is advisable to distinguish four groups of methods:
- organizational;
- empirical;
- data processing methods;
- interpretation methods.
To organizational methods include: a comparative method, which is implemented by comparing groups of subjects that differ in age, occupation, etc.; longitudinal method, which is found in multiple surveys of the same individuals over a long period of time; a complex method, when the same object is studied by various means by representatives of various sciences, which makes it possible to comprehensively characterize the personality.
To the group empirical methods includes: observation and self-observation; experimental methods; psychodiagnostic methods (tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry, referentometry, interviews, conversations); analysis of products of activity; biographical method; labor method.
Data processing methods are quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods include, for example, the determination of averages and scatter measures, correlation coefficients, factor analysis, plotting graphs, histograms, charts, tables, matrices, etc. The qualitative method involves the analysis and synthesis of the data obtained, their systematization and comparison with the results of other studies.
To interpretation methods belong to the genetic method of analyzing psychological data in the process of development - with the allocation of stages, critical moments, contradictions, etc., as well as the structural, systemic method, which involves establishing links between all the mental qualities of an individual. The latter is to implement a personal approach, when all mental properties considered in a holistic system.
Consider empirical methods for obtaining factual data about the psyche.
Method observations is that the experimenter collects information without interfering with the situation. There is a fundamental difference between scientific observation and life observation, which is limited to the registration of facts and has a random, unorganized character. In contrast, scientific observation is based on a certain plan, program, fixing the facts and features of the situation, on analysis and interpretation. For scientific observation, the characteristic transition from the description of facts to the explanation of their essence, the formation psychological characteristics personality.
If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. Observations are divided according to different criteria (Fig. 6.1). Distinguish directі indirect observations. An example of direct observation would be the study of a person's response to a stimulus, or observation of the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are also divided into active(scientific) and passive or ordinary (life). Repeatedly repeated, life observations are accumulated in proverbs, sayings, metaphors and, therefore, are of particular interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes definite purpose, tasks, conditions of observation. However, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is carried out, then this will already be an experiment.
Rice. 6.1. Types of observation.
Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation using objective methods. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension during the performance of a certain work by a person. The researcher can use registration methods physiological processes(electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin response, etc.), which themselves do not reveal the features of the course mental activity, but may reflect general physiological conditions characterizing the course of the processes that are being studied.
In research practice, objective observations are also distinguished by a number of other features.
By the nature of the contact direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect when the researcher gets acquainted with the observed subjects indirectly, with the help of specially organized documents - questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.
Under the terms of observation field observation that takes place Everyday life, study or work, and laboratory, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.
According to the nature of the interaction with the object, they distinguish included observations, when the researcher becomes a member of the group and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and not included(from outside), that is, without interaction and establishing any contacts with the person or group being studied.
There are also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is to reduce the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden(incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.
By improvement in time, observations are distinguished solid, when the course of events is fixed constantly, and selective, when the researcher fixes the processes that he observes only at certain intervals.
According to the improvement in carrying out, observations are distinguished structured, when events occurring are recorded in accordance with a previously developed surveillance scheme, and arbitrary(unstructured), when the researcher freely describes the events as he sees fit. Such observation is usually carried out at the pilot (indicative) stage of the study, when it is necessary to form a general idea of the object of study and the possible patterns of its functioning.
According to the nature of fixation, they are distinguished stating observations, when the observer fixes the facts as they are, observing them directly or receiving from witnesses of the incident, and appraisal, when the observer not only fixes, but also evaluates the facts in relation to the degree of their expression according to a given criterion (for example, evaluates the degree of expression emotional states etc.).
observation errors. Objective methods of observation were developed to obtain reliable scientific knowledge. However, a person conducts the observation, and therefore the subjective factor is always present in its observation. In psychology, more than in other disciplines, the observer runs the risk, through his mistakes (for example, limitations of perception), not to notice some important facts, not to take into account useful data, to distort the facts due to his preconceived notions, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the "pitfalls" associated with the method of observation.
ERRORS observations appear due to such reasons:
- gala effect (halo effect);
- influence of averaging;
- logical errors (substitution of arguments);
- contrast errors;
- errors associated with prejudices and stereotypes (ethnic, professional);
- observer incompetence errors.
Most often, observational errors arise through a tendency to gala effect (or halo effect), which is based on the generalization of individual impressions of the observer, based on whether he likes or dislikes the observed, his actions or behavior. This approach predetermines an incorrect generalization, an assessment in "black and white", an exaggeration or a decrease in the severity of the observed facts.
Averaging errors occur when the observer, for one reason or another, feels insecure. Then there is a tendency to average the estimates of the observed processes, since it is known that extremes are less common than properties of average intensity.
Logic errors turn out to be when, for example, they conclude about the intellect of a person by his eloquence, or that an amiable person is at the same time good-natured; This mistake is built on the assumption of a close relationship between a person's behavior and his personal qualities, which is by no means always true.
Contrast errors may cause the observer's tendency to emphasize opposite traits in the observed individuals.
There are also errors associated with prejudices, ethnic and professional stereotypes, errors of incompetence of the observer, when the description of the fact replaces the observer's opinion about it.
To increase the reliability of observation and avoid errors, it is necessary to strictly observe the facts, record specific actions and resist the temptation to draw conclusions about complex processes based on first impressions. In research practice, to increase the objectivity of observations, they often turn to several observers who make independent records.
In scientific psychology, the method is also used introspection, which arises as a means of studying, analyzing and synthesizing one's own actions and actions, comparing one's thoughts with the thoughts of other people. In the process of self-observation, a person relies on reflection, that is, on reflections and experiences regarding their own mental states and personality traits. However, one should take into account the human tendency to subjectivity and additionally apply other methods.
The main method of psychological knowledge is considered experiment. The researcher actively intervenes in the activities and behavior of the subject to create necessary conditions, in which certain psychological facts, phenomena, qualities turn out to be. AT pilot study there should be mandatory control over the conditions of the experiment, the stimuli that act on the person, and her reactions to them. To establish general patterns development and functioning of the psyche to the experiment attract a large number of experimental subjects. An experiment with one person is also practiced.
Depending on the level of intervention of the researcher during mental phenomena, the experiment can be ascertaining when they study the existing mental characteristics without external intervention, and formative, when the mental properties of a person are studied in the process of "artificial" purposeful development using the means of teaching and educating a person.
According to the scheme of the ascertaining experiment, one can also study the nature of mental properties in the process of their development, for which the so-called transverse and longitudinal sections are used. At cross section simultaneously compare the mental properties of several groups of subjects that differ in age in order to reveal the dynamics age development researched mental properties. However, with this approach, individual features of the development of the psyche remain out of sight.
At longitudinal section there are changes in the mental properties of certain people for a long time (months and years). This helps to study the development of personality in its entirety.
For the availability of equipment, a psychological experiment can be laboratory and natural. AT laboratory experiment special equipment is used, for example, a tachistoscope - to examine the volume of attention - or a computer - for testing. The actions of the subject are regulated by the instruction. natural experiment inherent normal conditions when the subject is unaware of his own participation in the experiments, and the experimental conditions are limited to the disguised inclusion of the actions of the researcher or his assistant in joint behavior with the experimental (say, in the game of children in kindergarten).
received significant distribution tests, which are used to determine personality traits, measuring the level of development compared to the standard. The test consists of tasks or questions that are selected according to the criteria of validity (correspondence to the mental quality that is provided with its help), reliability (stability of measurement results), standardization (establishment in the process of testing on a large number of subjects with the determination of a sufficient level of sensitivity), etc. d. Sometimes a test takes many years to create and test. With the help of tests - and there are already several thousand of them - psychologists have the opportunity to test abilities, skills, abilities, character traits and other personality traits for the purpose of selection, control, prediction, training, etc.
Application questionnaires (questionnaires) helps to collect factual material concerning the nature, content and direction of opinions, assessments, moods of people. The disadvantage of this method is a certain subjectivity, the inability to control the sincerity of the respondents (those who answer the questions of the questionnaire). To increase the level of probability of the results of the survey, it is advisable to additionally apply other methods.
Sociometric and reference methods provide a study of relations between members of groups, reveal their structure (leaders, outsiders, etc.) on the basis of a relatively simple procedure for choosing others by some members of the group according to the parameters of sympathy-antipathy, reference (relative to certain values).
Interview and conversation as methods for obtaining information about a person, his views, self-esteem, values, mental properties are based on a pre-developed program, a flexible strategy for the formation of questions depending on the expected and received answers. They require considerable preparation of the interviewer, a certain skill, in particular the ability to inspire confidence in oneself, to set a person up for frankness.
Product Analysis as a research method is possible in the presence of objective (material or materialized) consequences of human activity, such as archival materials, draft records, diaries, drawings, versions of sketches and drawings. Their analysis provides grounds for retrospectively reproducing the patterns of a person's mental activity, its mental properties. An example of the application of this method is the study by psychologist B.M. Kedrov scientific archive D.I. Mendeleev at the time of his creation periodic system chemical elements and building on this basis the psychological theory of scientific discovery.
For biographical method characteristic use of materials relating to the characteristics of a person's life, his development as a person, analysis important events in her childhood, youth, studies and work, as a result of which they reconstruct character traits personality.
labor method provides for the inclusion of a researcher in a specific activity (professional, social, etc.), mastering technology, entering an appropriate role in order to study, as if from within, its laws. The effectiveness of the labor method depends on the researcher's ability to retrain, reincarnate, certain artistry, reflection, objective recording of research data, etc.
Methods of active influence on personality. Modern scientific psychology is characterized not only by great methodological possibilities in the knowledge of the laws of the psyche, but also the ability, if necessary, to actively influence the mental properties of the individual. The need for this arises when a person finds himself in a traumatic situation - as a result of interpersonal conflicts, a natural disaster or man-made disaster etc. In these cases, methods of active psychological influence on a person are used in order to improve their condition and overcome negative consequences for the psyche. These methods can only be applied by a professionally trained psychologist.
Let's name some of these methods.
Psychological consultation carried out in order to provide psychological assistance to a person. During specially organized communication, additional psychological possibilities for a person to get out of a difficult situation can be updated. life situation. Psychological counseling is built according to a specific plan, which involves identifying the causes of the problem, ways and means of solving it, and the ability of this person.
Psychological correction provides for overcoming certain deviations in human behavior and activities by means of studying individual features personality, their compliance with the requirements of the surrounding social and natural environment, identifying and overcoming existing contradictions, forming new goals, values, motivations for behavior, developing a program for changing lifestyles, transforming in the process of self-knowledge and self-education, developing the ability to self-regulate, etc.
Psychological training (exercises, business games) are used to develop abilities, such as attention, memory, thinking, imagination, etc. In particular, socio-psychological training is aimed at developing communicative, perceptual, interactive abilities, which improves a person’s ability to communicate, provides it personal growth. This training is carried out according to a certain scenario in the so-called discussion groups, T-groups, etc.
Psychological therapy and rehabilitation is a system of special psychological methods healing effect on a person to normalize its mental state- during a stay in severe stress, with psychogenic (non-pathological states of the psyche). In the process of psychological therapy and rehabilitation, the technique of hypnosis is widely used, autogenic training, art therapy (health with art), creative self-expression therapy, work therapy, etc.
Recently, the arsenal of methods of psychological influence has expanded significantly, which was facilitated, first of all, by election, parliamentary and presidential campaigns in the former republics of the USSR, especially in Russia and Ukraine, as well as psychological warfare, terrorism, military conflicts, etc.
The following groups should be added to the methods of active psychological influence:
- regulation methods;
- methods of formation and direction of behavior and activity;
- methods of psychological support (psychological preparation, mental health, etc.).
At present, in the works of some psychologists, along with the concept of method, the concept of technology of psychological influence (M.I. Variy) has appeared.
Literature
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