- The subject of microbiology and its importance for agricultural production
Microbiology (from micro... and biology ), the science that studies microorganisms bacteria, mycoplasmas, actinomycetes, yeast , microscopic mushrooms and algae - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, heredity and variability, distribution and role in the circulation of substances in nature, practical significance.
The development of microbiology and the needs of practice led to the separation of a number of sections of microbiology into independent scientific disciplines. General microbiologist AI studies the fundamental regularities of the biology of microorganisms. Knowledge of the basics of general microbiology is necessary when working in any of the special sections of microbiology.
Agricultural microbiology finds out the composition of soil microflora, its role in the circulation of substances in the soil, as well as its significance for the structure and fertility of the soil, the effect of processing on microbiological processes in it, the effect of bacterial preparations on plant productivity. In the task of s.-x. microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause plant diseases, and the fight against them, the development of microbiological methods of combating insects - pests of agricultural crops. plants and forest species, as well as methods of fodder conservation, flax lobe, crop protection from spoilage caused by microorganisms.
To the task technical or industrial microbiology includes the study and implementation of microbiological processes used to obtain yeast, feed protein, lipids, bacterial fertilizers, as well as the production of antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, etc. by microbiological synthesis. Geological microbiology studies the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits, and proposes methods for obtaining (leaching) metals (copper, germanium, uranium, tin) and other minerals from ores with the help of bacteria. Aquatic microbiology studies the quantitative and qualitative composition of the microflora of salt and fresh water and its role in the biochemical processes occurring in reservoirs, monitors the quality of drinking water, improves microbiological methods of wastewater treatment. To the task medical microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause human diseases and the development of effective methods fight them. The same questions regarding agricultural and other animals are solved veterinary microbiology.
The practical importance of microbiology. Actively participating in the cycle of substances in nature, microorganisms play an important role in soil fertility, in the productivity of water bodies, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits. The ability of microorganisms to mineralize the organic remains of animals and plants is especially important. The ever-increasing use of microorganisms in practice has led to the emergence of the microbiological industry and to a significant expansion of microbiological research in various branches of industry and agriculture. The use of microorganisms in agriculture has increased dramatically. The production of bacterial fertilizers has increased, in particular nitragin, which is prepared from cultures of nodule bacteria that fix nitrogen under conditions of symbiosis with legumes and is used to infect seeds of legumes. New direction of page - x. microbiology is connected with microbiological methods of struggle against insects and their larvae - wreckers of page - x. plants and forests. Bacteria and fungi that kill these pests with their toxins have been found, and the production of appropriate drugs has been mastered. Dried cells of lactic acid bacteria are used to treat intestinal diseases of humans and page - x. animals.
2. A brief history of the development of microbiology
The emergence and development of microbiology.
Several thousand years before the emergence of microbiology as a science, man, not knowing about the existence of microorganisms, widely used them for the preparation of koumiss and other fermented milk products, for the production of wine, beer, vinegar, for ensiling fodder, and flax lobe. Bacteria and yeast were first seen by A. Leeuwenhoek , who examined dental plaque, herbal infusions, beer, etc. with the help of microscopes he made. The creator of microbiology as a science was L. Pasteur who elucidated the role of microorganisms in fermentations (winemaking, brewing) and in the occurrence of animal and human diseases. Of exceptional importance for the fight against infectious diseases was the method of preventive vaccinations proposed by Pasteur, based on the introduction of weakened cultures of pathogenic microorganisms into the body of an animal or person. Long before the discovery of viruses, Pasteur proposed vaccination against a viral disease - rabies. He also proved that in modern terrestrial conditions spontaneous generation of life is impossible. These works served as a scientific basis for the sterilization of surgical instruments and dressings, the preparation of canned food, the pasteurization of food products, etc. Pasteur's ideas about the role of microorganisms inmatter cyclein nature were developed by the founder of general M. in Russia, S. N. Vinogradsky , who discovered chemoautotrophic microorganisms (they absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the oxidation energy not organic matter;
chemosynthesis), nitrogen-fixing microorganismsand bacteria that decompose cellulose under aerobic conditions. His student V.L. Omelyansky discovered anaerobic bacteria that ferment, that is, decompose cellulose under anaerobic conditions, and bacteria that form methane. A significant contribution to the development of microbiology was made by the Dutch school of microbiologists who studied the ecology, physiology, and biochemistry of various groups of microorganisms (M. Beijerinck, A. Kluiver, K. van Niel). An important role in the development of medical microbiology belongs to R. Kohu , who proposed dense nutrient media for growing microorganisms and discovered the pathogens of tuberculosis and cholera. Development of medical microbiology and immunology E. Behring (Germany), E. Roux (France), S. Kitazato (Japan), and in Russia - I.I. Mechnikov , L. A. Tarasevich , D. K. Zabolotny , N. F. Gamaleya .
3. Significance of Pasteur's work in the development of microbiology
For the first time, bacteria and yeast were seen by A. Leeuwenhoek, who examined dental plaque, herbal infusions, beer, etc. with the help of microscopes he made. The creator of microbiology as a science was L. Pasteur, who elucidated the role of microorganisms in fermentations (winemaking, brewing) and in the occurrence of animal and human diseases. Of exceptional importance for the fight against infectious diseases was the method of preventive vaccinations proposed by Pasteur, based on the introduction of weakened cultures of pathogenic microorganisms into the body of an animal or person. Long before the discovery of viruses, Pasteur proposed vaccination against a viral disease - rabies. He also proved that in modern terrestrial conditions spontaneous generation of life is impossible. These works served as a scientific basis for the sterilization of surgical instruments and dressings, the preparation of canned food, the pasteurization of food products, etc. Pasteur's ideas on the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature were developed by S. N. Vinogradsky, the founder of general meteorology in Russia.
Pasteur Louis (1822-1895), French microbiologist and chemist, founder of modern microbiology and immunology. The first director of the research microbiological institute (Pasteur Institute), established in 1888 with funds raised by international subscription. In this institute, along with other foreign scientists, Russians also worked fruitfully - I. I. Mechnikov, S. N. Vinogradsky, N. F. Gamaleya, V. M. Khavkin, A. M. Bezredka and others. connection between theory and practice. From 1857 he studied the processes of fermentation (lactic acid, alcohol, acetic, butyric, discovered by him). Contrary to the prevailing "chemical" theory of the German chemist J. Liebig, he proved that fermentation is caused by the activity of various types of microorganisms. At the same time, he discovered the phenomenon of anaerobiosis (the ability to live in the absence of free O 2) and the existence of obligate (strictly) anaerobic bacteria. He showed that fermentation serves as a source of energy for the microorganisms that cause it. He laid the scientific foundations for winemaking, brewing and other branches of the food industry. He proposed a method for protecting wine from spoilage (pasteurization), which was then used in the production of other food products (beer, milk, fruit and berry juices). He finally refuted (by experiment) the idea of the possibility of spontaneous generation of living beings in modern conditions.
Having studied the nature of the silkworm disease (1870), Pasteur established the contagiousness of the disease, the time of its maximum manifestation, and recommended measures to combat it. He studied a number of other contagious diseases of animals and humans (anthrax, puerperal fever, rabies, chicken cholera, rubella of pigs, etc.), finally establishing that they are caused by specific pathogens. Based on the idea he developed about artificial immunity, he proposed a method of protective vaccinations, in particular, vaccination against anthrax (1881). In 1880, together with E. Roux, Pasteur began research on rabies. The first protective vaccination against this disease was given to him in 1885.
4. The creative contribution of Russian scientists to the development of microbiology (Vinogradsky, Ivanovsky, Omelyansky, Voronin, Khudyakov, Kononov, Mishustin, etc.)
Pasteur's ideas about the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature were developed by the founder of general microbiology in Russia S. N. Vinogradsky, discoverer of chemoautotrophic microorganisms(assimilate atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the energy of oxidation of inorganic substances; Chemosynthesis), nitrogen-fixing microorganisms and bacteria that decompose cellulose under aerobic conditions. Vinogradsky Sergey Nikolaevich [.1856 -1953], Russian microbiologist, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1891-1912 he was the head of the department of general microbiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg. Actively participated in the organization of the Russian Microbiological Society (1903) and for the first 2 years was its chairman. In 1922 he left for France and until the end of his life he headed the Agrobacteriological Department of the Pasteur Institute near Paris.Vinogradsky was the first to prove that there are special microorganisms (anorgooxidants) that obtain energy as a result of the oxidation of inorganic substances. The resulting energy is used to assimilate carbon dioxide or carbonates; the process of assimilation of carbon dioxide based on this is called chemosynthesis. The discovery of chemosynthesis by Vinogradsky made it possible for Russian microbiology to occupy a leading position and had a great influence on its development in other countries. In 1893, Vinogradsky was the first to isolate the anaerobic spore-bearing bacterium Clostridium Pasteurianum, which assimilates molecular nitrogen, from the soil. His student V. L. Omelyansky discovered anaerobic bacteria that ferment, that is, decompose cellulose under anaerobic conditions, and bacteria that form methane.Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich, Russian microbiologist, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1923; corresponding member 1916). A student of S. N. Vinogradsky. Graduated from St. Petersburg University (1890). In 1893-1928 he worked in the Department of General Microbiology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, from 1912 the head of the department. The main work to elucidate the role of microorganisms in the cycle of nitrogen and carbon in nature. He proposed methods for the isolation and cultivation of nitrifying bacteria, studied their morphology and physiology. For the first time, he singled out cultures of anaerobic and spore-bearing bacteria that ferment fiber with the formation of organic acids and hydrogen. He studied an aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacterium (from the genus Azotobacter) and proved the existence of bacteria that form methane from ethyl alcohol. He established that the amount of nitrogen assimilated by nitrogen-fixing microorganisms is proportional to the assimilation of organic matter. The first pointed to the possibility of using microorganisms as chemical indicators. Editor of the journal "Archive of Biological Sciences" (1906-28). His books Fundamentals of Microbiology (1909) and Practical Guide to Microbiology (1922) contributed to the formation of several generations of Soviet microbiologists. . Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky(1864 - 1920) - Russian plant physiologist and microbiologist, founder of virology. He graduated from St. Petersburg University in 1888 and was left at the Department of Botany. Under the guidance of A. N. Beketov, A. S. Famintsyn and X. Ya. Gobi studied plant physiology and microbiology.
He discovered crystalline inclusions (“Ivanovsky crystals”) in the cells of diseased plants, thus opening a special world of pathogens of non-bacterial and non-protozoal nature, later called viruses. Ivanovsky considered them as the smallest living organisms. In addition, Ivanovsky published works on the features of physiological processes in diseased plants, the effect of oxygen on alcoholic fermentation in yeast, the state of chlorophyll in plants, its resistance to light, the importance of carotene and xanthophyll, and on soil microbiology.
Voronin Mikhail Stepanovich- botanist (1838 - 1903). Numerous scientific works of Voronin concern mainly the class of fungi (mycology) and those lower organisms that stand on the verge between animals and plants. He discovered, studied in detail and described many lower organisms that are highly important not only in the botanical but also in the general biological sense. The fungal disease of sunflower was discovered and studied by him; the same must be said about the disease of cabbage plants, etc. All of Voronin's works are distinguished by great accuracy. His drawings, without which the latest morphology cannot do, are exemplary.
Khudyakov Nikolai Nikolaevich(1866-1927) - Russian microbiologist. The works are devoted to issues anaerobiosis and soil microbiology. In the work "On the study of anaerobiosis" (1896) he established the possibility of cultivating anaerobes in the presence of oxygen and stated the position that anaerobiosis in bacteria is an adaptation to the conditions of existence. In the field of soil microbiology discovered the adsorption of bacteria by soil particles, which is of great importance for their activity in soil processes. The author of the first in Russian. the language of the course "Agricultural Microbiology" (1926), which was of great importance for the development of microbiology in the USSR.
- Morphology and taxonomy of bacteria
There are three main forms of bacteria - spherical, rod-shaped and tortuous.
spherical bacteria, or cocci
The form spherical or oval.
micrococci- isolated cells.
diplococci- arranged in pairs.
streptococci- cells of a rounded or elongated shape that make up a chain.
Sarcins - arranged in the form of "packages" of 8 or more cocci.
Staphylococci- cocci arranged in the form of a bunch of grapes as a result of division in different planes.
rod-shaped bacteria
The form rod-shaped, the ends of the cell can be pointed, rounded, chopped off, split, expanded. Sticks can be regular and irregular in shape, including branching, for example, in actinomycetes.
By the nature of the arrangement of cells in smears, they distinguish:
Monobacteria- located in separate cells.
Diplobacteria - arranged in two cells.
streptobacteria- after division, they form chains of cells.
Rod-shaped bacteria can form spores: bacilli and clostridia.
Convoluted bacteria
The form- a curved body in one or more turns.
Vibrios- the curvature of the body does not exceed one turn.
Spirochetes- bends of the body in one or more turns.
Bacteria size
Microorganisms are measured in micrometers and nanometers.
The average size of bacteria is 2 - 3 x 0.3 - 0.8 microns.
Shape and size are important diagnostic features.
The ability of bacteria to change their shape and size is called polymorphism.
Work program of the discipline
Microbiology
Direction of training
110400.62 "Agronomy"
Training profile:
"Agribusiness"
Qualification (degree) of the graduate
bachelor
Form of study full-time, part-time
Kazan 2013
Compiled by:
Daminova Anisa Ildarovna, candidate of agricultural sciences, associate professor
Pakhomova Valentina Mikhailovna, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor
The program is compiled in accordance with the documents:
1. Federal state educational standard higher vocational education in the field of study 110400 Agronomy approved by order of the Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation dated December 22, 2009 No. 811
2. Main educational program higher professional education in the direction of training 110400 Agronomy was approved by the rector of the Kazan State Agrarian University on April 21, 2011 (minutes No. 4).
3. The working curriculum for the direction of training 110400 Agronomy was approved by the rector of the Kazan State Agrarian University on March 31, 2011 (minutes No. 3).
The work program was discussed and approved at a meeting of the Department of Biotechnology, Animal Husbandry and Chemistry on June 11, 2013 (Minutes No. 6).
Head department Sharafutdinov G.S.
Reviewed and approved at the meeting of the methodological commission of the Faculty of Agronomy on 17.06. 2013 (Minutes No. 11).
Previous method. Commission Gilyazov M.Yu.
Agreed:
Dean Minikaev R.V.
Head of the graduating department
horticulture and horticulture,
Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, prof. Amirov M.F.
"__" _______ 2013
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………….4
1. Goals and objectives of mastering the discipline………………………………………………………………………………………………………4
2. The place of discipline in the structure of the PEP HPE…………………………………………………….4
3. Requirements for the results of mastering the content of the discipline "Microbiology"……….4
4.1. Scope of discipline and types academic work………………………………………………..5
4.3. Thematic plan of the discipline……………………………………………………………….7
4.4. Workshops(seminars)…………………………………………………………..7
4.5. Laboratory work………………………………………………………………………...7
4.6. Independent work……………………………………………………………………………8
4.7. Approximate topics of course projects (works)…………………………………………...................................8
5. Educational technologies………………………………………………………………………………9
6. Educational and methodological support for independent work of students. Evaluation tools for current control academic performance, intermediate certification following the results of mastering the discipline
6.1. Educational and methodological support for independent work of students .................................... 9
6.2. Evaluation tools for ongoing monitoring of progress, intermediate certification based on the results of mastering the discipline…………………………………………………………………………………9
7. Educational and methodological and Information Support disciplines……………………...17
8. Means of ensuring the development of discipline…………………………………………………..17
9. Logistics of discipline……………………………………….17
student……………………………………………………………………………………...18
11. Interdepartmental coordination of related issues of discipline……………………….19
12. Additions and changes to work program for 201__ / 201 __ academic year………….19
annotation
Summary disciplines: In the course of this discipline, general and agricultural microbiology are studied. The section "General Microbiology" studies the structure and chemical composition of microorganism cells, their systematics, features of energy and constructive metabolism, and ways of exchanging genetic information. The section "Agricultural Microbiology" studies soil microbiology and the practical use of microorganisms in various technological processes in agriculture.
Goals and objectives of mastering the discipline
The purpose of mastering the discipline "Microbiology" is the formation of knowledge on the basics of general and agricultural microbiology and the ability to use the knowledge gained to solve practical problems of agricultural production.
Discipline tasks:
To study the systematics, morphology, genetics and reproduction of bacteria; metabolism of microorganisms, participation of microorganisms in the transformations of various compounds;
To study soil microorganisms and master methods for determining their composition and activity;
To form concepts about the role of microorganisms in the soil-forming process and the reproduction of soil fertility, microbiological processes in the production of organic fertilizers; on the influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms.
The place of discipline in the structure of the PEP HPE
The discipline is included in the basic part of the training cycle - B.3 Professional cycle.
The study of the discipline involves a preliminary study of the most important groups of microorganisms - viruses, bacteria and fungi, the key features of their organization, their role in natural processes and their importance to humans.
The discipline is fundamental for the study of the following disciplines: plant physiology and biochemistry, agriculture, agrochemistry, plant growing.
3. Requirements for the results of mastering the content of the discipline
"Microbiology"
The process of studying the discipline is aimed at formation of elements of the following competencies in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Professional Education and the BEP in this area of training:
a) the graduate must have the following professional competence:
PC-4 - willingness to use microbiological technologies in the practice of production and processing of agricultural products.
As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:
Know: the biology of microorganisms, the transformation of various compounds and substances by microorganisms (PC-4).
Be able to: use microbiological technologies in the practice of production and processing of agricultural products, evaluate the quality of agricultural products, taking into account biochemical parameters and determine the method of its storage and processing, justify the technology of coarse and succulent feed (PC-4).
Own (have skills): methods of laboratory analysis of soils, plants and crop products (PC-4).
Volume of discipline and types of educational work
Semester - 3. Form of intermediate certification - exam.
For distance learning: semester - 5. Form of intermediate certification - exam.
The total labor intensity of the discipline is 3 credits 108 hours.
| Type of study work | Total | Full-time education | distance learning* | |||||||
| Distribution by semester | Distribution by semester | |||||||||
| Classroom activities (total) | ||||||||||
| Including: | - | - | - | |||||||
| Lectures | ||||||||||
| Practical exercises (PZ), Seminars (C) | ||||||||||
| Laboratory work (LR) | ||||||||||
| Independent work | ||||||||||
| Including: | - | - | - | |||||||
| abstract | - | |||||||||
| Self-preparation (independent study of sections, study and repetition of lecture material, textbook material and teaching aids, preparation for laboratory work and colloquium). | ||||||||||
| Exam preparation | ||||||||||
| Total labor input hour. credit | ||||||||||
| No. p / p | Name of the discipline section | Section content | Competency codes |
| General microbiology | Systematics, morphology and reproduction of bacteria. | PC-4 | |
| Genetics and selection of microorganisms | |||
| Microorganisms and the Environment | |||
| Physiology, metabolism and energy in microorganisms | |||
| Transformation of carbon compounds by microorganisms. Basic fermentation and oxidation processes | |||
| Participation of microorganisms in the cycle of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, iron | |||
| Agricultural microbiology | Soil microbiology. The influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms | PC-4 | |
| Relationship between soil microorganisms and plants | |||
| Feed microbiology |
General microbiology»
"Systematics, morphology and reproduction of bacteria". Objects of microbiology, the place and role of microbiology in the system of biological sciences, the role of microorganisms in nature and human life.
General information on the systematics and nomenclature of prokaryotes. Principles of numerological and phylogenetic systematics.
Microorganisms that do not cellular structure. Morphological types of bacteria. Ultrastructure of a bacterial cell. Disputes and spore formation. Growth and reproduction of bacteria.
"Genetics and selection of microorganisms". Mechanisms of modification and mutation in bacteria, mechanisms of transformation, transduction and conjugation. Genetic engineering in microbiology.
"Microorganisms and the Environment". The action of abiotic and biotic factors environment on microorganisms. Physiological groups of microorganisms in relation to factors external environment. Influence of temperature, pH, availability of water, radiation, etc. on the activity of microorganisms.
"Physiology, metabolism and energy in microorganisms". Nutrition of bacteria. Mechanisms of transport across the cytoplasmic membrane. Nutritional needs. Food types. Enzymes and metabolism.
Obtaining energy by microorganisms. The role of ATP in the accumulation and transfer of energy. Types of energy processes. Fermentation. Aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration.
“Conversion of carbon compounds by microorganisms. Basic fermentation and oxidation processes. Cycle of carbon and oxygen in the biosphere. The significance of two cosmic processes - photosynthesis and mineralization of organic substances by microorganisms. Assimilation of CO 2 by microorganisms. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. Mineralization processes organic compounds and the role of different groups of microorganisms.
Alcoholic fermentation. The causative agents of alcoholic fermentation and their features. The chemistry of the process. Pasteur effect. The role of alcoholic fermentation in nature and human life.
Lactic acid fermentation and its causative agents. Features of lactic acid bacteria. Homofermentative, heterofermentative and bifid fermentation.
Types of fermentation caused by clostridia. Butyric fermentation, features of pathogens, importance in nature, agriculture and industry.
Decomposition of pectin substances and its role in the primary processing of bast fiber plants. Microbial transformation of cellulose. Pathogens, chemistry, meaning.
"The participation of microorganisms in the cycle of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, iron". Participation of microorganisms in various stages of the nitrogen cycle. Participation of microorganisms in the sulfur cycle. Transformation of organic phosphorus compounds by microorganisms. The role of microorganisms in the conversion of inaccessible mineral phosphorus compounds into soluble, available for plants. The role of microorganisms in the transformation of iron compounds.
Agricultural Microbiology»
Soil microbiology. Influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms”. soil microorganisms. Methods for determining their composition and activity. The role of microorganisms in soil formation and fertility. Microbial cenoses of various types of soils. Influence of agricultural practices on soil microorganisms.
« The relationship between soil microorganisms and plants. Microorganisms of the root zone and their effect on plants. Symbiosis of microorganisms and plants. plant mycorrhiza. epiphytic microflora. The role of epiphytic microorganisms in crop storage. Development of toxigenic fungi on plants.
« Microbiological soil fertilizers and plant protection products". Biological products that increase soil fertility and improve the growth and development of plants. Methods for the preparation and use of bacterial fertilizers based on nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-mobilizing, and other bacteria.
The use of microorganisms and their metabolites to protect plants from pathogens and insect pests.
« Feed microbiology". The use of lactic acid fermentation in feed production. Silage and haylage. Feed yeast. Application of bioconversion methods in agriculture.
4.3. Thematic plan of discipline
Department of Biotechnology, Essential Oil and medicinal plants, breeding and seed production of agricultural crops
in AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
for students of agronomic specialties
faculties of TPH and PPPV and TPH and PPR
Simferopol
Methodical instructions were prepared by associate professor Baglaeva L. Yu.
essential oil and medicinal plants, breeding and seed production of agricultural crops
faculty of TPH and PPR for the specialty "Agronomy"
Reviewer: Associate Professor of the Law Firm "KATU" NAU A. V. Yena
Responsible for the release: Bugaenko L. A.
Working with terms is an essential component of the study of each discipline. When studying any science, it is necessary to remember the words of the great botanist, the father of binary nomenclature - Carl Linnaeus: "Not knowing the names you lose your understanding of things."
The proposed dictionary is an appendix to the technological map of the discipline "Agricultural Microbiology and Virology" and contains brief information the most commonly used terms in this course.
All terms are grouped into 7 blocks according to the number of topics offered by the technological map, which makes it easier to study them. However, the dictionary does not replace the textbook, but serves as an addition to it. Can be used for self-testing knowledge.
BLOCK 1
subject : SYSTEMATICS, MORPHOLOGY AND ULTRASTRUCTURE OF MICROORGANISMS.
Akinetes- specialized cells or threads that form cyanobacteria during the passage of the life cycle, the resting stage for experiencing adverse conditions.
actinomycetes or radiant mushrooms - ( actis- Ray, Mikes- mushroom) - the order of bacteria common in nature, combining the organization of bacteria and the simplest microscopic fungi. They are characterized by the ability to form mycelium . Cytologically, actinomycetes are typical prokaryotes. belong to the department Firmicutes, class Thallobacteria, order Actinomycetales.
amphitriches Bacteria that have two bundles of flagella located at opposite poles.
Arthrospores - devices for vegetative reproduction of fungi, the result of breaking hyphae into individual cells.
Ascospores- spores of marsupial fungi - ascomycetes (class Ascomycetes), are formed asexually and sexually in special sporangia (asci or bags), are highly resistant.
bacteria ( in Greek bacterion – wand ) - unicellular prokaryotic organisms with an undifferentiated nucleus (nucleoid) reproduce by simple binary (transverse) cell division.
bacilli- rod-shaped bacteria capable of forming spores under adverse conditions.
Binary division- a type of asexual reproduction, in which at the beginning of division the cell lengthens, then the nucleoid doubles, after which the entire cell divides.
Vacuoles (vacuum- void) - bubble-shaped cavities in the cells of microorganisms, filled with digestive fluids with enzymes or digestive products, including gaseous ones.
Vesicles- view mesosomes in the form of bubbles.
Vibrios- bacteria-short rods, 1-3 microns long, bent at half a wavelength, reminiscent of a comma in shape.
Inclusions- optional organelles. Represented by grains (granules) of polysaccharides (granulose, glycogen), volutin polyphosphate, drops of oil, sulfur.
Volyutin- nitrogen-containing cellular inclusion with the presence of phosphorus, close to protein and often observed in the cells of various microorganisms.
Heterocysts- specialized cells formed by cyanobacteria during the passage of the life cycle, capable of absorbing nitrogen from the air.
Gifa (hyphae- tissue) - microscopic, thinnest, often branched and consisting of one or many cells, a thread (diameter 10-50 microns), from which the body of fungi is built - mycelium.
Glycogen (glycos- sweet, genos- birth) - a carbohydrate-polysaccharide, close to starch and widely distributed in the cells of animals and fungi as their main reserve nutrient. Stained red-brown with Lugol's solution.
hormogonies- specialized cells formed by cyanobacteria during the passage of the life cycle, serving for reproduction.
Granulosis (granulum- grain) - a carbohydrate, a reserve polysaccharide, is found in many microbial cells (especially in butyric bacteria) as a reserve nutrient - a cellular inclusion (it turns purple with Lugol's solution).
Dipicolinic acid- pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, usually absent in vegetative bacterial cells. It can be 10-15% of the mass of dry spores. Accumulates in the central part of the spore, forming a complex with calcium ions with a high content of other cations, ensures that the spores stay at rest and their thermal stability.
diplococci- a type of microcolonies in which, after division, the cells are arranged in pairs.
Yeast(yeast fungi) are fungi that do not form mycelium; have a unicellular uninuclear body.
cocci(coconut- grain) - bacteria characterized by a spherical shape of cells (value 0.5-1.0 microns). They are immobile, do not form a dispute.
Conidia (konya-dust, eidos-view) - spores of asexual reproduction in some microscopic fungi, formed in open sporangia at the top of a special hypha (conidiophore).
Consumers- organisms that are consumers of organic matter in the trophic chain. All consumers are heterotrophs.
conjugation – 1). Somatogamy - fusion of protoplasts of two somatic cells; 2). Exchange of nuclear or cytoplasmic genes.
Lophotrichs - Bacteria that have one bundle of flagella.
mesosomes- invagination (invagination into the cell) of the plasmalemma, which play the role of all cellular membrane organelles.
Mycoplasmas- a group of bacteria that lack a cell wall and are limited only by the plasma membrane. form order Mycoplasmaatales, which belongs to the class Mollicutes, department Tenericutes.
Mycelium (mycelium) - the vegetative body of fungi, consisting of thin branching threads - hyphae.
Monotrichous- motile bacteria, with one flagellum at the anterior end.
Murein- peptidoglycan, a supporting polymer of the bacterial cell wall, which has a mesh structure and forms a rigid outer frame of the bacterial wall.
Nucleoid- the only, more often circular, chromosome of prokaryotes, which acts as the nucleus.
Nucleus- a differentiated nucleus separated from the cytoplasm by a two-membrane membrane ..
Gram stain- a staining method developed by the Danish scientist X. Gram in 1884, which makes it possible to differentiate bacteria. After staining bacteria with gentian violet and treating them with an iodine solution, the cells of some bacteria become discolored with alcohol (gram-negative), the cells of others remain blue-violet (gram-positive).
Peptidoglycan (murein)- a supporting polymer of the bacterial cell wall, having a mesh structure and forming a rigid outer frame of the bacterial wall.
Peritrichi- the entire surface of the bacterial cell is covered with numerous flagella.
pinocytosis- capture by the cell surface and absorption of liquid droplets by the cell.
plasmalemma(cytolemma) - outer cell membrane 7-10 nm thick.
Plektenhima- false tissue formed during the fusion of hyphae of the mycelium. Fruiting bodies and sclerotia are built from plektenchyma.
Polymorphism- one colony contains microorganisms various shapes- cocci, rods and filaments up to 10 microns long.
Rubner's rule states that the body's metabolism is proportional to the relative surface area of the body.
Producers - autotrophic organisms that create organic substances from inorganic forms of carbon using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
reduplication
decomposers- organisms that feed on dead organic matter and subject it to mineralization (destruction).
Sarcins(Sarcio-bale) - a type of microcolonies in bacteria, cells divide in three mutually perpendicular planes, form packages of a cuboidal shape with the number of cells 8 or 64.
Segmentation- a method of reproduction of actinomycetes. The hyphae are divided into segments by partitions, and spores are formed in the segments.
Spore- a specialized cell of a different nature and purpose in different microorganisms. Fungal spores are used for reproduction, bacterial spores - to endure adverse conditions. They have increased resistance to dehydration, high temperatures, radiation and other adverse factors that cause the death of vegetative forms.
Spirilla- one of the genera in the family of convoluted bacteria, 15-20 microns long, curved to full wavelength, reminiscent of a stretched Latin letter S.
Spirochetes- one of the genera in the family of convoluted bacteria, thin long cells, 20-30 microns, with a large number of bends, resemble an extended spiral, have longitudinal cell division.
Sporulation - the process of transformation of a bacterial cell into a resting form - a spore. There are several types of spore formation:
bacillary type- the spore is formed inside the cell and does not deform it;
clostridial type- the spore is formed in the middle of the cell, deforming it;
plectridial type- the spore is formed at the end of the cell or outside it.
Staphylococci(staffatle- bunch) - type of microcolonies in bacteria; cells divide in indefinite directions, form a cluster of cells resembling grapes.
streptococci(streptos - chain) - - type of microcolonies in bacteria; cells divide in one plane, after division the cells remain in chains.
Tetracocci- cells divide in two mutually perpendicular planes, groups of 4 cells are formed.
thylakoids lamellar mesosomes.
Phagocytosis (fagein- to devour cytos- cell) - the ability of living cells (phagocyte cells, rhizomes, etc.) to swallow and then digest foreign substances, as well as pathogens infectious diseases, which is one of the means of immunity.
Chitin (chiton- cover) is a nitrogen-containing organic substance (polysaccharide), which is distinguished by exceptional strength and is part of the hard outer covers of various animals, as well as fungi.
Chlamydospores- special spores of some fungi, dressed in a thick, often colored shell.
Chromatophores – 1). Thylakoids (lamellar type mesosomes) that carry pigments in photoautotrophic bacteria. 2). Chloroplasts of algae.
Cellulose(fiber) - a carbohydrate (polysaccharide) that makes up the shells of plants, which are distinguished by great strength. The formula of cellulose is (С6Н10О5) n.
cyanobacteria- single-celled, colonial, filamentous organisms that live in water and on land in damp places. They contain the bluish-green pigment phycocyanin. form order Cyanobacteriales class Oxyphotobacteria department Gracilicutes.
Cyst- the resting stage of protozoa under unfavorable conditions.
BLOCK 2
subject: GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MICROORGANISMS
Autotrophs- organisms that use CO2 as the sole or main source of carbon to build their body and have both an enzyme system for CO2 assimilation and the ability to synthesize all cell components.
The active site of the enzyme part of the enzyme molecule responsible for the attachment and transformation of the substrate. There can be several active centers in one enzyme molecule.
Aldolase are enzymes of the lyase class. Widely distributed in plants, animals, microorganisms. Participate in the processes of anaerobic digestion of carbohydrates (for example, glycolysis). Causes breakage of carbon chains.
Anabolism (assimilation)- a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues (the totality of all synthesis reactions).
Aminoautotrophs– organisms using mineral forms of nitrogen (NO2-, NO3-, NH3, NH4+, N2). Aminoautotrophs include: yeasts, molds, acetic acid bacteria.
Aminoheterotrophs- organisms that use organic forms of nitrogen (proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides). Aminoheterotrophs include: lactic acid bacteria, putrefactive bacteria.
Anaerobes- organisms that can live and develop in the absence of molecular oxygen in the environment.
Apoenzyme- the protein component of complex enzymes. Determines the specificity of the action of the enzyme in relation to the substrate, exhibits catalytic activity when combined with a coenzyme.
free oxygen environment.
Aerotolerant - organisms that do not need oxygen, but do not die on contact with oxygen (for example, lactic acid bacteria of the genera Streptococcus andLactobacillus) .
ATP(adenosine triphosphate) - a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose and three phosphoric acid residues; universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released as a result of oxidative breakdown of organic substances (respiration, fermentation).
Aerobes- organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent.
Biocatalysts- enzymes or enzymes of living cells that take part in all their vital manifestations.
Fermentation - a complex stepwise enzymatic anaerobic redox process of decomposition of nitrogen-free organic substances (mainly carbohydrates), occurring with the participation of microorganisms. In this process, microbes receive the energy necessary for life.
Heterotrophs- organisms that use ready-made organic substances as a carbon source.
Hydrolases- a class of enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis reactions, i.e., the breakdown of organic compounds with the addition of elements of the water molecule (H + and OH‾) at the point of rupture. In the lysosomes of living cells, polymers (proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, lipids) are hydrolyzed to monomers (amino acids, sugars, nucleotides, fatty acids, and glycerol). Examples of hydrolases: protease, amylase, lipase, nuclease, cellulase, cellobiase.
glycolysis- an enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic decomposition of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to pyruvic acid (PVA). During glycolysis, substrate phosphorylation. The overall equation for glycolysis is:
C6 H12 O6 2 CH3 COCOOH+ 2NAD· H2 + 2ATP
Glucose pyruvic
Dehydrogenases- enzymes of the oxidoreductase class, catalyzing the reactions of hydrogen abstraction from one substrate and transferring it to another. Participate in the process of catabolism of all types of nutrients. Primary dehydrogenases: they contain coenzymes NAD and NADP. Secondary dehydrogenases as a coenzyme may contain FAD and FMN.
Breath- a complex stepwise enzymatic process of splitting organic substances to CO2 and H2O in order to release all the available energy of organic substrates. Molecular oxygen (O2) is an oxidizing agent in respiration processes - aerobic respiration or bound oxygen of nitrates and sulfates (NO3- or SO42-) - anaerobic respiration- nitrate or sulfate.
Isomerases- a class of enzymes that catalyze intramolecular rearrangement reactions of organic compounds, including interconversions of isomers.
catabolism- dissimilation, a set of enzymatic reactions in a living organism aimed at the breakdown of complex organic substances - proteins, nucleic acids, fats, carbons that come with food or stored in the body itself.
coenzyme is the non-protein part of a two-component enzyme.
Ligases- synthetases, a class of enzymes that catalyze the reactions of attaching two different molecules to each other due to the energy of the coupled reaction of hydrolysis of nucleoside triphosphates (most often ATP).
Liase- a class of enzymes that catalyze the reactions of non-hydrolytic cleavage from substrates of certain groups of atoms with the formation of double bonds or the addition of individual groups or radicals to double bonds, which leads to the breaking of carbon chains. So, pyruvate decarboxylase catalyzes the elimination of carbon dioxide from pyruvic acid:
CH3COCOOH ® CH3COOH + CO2
pyruvic acetic
acid aldehyde
An enzyme is a lyase aldolase, which splits the fructose-1,6-diphosphate (C6) molecule into two C3 compounds.
microaerophiles- microorganisms that need the smallest amounts of oxygen for their vital activity (from fractions of a percent to 10%). Example - microorganisms of the genus Salmonella.
trace elements- chemical elements found in cells in minute quantities (less than 0.01%), but absolutely necessary for their life, serve as stimulators of various physiological processes: zinc, manganese, cobalt, boron, iodine, etc.
Nitrate breath– in the processes of dissimilation denitrification, nitrates are used as an oxidizing agent for organic substances instead of molecular oxygen, which provides microorganisms with the necessary energy. Bacteria of the species Paracoccus denitrificans oxidize carbohydrates according to the equation:
C6H12O6 + 4NO3- 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2N2
Nitrifyingbacteria are unicellular gram-negative bacteria. They are divided into two independent groups: 1) nitrous bacteria ( Nitrosomonas) - producing the first stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonia to nitrous acid, 2) nitrate bacteria ( Nitrobacter) - causing the second half of the process - the oxidation of nitrous acid into nitric acid and its salts - nitrates.
obligate aerobes- organisms that remain active only in the presence of molecular oxygen (for example, acetic acid bacteria).
oxidases are enzymes of the oxidoreductase class that catalyze oxygen addition reactions. Examples: peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, cytochrome oxidase (enzyme a3 ).
Oxidoreductase- a class of enzymes that catalyze redox reactions. are playing important role in providing cells with energy. Main representatives: primary and secondary dehydrogenases, cytochromes, oxidases, peroxidases, oxygenases.
Organogens- chemical elements that form the basis of organic substances: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen.
Osmosis- one-way movement of substances through a semi-permeable (i.e., permeable only for molecules of certain substances) membrane, which underlies the absorption of substances by a living cell.
Penzophosphate pathway- a sequence of enzymatic reactions of oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to CO2 and H2O, occurring in the cytoplasm of living cells and accompanied by the formation of a large amount of reduced coenzyme - NADP H2.
Saprotrophs- heterotrophic organisms that use ready-made organic substances of dead bodies for nutrition.
substrate- 1). The basis to which motionless organisms are attached (for microorganisms and plants it also serves as a nutrient medium). 2). For enzymes, a substrate is a substance with which a given enzyme interacts, transforming it.
Sulfate breath - a form of anaerobic respiration of bacteria under conditions of lack of oxygen, when oxygen bound in the form of sulfates is used. The causative agents are bacteria Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, Spirillium desulfuricans. Occurs according to the equation:
C6 H12 O6 + 3H2 SO4 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 3H2S + E
Sulfonating bacteria - cause the oxidation of mineral sulfur to sulfates (sulfification). These include green sulfur bacteria (genus Chlorobium) and purple (genus Chromatium, Rhodospirillium), which use H2S as a source of hydrogen during photosynthesis, as well as colorless sulfur bacteria: Beggiatoa, Thiothrix, Thiospira, which use the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide as an energy source.
Transferases- a class of enzymes that catalyze the reversible transfer of various groups of atoms from molecules of some organic compounds (donors) to others (acceptors). Examples: acetyltransferase carry the residues of acetic acid CH3CO-, as well as fatty acid molecules, phosphotransferase or kinases, cause the transfer of phosphoric acid residues H2PO42-. Many other transferases are known (aminotransferase, phosphorylase).
Facultative aerobes - organisms that can switch from oxygen to anaerobic metabolism (yeast).
Phosphorylation– inclusion of a phosphoric acid residue into the molecule with the formation of a macroergic bond. In living cells, it is carried out by enzymes of the transferase class. Phosphorylation types:
- oxidative– synthesis of ATP molecules from ADP and phosphoric acid due to the energy of oxidation of organic substances; occurs in electron transport chains;
- photosynthetic- Phosphorylation of ADP with the formation of ATP occurs during photosynthesis due to the radiant energy of the sun;
- substrate- the synthesis of ATP molecules from ADP and inorganic phosphate, which occurs during glycolysis due to the redistribution of energy within the molecule.
Photoautotrophs- microorganisms that can use the radiant energy of the sun when synthesizing organic substances from carbon dioxide. This group includes cyanobacteria ( Nostoc, Anabaena, Gloeocapsa), stained sulfur bacteria ( Chlorobium, Chromatium) microscopic algae (Ulothrix, Chlorococcum, Closterium).
Chemoautotrophs- autotrophic organisms, bacteria that use the energy of oxidation of inorganic substances for the synthesis of organic substances from carbon dioxide ( Nitrosomonas,Nitrobacter, Thiobacillus) .
Krebs cycle- a cyclic sequence of enzymatic oxidative transformations of tri- and dicarboxylic acids. The total equation of the Krebs cycle:
2 x (CH3COCOOH + 3H2O 3CO2 + 4NAD H2 + FAD H2 + ATP)
Cytochrome oxidase (a3) is an enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes the final stage of electron transfer to oxygen in the respiratory chain in the process of biological oxidation.
Cytochromes- complex proteins - electron carriers, the coenzyme of which is heme (iron porphyrin). Examples: cytochrome in, cytochrome with, cytochrome a.
Exoenzymes- enzymes that manifest their action in the environment of the cell after their release from the cell and are called extracellular. Common exoenzymes belong to the class of hydrolases and cause the breakdown of polymers into monomers.
Electric transport chains is a sequence of oxidoreductases that differ in the level of oxidative activity. In dehydrogenation reactions in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, hydrogen atoms cleaved off by specific dehydrogenases are accepted by the coenzymes NAD and NADP and then transported to the carrier chains. Carriers are flavoproteins (secondary dehydrogenases, coenzymes of which are FAD and FMN), cytochromes in, with, a , cytochrome oxidase (enzyme a3 ).
Endoenzymes- enzymes involved in metabolism are always inside the cell that forms them and are called intracellular.
BLOCK 3
subject: TRANSFORMATIONS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS BY MICROORGANISMS
Amylase(amylon-starch, aza- ending in the names of enzymes) is an enzyme of the hydrolase class that breaks down starch to dextrins and maltose. Characteristic of microorganisms that cause butyric fermentation of sugars and starch ( Clostridium pasteurianum).
Aldolase - enzymes of the lyase class. Widely distributed in animals, plants and microorganisms. They participate in the processes of anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates, for example, glycolysis, pentose phosphate breakdown of glucose.
Decarboxylase - an enzyme of the lyase class, catalyzing the reactions of cleavage of CO2 from the carboxyl group of amino acids or α-keto acids. For example, it causes the decarboxylation of pyruvic acid and its conversion to acetaldehyde during alcoholic fermentation.
Lactase- an enzyme that promotes the breakdown of lactose (i.e. milk sugar) into glucose and galactose.
Lipase(lipos - fat, aza - ending in the names of enzymes) - an enzyme that breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids during hydrolysis.
pectinase(polygalacturonase) - an exoenzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of pectin substances: destroying bonds between units of galacturonic acid, pectin or pectin acid with the formation of small chains and, ultimately, free D-galacturonic acid.
Cellulase - an enzyme of the hydrolase class; catalyzes hydrolysis β -1,4-glycosidic bonds in cellulose to form glucose or cellobiose disaccharide. Contained in germinated grain, fungi, produced by many bacteria, found in some animals that feed on wood (shipworm, woodworm). It is used to remove cellulose from foods and also to convert cellulose into sugar. Released by the microflora of the rumen of ruminants, it plays an important role in the assimilation of cellulose by herbivores.
cellobiaza An enzyme that hydrolyzes the disaccharide cellobiose to form glucose.
BLOCK 4
subject: TRANSFORMATION BY MICROORGANISMS
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
nitrogen fixers(nitrogen-fixing bacteria or diazotrophs) are microorganisms that are able to assimilate molecular nitrogen and build from it the whole variety of nitrogen-containing organic compounds of their cells. These microorganisms live freely in the soil ( Azotobacter chroococcum) or are in symbiosis with plants (genera Rhizobium and Frankia) . Causes an increase in soil fertility.
ammonification- processes of decomposition of organic nitrogen-containing substances with the formation of ammonia, occurring in nature under the influence of microorganisms and having a huge impact on soil fertility, since plants do not absorb organic forms of nitrogen.
Bacteroids- specialized active forms of bacteria of the genus Rhizobium, which are formed in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. Often branched or pear-shaped.
Deamination- cleavage of the amino group (-NH2) from the molecule of an organic compound. It plays an important role in metabolic processes, in particular in the catabolism of amino acids.
Deaminases- enzymes of the lyase class, are involved in the deamination of amino acids and ensure their inclusion in carbohydrate metabolism.
Denitrification- the process of reduction of nitrates to nitrites, ammonia and free nitrogen, which occurs under the influence of various types of denitrifying bacteria (for example, Paracoccus denitrificans). It negatively affects soil fertility and manifests itself in the presence of carbohydrates and with a lack of air, high humidity and an alkaline soil reaction. It goes according to the scheme:
NO3 NO2 NH2OH N2
H2O - H2O - H2O
Diazotrophy - the ability of some bacteria to absorb molecular nitrogen from the air (N2). It goes according to the scheme:
N=NNH=NH NH2 - NH2 2NH3
ATP ATP ATP
Nitrogen diimide hydrazine ammonia
iron protein- the second fraction of nitrogenase containing iron. It has a molecular weight of 55,000 and consists of two equal protein subunits. It includes sulfide groups, this fraction is inactivated by oxygen.
cadaverine- ptomaine, a toxic compound formed as a result of the anaerobic breakdown of proteins. Cadaverine is derived from lysine:
NH2 CH2 (CH2 ) 3 CHNH2 COOH NH2 CH2 (CH2 ) 3 CH2 NH2 + CO2
lysine cadaverine dioxide
carbon
Molybdoprotein - the first fraction of nitrogenase containing molybdenum. Preparations of this fraction, isolated from various nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, are similar in properties, but differ in molecular weight (within 180,000 - 270,000). Consists of four proteins, slightly different in molecular weight. Molybdoprotein contains sulfide groups and iron. It is inactivated by oxygen.
Nitrate reductase- an enzyme of the oxidoreductase class, with the participation of molybdenum, catalyzes the reduction of nitrates to nitrites. The activity of this enzyme depends on the level of availability of molybdenum, as well as on the forms of nitrogen used to feed them. With a lack of molybdenum in the nutrient medium, the activity of nitrate reductase sharply decreases.
Nitrite reductase - an enzyme of the oxidoreductase class, with the participation of molybdenum, reduces nitrites to ammonia.
Nitrification - (nitrification- enrichment with nitrate) - the most important biochemical process for soil fertility is the oxidation of ammonia into nitric acid salts (nitrates; or nitrates) through the intermediate stage of nitrous acid by nitrifying bacteria ( Nitrosomonas,Nitrobacter) .
Nitrogenase is an enzyme that binds molecular nitrogen. Catalyzes the reduction of N2 to NH3 in the presence of ATP (energy source) and reducing equivalents.
Proteases- (protein - first place, aza- ending in the names of enzymes) - enzymes that produce the hydrolysis of protein substances to amino acids.
Rhizobia- nodule bacteria of the genus Rhizobium.
Atpeabehind- an enzyme with the help of which urobacteria decompose (deamidate) urea into carbon-ammonium salt, followed by its decomposition into ammonia, carbon dioxide and water.
Block 5
subject: INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL CONDITIONS ON
VITAL ACTIVITIES OF MICROORGANISMS
Abiosis – (abiosis- negation, destruction of life) - is achieved by physical and chemical means. This principle is laid down in hot canning base meat and vegetable products (processing in an autoclave at a temperature of 120 0C and above). At high temperatures, vegetative and spore forms of microbes die, life and its accompanying processes cease, so that the contents of cans can be stored for a long time. You can kill microbes chemically with the help of antiseptics harmless to the human body. Long-term storage of products smoking. The thermal method of sterilizing canned food is more reliable; after it, the products contained in the can do not pose a danger to human health.
Autoclaving - sterilization with saturated steam under pressure; is the most versatile and reliable sterilization method. It is carried out in autoclaves at a pressure of 0.5 atm. (temperature 112 0C) 30-60 minutes; at a pressure of 0.7-1.4 atm. (temperature 115-125 0C) - 20 minutes. The method is widely used for sterilization of canned food.
Alkalophiles - develop at a pH of more than 8 with a maximum value of 11. These include urolytic bacteria, inhabitants of soda salt marshes from the genus Bacillus, and Vibrio cholerae.
Anabiosis ( anabiosis- delay life) - hidden state of life, one of the basic principles of the preservation of plant and animal products. During drying, pickling, salting, sugaring or freezing, the vital activity of microbes is suspended, the processes caused by them are delayed.
Antibiotics are specific chemical substances formed by microorganisms, as well as their derivatives and synthetic analogues, which have the ability to selectively suppress microorganisms and malignant tumor cells.
Antiseptics are substances that have an antimicrobial effect that can kill cells. Used in medical practice, in food production and everyday life. Conditionally divided into two groups:
a) antiseptics used for disinfection (disinfection) premises, equipment and utensils. These can be any highly toxic substances: surfactants, phenols, oxidizing agents, formalin, acids, alkalis, alcohols, chlorine derivatives, etc.;
b) antiseptics used to stabilize food products - preservatives.
acidophiles organisms that live and develop at pH< 6, но предельная кислотность не менее 2. К ним относятся молочнокислые и уксуснокислые бактерии, тиобациллы.
Bacteriostatic action- the impact of adverse environmental factors (physical, chemical, etc.), causing a delay in the growth and reproduction of bacteria.
Bactericidal action - the death of a bacterial organism as a result of exposure to chemical toxic substances, which, interacting with its constituent components, disrupt the functions of the cell.
Barotolerance - the ability of microorganisms to tolerate high hydrostatic pressure (for example, Pseudomonas fluorescens).
Barophilicity. H Some microorganisms of the deep sea and oil reservoirs are not able to grow under normal pressure. They need high pressure and are called barophilic(For example, Vibrio marinus)
Bios - (bios- a life) . One of the basic principles of keeping agricultural products in a living state, but with the maintenance of life activity in them at a low level.
Halophiles - organisms that develop at salinity exceeding salinity sea water called halophilic. An example of such microbes is the genus Halobacterium.
Freezing– storage at negative temperatures. The temperature of industrial and household freezers should be no higher than -15ºС.
Radiation - emission and propagation of energy in the form of waves and particles.
Inhibitors- substances that delay the course of biological processes, inhibiting the catalytic activity of individual enzymes or enzyme systems.
Freeze drying (sublimation)– drying in vacuum from a state frozen to –760 С. This method is used for the preservation of microbial cultures, serum, vaccines, drugs.
mesophiles- microorganisms that have an optimum close to the body temperature of warm-blooded animals. The maximum temperature is close to 550C. This category includes bacteria of the intestinal group, for example, Escherichia coli.
Osmophilicity- the ability of microorganisms to preferentially grow at an increased osmotic pressure, which is caused by organic substances, most often sugars. Osmophilic microbes include fungi of the genus Xeromyces.
Osmotolerance - resistance of microorganisms to high concentrations of osmotically active substances. Osmotolerant organisms are yeasts of the genus Zygosaccharomyces decomposing honey.
Cooling– storage of products at low positive temperatures (+2 - +3ºС). The temperature must be above the freezing point of cell sap. It is intended for storage of fruits and vegetables.
Pasteurization- method of partial sterilization at low temperatures (60-70ºС), used to separate spore-bearing and non-spore-bearing bacteria, as well as for short-term protection against spoilage of certain products (milk, fruit juices).
pyrophiles (hyperthermophiles) - microorganisms that can exist at temperatures of 100 ° C and above (for example, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius).
Psychrophiles- microorganisms that develop at low temperatures in the range from -8 (-10) to + 20ºС. They are found in northern seas, in glaciers, in cold stores (for example, Fusarium nivale) .
Plasmolysis- compression of the cytoplasm with its lagging behind the membrane under the influence of water loss in the cells of microorganisms and plants when they are immersed in solutions with a high concentration of salts, sugar, glycerol.
Sterilization(sterilis- infertile) - deproduction, i.e. complete destruction of microorganisms and all living things in sterilized objects. It is achieved by exposure to high temperatures, hard radiation, chemical toxic substances.
Thermophiles- heat-loving microorganisms growing in the temperature range from +40ºС to +700С. The representative of thermophiles is Clostridium thermocellum.
Cold sterilization- method of wine disinfection in actinator devices, which uses complex irradiation with ultraviolet and infrared rays or ultraviolet combined with ultrasound.
Cenoanabiosis- one of the basic principles of conservation, products, mainly vegetable, which is based on the opposition of some types of microbes to the vital activity of other species. The preservative substance (lactic acid) is produced by the microorganisms themselves during ensiling, fermentation and other methods of preparing feed and vegetables.
BLOCK 6
subject: SPECIAL MICROBIOLOGY
Autochthonous (aboriginal) microflora- constantly present in the soil - in unfertilized, uncultivated. Participates in the processes of formation of humus and its decomposition (representatives - genera Mycobacterium, Azotobacter, Micromyces).
Azotobacterin(or nitrogen) - a bacterial soil-fertilizing preparation containing a pure culture of Azotobacter and used when sowing seeds of cereal crops and when planting seedlings of vegetable plants. It is an environmentally friendly nitrogen fertilizer that optimizes the mineral nutrition of plants.
Antagonism- a form of negative biological connections, the suppression of the vital activity of one organism by another. There are several types of antagonism:
a) passive (competitive) antagonism- interaction in which different microorganisms use the same food substrates. Fast-growing and reproducing species have an advantage;
b) active antagonism - due to the release of bactericidal substances - metabolic products. For example, lactic acid bacteria, releasing lactic acid as the main product of fermentation, thereby inhibit putrefactive bacteria.
Antibiosis- a form of negative biological bonds, suppression of the vital activity of other organisms by isolating specific substances - antibiotics.
Antibiotics- These are specific chemicals formed by microorganisms, as well as their derivatives and synthetic analogues, which have the ability to selectively suppress microorganisms and malignant tumor cells. Strong producers of antibiotics are filamentous fungi, actinomycetes, and some bacteria.
Zymogenic microflora- microorganisms that have the ability to produce powerful hydrolytic enzymes and appear in the soil when large amounts of fresh organic matter enter, carry out its rough decomposition (examples: saccharolytics: Saccharomyces, Rhodotorula, Streptomyces, Cryptococcus, Clostridium; pulp breakers: Withytophaga, Aspergillus, Cellvibrio, Penicillium; ammonifiers: bacillus, Proteus). Commensalism is a form of symbiosis. The coexistence of two organisms in which only one partner benefits without harming the other. Commensals include saptrotrophic microflora of mucous membranes and skin, epiphytic microflora of plants.
Mesosaprobic zone– zone of moderate water pollution. The content of organic matter is low. There are intensive processes of oxidation and nitrification.
Metabiosis- this is a form of interspecific relations in which the metabolic products of one type of microorganism are a food or energy substrate for another species. Such relationships are typical for nitrifying bacteria ( Nitrosomonas,Nitrobacter) : the waste product of the nitrifiers of the first phase - nitrous acid - serves as an energy substrate for the pathogens of the second phase.
Mycorrhiza (fungus root). The roots of most higher plants are infected with fungi. As a result, the structure of the plant root changes: a symbiotic structure is formed, which is called mycorrhiza (fungal root). Plants that form mycorrhiza benefit from mineral nutrition: they absorb significantly more water and nutrients than plants without mycorrhiza.
Mutualism- a form of positive biological relationships, mutually beneficial coexistence of two organisms without obligation. Both partners can exist separately, but in symbiosis they increase each other's productivity (example: leguminous plants and nodule bacteria).
Microbial water assessment produced according to the following :
microbial count- the number of colonies grown in Petri dishes on meat peptone agar (MPA) from 1 ml of tap or artesian water at a temperature of 37 ° C for 24 hours. The microbial number of drinking (tap) water should be no more than 100.
Koli - caption- the smallest volume of water in milliliters, in which one Escherichia coli is found. The coli-titer of drinking (tap) water must be at least 300.
Koli - index- the number of Escherichia coli in 1 liter of water. In tap water, it should not exceed 3.
Obligate (classic) symbiosis- a form of interspecies relations. The coexistence of two organisms that, under certain conditions, cannot do without each other. An example is complex symbiotic organisms - lichens, in which algae (autotrophic component) and mycelium (heterotrophic component) cannot exist without each other under certain harsh living conditions.
Oligotrophic microflora- microorganisms that are able to assimilate scanty amounts of organic matter, completing the process of mineralization in the soil. More often they have an exotic morphology (budding bacteria, stalk bacteria).
Oligosaprobic zone– zone of low water pollution. Microbes are not numerous: 1 ml of water contains tens or hundreds of microbial cells; Escherichia coli is absent. Organic matter is mineralized; self-purification of water has ended or is being completed.
b) genetic characteristic of viruses and bacteriophages, as well as rickettsiae, capable of using the genetic apparatus of the host cell to obtain all the necessary metabolites.
Polysaprobic zone- zone of the strongest water pollution. The water here is rich in plant and animal remains, contains proteins, fiber, pectin, glycogen, etc. It is characterized by the development of anaerobic microbial processes - fermentation and ammonification of protein substances. In such an environment, oxygen is quickly absorbed.
Rizotrophin- a soil fertilizing preparation of nodule bacteria of the genus Rhizobium. The base is lowland peat sterilized by Υ-irradiation, to which nutrients for nodule bacteria are added. It is applied when sowing legumes along with seeds.
Saprobicity - indicator about contamination of water with microbes.
haylage- high quality feed obtained with the participation of lactic acid bacteria. Humidity of the preserved mass is 50-65% - much lower than normal humidity (75%).
Phytoncides- special substances released by plants during their life, diverse in chemical nature, but possessing common property detrimental effect on microorganisms and therefore related to the number antibiotics. Antibiotics derived from plants:
-allicin- an antibiotic formed by garlic plants;
-arenarin- an antibiotic formed from immortelle;
-imanin- an antibiotic derived from St. John's wort.
Predation- this is the satisfaction of one's nutritional needs at the expense of the body - the victim when she is killed. Predators include many ciliates and a predator mushroom Dactularia, which has devices for catching soil nematodes.
Cellulose breakers- a variety of microorganisms that cause the decomposition of cellulose are able to form the hydrolytic enzyme cellulase. Anaerobic: ferment fiber with the formation of organic acids and hydrogen ( Clostridium omelianskii). Aerobic oxidize fiber to end products - CO2 and H2O (Cytophaga hutchinsonii, Cellvibrio ochracea) .
Epiphytic microflora- These are microorganisms that live on the surface of plant macroorganisms without penetrating into their tissues. Examples of epiphytic microorganisms: bacteria : Pseudomonas herbicola, Flavobacterium, Sarcina(55 types), yeast: Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, filamentous mushrooms: Cladosporium, Alternaria, Botrytis, Fusarium.
BLOCK 7
VIROLOGY
Absorption- fastening of the bacteriophage on the wall of the bacterium with the help of spikes and tentacles of the basal plate.
Agglutination (agglutinare- glue) - gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of microorganisms, erythrocytes and other cells. Occurs as a result of the interaction of antibodies and antigens. One of the most commonly used serological tests for detecting relevant antibodies in serum, determining blood groups and identifying microorganisms.
Antigens - complex organic substances that are perceived by the body as foreign. When entering the body of animals, they can cause an immune response in the form of the formation of antibodies.
Antibodies- protective substances of a protein nature, formed in a living organism and accumulating in the blood serum under the influence of introduction into the body antigens. They form the basis of immunity and are characterized by a strict specificity of interaction with the antigen that caused their formation.
bacteriophage- a bacterial virus that has the ability to dissolve (lead) living bacteria, invisible in conventional microscopic examination and widespread in nature (soil, water, intestines of animals and humans):
- moderate- these phages in life cycle undergo the first three stages (absorption, injection, incorporation into the nucleoid), and then replicate synchronously with the bacterial chromosome. When a bacterium reproduces, the infectious principle passes into daughter cells.
- virulent- a phage capable of dissolving (lysing) bacteria under the influence of environmental conditions (UV, X-rays).
Virion - an extracellular form of a virus, an inert infectious particle, which consists of a nucleic acid and a protein shell-capsid.
Viroids are the smallest known pathogens; they are much smaller than the smallest viral genomes and lack a protein coat. Only plant viroids are known; they consist of a single-stranded RNA molecule that replicates autonomously in infected cells.
Immunological method- any virus, whether plant, animal or bacterial, behaves as an effective antigen when administered to rabbits or other small mammals. As a result, specific antibodies are formed that react with antigens (viruses) and are used to detect them.
indicator plants- these are plants that react with characteristic symptoms to infection with a virus.
Inoculation– infection with a plant virus (inoculation with juice).
Injection- injection of phage DNA into the bacterial cell.
capsid- the protein shell of the virus, consists of protein subunits - capsomeres.
capsomer- protein subunit of the capsid.
Lysogeny - form of existence of a moderate bacteriophage in a bacterial cell. Phage DNA is integrated into the chromosome of the host cell and replicates synchronously with it. The viral properties of the phage are not manifested.
precipitation(from lat. praecipitacio- falling down, precipitation) - a reaction that allows the precipitation of viruses (antigens) using antibodies, has high sensitivity and specificity.
Polyhedral capsid- the shape of a capsid with a cubic type of symmetry.
replication- the process of self-reproduction of macromolecules of nucleic acids, which ensures the exact copying of genetic information and its transmission from generation to generation.
Retrovirus a family of RNA viruses. The diameter of viral particles is 70-120 nm. The capsid is icosahedral, enclosed in a lipoprotein membrane. They are characterized by RNA-dependent DNA synthesis (reverse transcription).
Types of viral symptoms:
1) Mosaic- uneven green color of the leaf blade or the presence of yellowish or light green spots.
2) Chlorosis- general or symmetrical yellowing of leaf tissues.
3) Necrosis- the death of plant tissues is often the result of mosaic or chlorosis with their strong development, but often develops independently. Local necrosis is distinguished - the plant develops at the sites of infection and systemic (diffuse) necrosis - can manifest itself on any parts of the plant.
4) Deformation plant organs are diverse and can be caused by physiological disorders that have led to a change in the morphology of the organs or the entire plant. As a result of a violation of the coordination of growth, wrinkling, curliness, swelling, and curvature of the shoots develop.
5) Growth inhibition can be expressed in the general dwarfing of plants, shortening of the internodes at the top of the shoot.
6) Withering observed with severe damage to the vascular system.
7) Growth(proliferation). The immediate causes of overgrowth may be a disturbance of dormancy of axillary and wintering buds or degeneration and vegetative growth of generative organs.
8) Abortion- abscission of flowers and set fruits or individual seeds in the fruit, seedlessness of fruits.
9) Neoplasms- tumors on various parts of the plant (for example, proliferation of leaf veins), leaf-shaped outgrowths of enations, etc. .
10) Anthocyanosis - purple, red-violet or blue-violet coloration of leaves or their edges, veins, stems.
11) Variegation- uneven coloring and partial discoloration of the petals.
Transduction - transfer of genetic information by a bacteriophage from one bacterial cell to another.
Electrophoresis - movement of charged particles in an electric field. Used to separate a mixture of proteins, peptides, viruses, etc.
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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Ural State Agricultural Academy
Test
"Plant Microbiology"
Completed by: Bunkov I.A.
Yekaterinburg 2012
Introduction
5. Microbiology of feed, hay
6. The role of microorganisms in nature and agriculture production
Conclusion
Introduction
Microbiology (from micro... and biology), a science that studies microorganisms - bacteria, mycoplasmas, actinomycetes, yeasts, microscopic fungi and algae - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, heredity and variability, distribution and role in the circulation of substances in nature, practical value.
The science of the smallest organisms that are not visible to the naked eye. Microbiology studies the structure of microbes (morphology), their chemical organization and patterns of life (physiology), variability and heredity (genetics of microorganisms), relationships with other organisms, including humans, and their role in the formation of the biosphere. During the historical The development of microbiology as a science was divided into general, agricultural, veterinary, medical and industrial. General microbiology studies the patterns of vital activity of microbes as organisms, as well as the role of microbes in maintaining life on Earth, in particular, their participation in the cycle of carbon, nitrogen, energy, etc.
1. Three areas of practical application
So, microbiology is a science that studies microorganisms, their properties, distribution and role in the cycle of substances in nature. Three areas of practical application of microbiological knowledge are widely known, three main areas, without which it is impossible to imagine modern life. One of these areas is medical microbiology, which studies pathogenic microorganisms and develops methods to combat them. Medical microbiology. includes bacteriology, which studies bacteria - the causative agents of infectious diseases, mycology - a section on pathogenic fungi, protozoology, the object of study of which are pathogenic unicellular animal organisms, and, finally, honey. Virology is the study of pathogenic viruses. Reliable information about microbes was first obtained in the second half of the 17th century. by the Dutch scientist A. Leeuwenhoek, who described "living animals" in water, plaque, and infusions when viewed through a simple microscope that magnified objects 250-300 times.
Another is technical microbiology, under the "protection" of which is the production of alcohol and dairy products (using fermentation processes), vitamins, antibiotics and hormones that are so necessary for a person. Technical, or industrial, microbiology studies chemical processes caused by microbes that lead to the formation of alcohols, acetone and other products important to humans. In recent years, such areas of technical microbiology as the production of vitamins, amino acids and antibiotics have also developed widely.
The third independent area of this science is soil microbiology, which studies the participation of microorganisms in soil processes in order to optimize their use in agricultural production.
Microbiology entered the circle of scientific disciplines as early as the 17th century: its appearance is closely connected with the invention of the microscope. The golden age of microbiology began at the end of the 19th century, when the industrial and technical development of human society, together with the development of the chemistry of dyes, the progress of optics, and the remarkable discoveries of bacteriologists, made a real revolution in medicine and medical thinking. The discovery of the causative agents of a significant part of the infectious diseases of humans and animals - pathogens found in a peculiar kingdom of microorganisms can be attributed to separate links of this "revolution".
About what exactly refers to the motley galaxy of microorganisms, to the sphere controlled by microbiology, many do not always have an accurate and complete idea. Over the years, microbiology has become a vast and complex scientific discipline, and the reason for this lies not in some artificial complication of it, but in the fact that groups of microorganisms were discovered that could not be adjusted to any single, common denominator. This forced the division of microbiology into several special departments.
So far, five such “provinces” have been identified in the “state” of microbiology. True, its further development and differentiation definitely show that this five-membered subdivision is not final. But for today it satisfies us quite well. Here is a brief listing and definition of the groups mentioned.
Virology is the study of viruses.
Bacteriology deals with the study of bacteria (experts consider them the most ancient inhabitants of the Earth) and actinomycetes (single-celled microorganisms similar in organization to bacteria).
Mycology is the study of lower (microscopic) fungi.
Algology is the study of microscopic algae.
Protozoology has the object of its study of the simplest - unicellular animals, standing in the system of classification on the verge of the plant and animal worlds.
We have listed these divisions according to the increase in the size of microorganisms.
Viruses in comparison with other groups of microorganisms are immeasurably smaller. It was their negligible size that gave microbiologists (in the period of the birth of virology) the main opportunity to distinguish them from bacteria. Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometers (one nanometer is equal to a millionth of a millimeter).
In the "young years" of virology, the term "filterable virus" (from Latin virus - poison) was used to refer to a non-bacterial pathogen of any disease.
The original term emphasized the peculiar property of pathogens - the ability to pass through filters that do not let the smallest bacteria pass.
Further studies have shown that viruses represent a special group of infectious agents and their study requires the use of completely new methods. As a result, a new independent branch of microbiology, virology, emerged. This allocation was unconditionally accepted by all scientists. From the very beginning, virology was regarded as the younger sister of bacteriology.
However, between these two branches of science, or rather, their objects, there is an essential difference.
Bacteriologists have relatively long discovered, along with pathogenic bacteria, those that are simply necessary for the life of humans, animals and plants, for the normal course of the natural circulation of substances in nature and many technological processes in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
2. Emergence and development of microbiology
microorganism biology food
Several thousand years before the emergence of microbiology as a science, man, unaware of the existence of microorganisms, widely used them for the preparation of koumiss and other fermented milk products, for the production of wine, beer, vinegar, for ensiling fodder, and flax lobe. For the first time, bacteria and yeast were seen by A. Leeuwenhoek, who examined dental plaque, herbal infusions, beer, etc. with the help of microscopes he made. The creator of microbiology as a science was L. Pasteur, who elucidated the role of microorganisms in fermentations (winemaking, brewing) and in the occurrence of animal and human diseases. Of exceptional importance for the fight against infectious diseases was the method of preventive vaccinations proposed by Pasteur, based on the introduction of weakened cultures of pathogenic microorganisms into the body of an animal or person. Long before the discovery of viruses, Pasteur proposed vaccination against a viral disease - rabies. He also proved that in modern terrestrial conditions spontaneous generation of life is impossible. These works served as a scientific basis for the sterilization of surgical instruments and dressings, the preparation of canned food, the pasteurization of food products, etc. Pasteur's ideas on the role of microorganisms in the circulation of matter in nature were developed by the founder of general microbiology in Russia, S. N. Vinogradsky, who discovered chemoautotrophic microorganisms (they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere due to the energy of oxidation of inorganic substances; see Chemosynthesis), nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, and bacteria that decompose cellulose under aerobic conditions. His student V. L. Omelyansky discovered anaerobic bacteria that ferment, that is, decompose cellulose under anaerobic conditions, and bacteria that form methane. A significant contribution to the development of microbiology was made by the Dutch school of microbiologists, who studied the ecology, physiology, and biochemistry of various groups of microorganisms (Mikrobiology Beijerinck, A. Kluiver, and K. van Niel). An important role in the development of medical microbiology belongs to R. Koch, who proposed dense nutrient media for growing microorganisms and discovered the causative agents of tuberculosis and cholera. The development of medical microbiology and immunology was promoted by E. Behring (Germany), E. Roux (France), S. Kitazato (Japan), and in Russia and the USSR by I.I. Mechnikov, L.A. Tarasevich, D.K. Zabolotny, N.F. Gamaleya.
The development of microbiology and the needs of practice led to the separation of a number of sections of microbiology into independent scientific disciplines. General microbiology studies the fundamental laws of the biology of microorganisms. Knowledge of the basics of general microbiology is necessary when working in any of the special sections of microbiology; the content, boundaries and tasks of general microbiology have gradually changed.
Previously, the objects studied by her also included viruses, protozoa of plant or animal origin (protozoa), higher fungi and algae. Foreign manuals on general microbiology still describe these objects.
The task of technical or industrial microbiology includes the study and implementation of microbiological processes used to obtain yeast, feed protein, lipids, bacterial fertilizers, as well as the production of antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, etc., by microbiological synthesis. . (see also Microbiological Industry).
Agricultural microbiology elucidates the composition of soil microflora, its role in the cycle of substances in the soil, as well as its significance for the structure and fertility of the soil, the effect of processing on microbiological processes in it, and the effect of bacterial preparations on plant productivity. The task of agricultural microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause plant diseases, and the fight against them, the development of microbiological methods of controlling insects - pests of agricultural crops. plants and forest species, as well as methods of fodder conservation, flax lobe, crop protection from spoilage caused by microorganisms.
Geological microbiology studies the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits, and proposes methods for obtaining (leaching) metals (copper, germanium, uranium, and tin) and other minerals from ores with the help of bacteria.
Aquatic Microbiology studies the quantitative and qualitative composition of the microflora of salt and fresh waters and its role in the biochemical processes occurring in water bodies, monitors the quality of drinking water, and improves microbiological methods of wastewater treatment.
The task of medical microbiology includes the study of microorganisms that cause human diseases and the development of effective methods to combat them. The same questions regarding agricultural and other animals are solved by veterinary microbiology.
The peculiarity of the structure and reproduction of viruses, as well as the use of special methods for their study, led to the emergence of virology as an independent science that is not related to microbiology.
Both general microbiology and its special sections are developing exceptionally rapidly. There are three main reasons for this development. First, thanks to advances in physics, chemistry, and technology, microbiology has acquired a large number of new research methods. Second, there has been a sharp increase practical use microorganisms. Thirdly, microorganisms began to be used to solve the most important biological problems, such as heredity and variability, biosynthesis of organic compounds, regulation of metabolism, etc. The successful development of modern microbiology is impossible without a harmonious combination of research conducted at the population, cellular, organoid and molecular levels. . To obtain cell-free enzyme systems and fractions containing certain intracellular structures, apparatuses are used that destroy microorganism cells, as well as gradient centrifugation, which makes it possible to obtain cell particles with different masses. To study the morphology and cytology of microorganisms, new types of microscopic equipment have been developed. In the USSR, the method of capillary microscopy was invented, which made it possible to discover a new, previously unobservable world of microorganisms with peculiar morphology and physiology.
To study the metabolism and chemical composition of microorganisms, various methods of chromatography, mass spectrometry, the method of isotope indicators, electrophoresis, and other physical and physicochemical methods have become widespread. Pure preparations of enzymes are also used to detect organic compounds. New methods for isolating and chemically purifying waste products of microorganisms (adsorption and chromatography on ion-exchange resins, as well as immunochemical methods based on the specific adsorption of a certain product, such as an enzyme, by animal antibodies formed after the introduction of this substance) have been proposed. The combination of cytological and biochemical research methods led to the emergence of functional morphology of microorganisms. Using an electron microscope, it became possible to study the fine features of the structure of cytoplasmic membranes and ribosomes, their composition and functions (for example, the role of cytoplasmic membranes in the processes of transport of various substances or the participation of ribosomes in protein biosynthesis).
Laboratories were enriched with fermenters of various capacities and designs. Continuous cultivation of microorganisms, based on a constant influx of fresh growth medium and outflow of liquid culture. It has been established that along with cell reproduction (culture growth), culture develops, i.e. age-related changes in the cells that make up the culture, accompanied by a change in their physiology (young cells, even multiplying intensively, are not able to synthesize many waste products, for example, acetone, butanol , antibiotics produced by older cultures). Modern methods of studying the physiology and biochemistry of microorganisms have made it possible to decipher the features of their energy metabolism, pathways for the biosynthesis of amino acids, many proteins, antibiotics, certain lipids, hormones, and other compounds, and also to establish the principles of regulation of metabolism in microorganisms.
3. Connection of microbiology with other sciences
Microbiology is to some extent connected with other sciences: morphology and systematics lower plants and animals (mycology, algology, protistology), plant physiology, biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, evolutionary theory, molecular biology, organic chemistry, agrochemistry, soil science, biogeochemistry, hydrobiology, chemical and microbiological technology, etc. Microorganisms are favorite objects of research in solving general problems of biochemistry and genetics (see Genetics of microorganisms, Molecular genetics). So, with the help of mutants that have lost the ability to carry out one of the stages of the biosynthesis of any substance, the mechanisms for the formation of many natural compounds (for example, the amino acids lysine, arginine, etc.) were deciphered. The study of the mechanism of molecular nitrogen fixation for its reproduction on an industrial scale is aimed at searching for catalysts similar to those that carry out nitrogen fixation in bacterial cells under mild conditions. There is constant competition between microbiology and chemistry in choosing the most economical routes for the synthesis of various organic substances. A number of substances that were previously obtained microbiologically are now produced on the basis of a purely chemical synthesis (ethyl and butyl alcohols, acetone, methionine, the antibiotic chloramphenicol, etc.). Some syntheses are carried out both chemically and microbiologically (vitamin B2, lysine, etc.). In a number of industries, microbiological and chemical methods are combined (penicillin, steroid hormones, vitamin C, etc.). Finally, there are products and preparations that so far can only be obtained by microbiological synthesis (many antibiotics of complex structure, enzymes, lipids, feed protein, etc.).
4. Practical importance of microbiology
Actively participating in the cycle of substances in nature, microorganisms play an important role in soil fertility, in the productivity of water bodies, in the formation and destruction of mineral deposits. The ability of microorganisms to mineralize the organic remains of animals and plants is especially important. The ever-increasing use of microorganisms in practice has led to the emergence of the microbiological industry and to a significant expansion of microbiological research in various branches of industry and agriculture. Previously, technical microbiology mainly studied various fermentations, and microorganisms were used mainly in the food industry. New areas of technical microbiology are also developing rapidly, requiring a different instrumentation for microbiological processes. The cultivation of microorganisms began to be carried out in large-capacity closed fermenters, methods were improved for separating the cells of microorganisms from the cultural liquid, isolating from the latter and chemically purifying their metabolic products. One of the first arose and developed the production of antibiotics. Amino acids (lysine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, etc.), enzymes, vitamins, and fodder yeasts are obtained on a large scale microbiologically from nonfood raw materials (sulfite liquors, hydrolysates of wood, peat, and agricultural plant waste, petroleum hydrocarbons, and natural gas, phenolic or starchy wastewater, etc.). Microbiological production of polysaccharides is being carried out and industrial biosynthesis of lipids is being mastered. The use of microorganisms in agriculture has increased dramatically. The production of bacterial fertilizers has increased, in particular nitragin, which is prepared from cultures of nodule bacteria that fix nitrogen under conditions of symbiosis with legumes and is used to infect seeds of legumes. New direction of page - x. microbiology is connected with microbiological methods of struggle against insects and their larvae - pests of page - x. plants and forests. Bacteria and fungi that kill these pests with their toxins have been found, and the production of appropriate drugs has been mastered. Dried cells of lactic acid bacteria are used to treat intestinal diseases of humans and page - x. animals.
The division of microorganisms into useful and harmful is conditional, because. evaluation of the results of their activities depends on the conditions in which it manifests itself. Thus, the decomposition of cellulose by microorganisms is important and useful in plant residues or in the digestion of food in the digestive tract (animals and humans are not able to absorb cellulose without its preliminary hydrolysis by the microbial cellulase enzyme). At the same time, cellulose-decomposing microorganisms destroy fishing nets, ropes, cardboard, paper, books, cotton fabrics, etc. To obtain protein, microorganisms are grown on hydrocarbons of oil or natural gas. At the same time, large quantities of oil and products of its processing are decomposed by microorganisms in oil fields or during their storage. Even pathogenic microorganisms cannot be classified as absolutely harmful, because. vaccines are prepared from them that protect animals or humans from diseases. Spoilage by microorganisms of plant and animal raw materials, foodstuffs, building and industrial materials and products has led to the development of various methods for their protection (low temperature, drying, sterilization, canning, adding antibiotics and preservatives, acidification, etc.). In other cases, it becomes necessary to speed up the decomposition of certain chemical substances, such as pesticides, in the soil. The role of microorganisms in wastewater treatment (mineralization of substances contained in wastewater) is great.
5. Microbiology of feed, hay
Ordinary hay is made from cut grasses that have a moisture content of 70-80% and contain a large amount of free water. Microorganisms use this water for their development. During the drying process, free water evaporates and remains bound, which is inaccessible to microorganisms.
At a hay moisture content of 12-17%, microbiological processes stop, which stops the destruction of dried plants. After drying, a large number of epiphytes remain in the hay, which are in an anabiotic state, since there are no conditions for their reproduction in such an environment. When water gets inside the stack or stack, the activity of microorganisms begins to intensify. The process is characterized by an increase in temperature to 40-50 degrees and above.
In this case, the death of mesophiles occurs, and the activity of microorganisms begins to intensify. After 4-5 days, the temperature rises to 70-80 degrees, charring occurs, the plants become first brown and then black. At 90 degrees, microorganisms cease their activity. Brown hay is prepared as follows: mowed and well-dried grass is folded into small piles, then into stacks, stacks. Since the plant mass still contains free water, microorganisms begin to multiply, heat is released, which contributes to the final drying of the plants.
Senage - a method of preserving dried herbs, mainly legumes, harvested at the beginning of budding. Grasses are mowed, laid in rolls. A day later, the grass, dried to 50-55% moisture, is picked up, crushed and loaded into well-insulated feed storages.
In trenches, the plant mass is compacted, insulated with a plastic film, on which straw, sawdust, and then earth are placed. Haylage is a green plant mass with low humidity, preserved under the influence of physiological dryness and biochemical processes caused by microorganisms, when it is in feed storage facilities isolated from atmospheric oxygen. The number of lactic acid and putrefactive microbes in haylage is 4-5 times less than in silage.
The maximum number of microorganisms is formed on the 15th day. The rate of flow of microbiological processes is associated with the formation of organic acids. Carbohydrates serve as energy material for animals and microorganisms. Microorganisms convert soluble carbohydrates into organic acids and thereby deplete the feed.
In haylage, as a result of the hydrolysis of polysaccharides, the amount of sugar increases. Increased osmotic pressure primarily inhibits the growth of butyric microbes, then lactic acid and putrefactive ones. This creates favorable conditions for the development of lactic acid bacteria. This lowers the pH, which, together with the pressure, prevents the development of butyric acid bacteria, so there is no butyric acid in the silage. Feed yeasting is a microbiological method of preparing feed for feeding.
Yeast enriches food not only with protein, but also with vitamins and enzymes. For economic purposes, cultural races of yeast have been bred: beer, baker, fodder. Yeast contains 48-52% proteins, 13-16 carbohydrates, 2-3 fats, 22-40 BEV, 6-10% ash, many amino acids.
Yeast requires oxygen for its growth and development, a temperature of 25-30 degrees, the yeast process lasts 9-12 hours. Yeast breeds on feed plant origin which are rich in carbohydrates. Feed of animal origin should not be yeasted, as putrefactive microorganisms quickly develop on such media.
Yeast is carried out in a dry, bright and spacious room. 3 ways: steamy, steamless, starter. Spongy: prepare a dough - diluted pressed yeast 1% is mixed with food (fifth), for 6 hours every 20 minutes is stirred, then the rest of the food is added, double the amount of water and mixed again.
The mixture is left for another 3 hours, during which, with occasional stirring, yeast occurs. The safe method is based on the yeasting of the entire mass of feed at once. Take 1% pressed yeast, dilute warm water, mixed with feed and double the amount of water. For 8-10 hours, the mixture is stirred every 30 minutes.
The starter method is used when there is little yeast. The starter is prepared: 0.5 kg of pressed yeast is propagated in a small amount of well-fermenting carbohydrate feed at a temperature of 30 degrees for 5 hours. Then the food is malted, doused with boiling water, and kept at a temperature of at least 60 degrees for 5-6 hours. The same amount of water and half of the leaven are added to the malted feed. Stir, cover and leave for 6 hours in a warm place.
The second part of the starter is added to a new portion of the malted feed and this is done 5-10 times, after which a new primary starter is prepared.
6. The role of microorganisms in nature and agricultural production
The wide distribution of microorganisms indicates their enormous role in nature. With their participation, the decomposition of various organic substances in soils and water bodies occurs, they determine the circulation of substances and energy in nature; soil fertility, the formation of coal, oil, and many other minerals depend on their activity. Microorganisms are involved in rock weathering and other natural processes. With the most active, wide participation of microorganisms in nature, mainly in the soil and hydrosphere, two opposite processes are constantly carried out: the synthesis of complex organic compounds from mineral substances and, conversely, the decomposition of organic substances into mineral ones. The unity of these opposite processes underlies the biological role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances in nature.
Among the various processes of transformation of substances in nature, in which microorganisms take an active part, the circulation of nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, iron is of paramount importance for the implementation of the life of plants, animals and humans on Earth. Many microorganisms are used in industrial and agricultural production. Thus, baking, the manufacture of fermented milk products, winemaking, the production of vitamins, enzymes, food and feed proteins, organic acids, and many substances used in agriculture, industry, and medicine are based on the activity of various microorganisms.
The use of microorganisms in crop production and animal husbandry is especially important. The enrichment of the soil with nitrogen, the control of pests of agricultural crops with the help of microbial preparations, the proper preparation and storage of feed, the creation of feed protein, antibiotics and microbial substances for animal feed depend on them. Microorganisms have positive influence on the processes of decomposition of substances of non-natural origin - xenobiotics, artificially synthesized, falling into soils and water bodies and polluting them.
Along with beneficial microorganisms, there is a large group of so-called disease-causing, or pathogenic, microorganisms that cause various diseases of agricultural animals, plants, insects and humans. Some microorganisms cause damage to agricultural products, lead to soil depletion in nitrogen, cause pollution of water bodies, and the accumulation of toxic substances (for example, microbial toxins). As a result of their vital activity, epidemics of contagious diseases of humans and animals arise, which affects the development of the economy and the productive forces of society. The latest scientific data not only significantly expanded the understanding of soil microorganisms and the processes they cause in the environment, but also made it possible to create new industries in industry and agricultural production.
For example, antibiotics secreted by soil microorganisms have been discovered, and the possibility of their use for the treatment of humans, animals and plants, as well as for the storage of agricultural products, has been shown. The ability of soil microorganisms to form biologically active substances: vitamins, amino acids, plant growth stimulants - growth substances, etc. Ways have been found to use the protein of microorganisms for feeding farm animals. Microbial preparations have been identified that enhance the flow of nitrogen into the soil from the air. The discovery of new methods for obtaining hereditarily modified forms of beneficial microorganisms has made it possible to use microorganisms more widely in agricultural and industrial production, as well as in medicine.
The development of gene or genetic engineering is especially promising. Its achievements ensured the development of biotechnology, the emergence of highly productive microorganisms synthesizing proteins, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, growth substances and other products necessary for animal husbandry and crop production. Humanity has always been in contact with microorganisms, for millennia without even knowing it.
Since time immemorial, people have observed dough fermentation, prepared alcoholic beverages, fermented milk, made cheese, suffered various diseases, including epidemic ones. However, until the middle of the last century, no one even imagined that various kinds of fermentation processes and diseases could be the result of the activity of negligibly small creatures.
Conclusion
On the basis of certain facts, it can be assumed that virological research will retain the role of the main driving force in microbiology for at least the next thirty to fifty years. Current state This rapidly developing research suggests that the progress made in improving and accelerating the diagnostic processes for viral diseases, so important for immediate and specific therapeutic measures, will continue.
Why is immediate intervention so important? Yes, because as soon as the virus in the cells begins to multiply and causes the characteristic symptoms of the disease in the patient's body, the introduction of any drugs will no longer be able to achieve full success.
In connection with the development of diagnostics, undoubtedly, new “generations” of drugs will be created faster, more perfectly “fitted” to this disease. When making them, they will proceed from knowledge of the characteristics of the molecular biology of reproduction of certain types of viruses, as well as the specifics of the biochemical properties of various types of cells (nerve, liver cells, etc.).
With a high probability, one can expect a significant expansion and deepening of knowledge about the viral origin of many lesions of the central nervous system, proceeding according to the degenerative type, from which many people suffer. Undoubtedly, the list of diseases, either caused by viruses or those in which the virus plays a dominant role along with other factors, will expand significantly.
The accelerated and increasingly efficient progress of infectious disease research in modern era can be illustrated by many convincing facts. From 1880 to 1950, new discoveries accumulated relatively slowly, although it was during these 70 years that many major observations were made. In the subsequent period, virology began to develop at a much faster pace due to the use of new scientific approaches and techniques.
Virologists have received a more or less complete picture of the structure of viruses and information about the mechanism of infection of a cell with a virus. Great progress can also be noted in studies of viral infections at the molecular level, in connection with which success can also be expected in the search for new antiviral substances. There are already some encouraging facts here, including tumors of viral origin.
Thanks to the efforts of the World Health Organization and the intensive development of medicine in many countries of the world, the system of virological and epidemiological surveillance has been improved in the elimination of mass viral infections, as well as in the detection of contagious diseases that had not previously been found in these areas. The medical service strictly controls passenger and goods, international and intercontinental transport in order to prevent the "import" of infections from other countries not only by passengers, crew, but also by animals and even plants transported. The search for possible centers of infectious diseases is carried out in the most remote corners of our planet, and highly specialized units of the health service penetrate into developing countries, where even in the recent past it was difficult to even think about eliminating infectious diseases. In our time of heavy use of transport and a brisk exchange of goods, the seriousness of "local" infections cannot be neglected. Today, such an infection that occurs in one country can, thanks to high-speed transport, manifest itself in a place hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from the original focus.
List of used literature
1. Achievements of Soviet microbiology, Microbiology, 1989; Microbiology, Fundamentals of Microbiology, trans. from English, Microbiology, 1995;
2. Rabotnova I.L., General microbiology, Microbiology, 1966; "Microbiology", 1987, v. 36, c. 6;
3. Meynell J., Meynell E., Experimental microbiology, trans. from English, Microbiology, 1967;
4. Schlegel G., General microbiology, trans. from German, Microbiology, 1972.
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Patterns of quantitative and qualitative content of microorganisms in fresh water bodies from various factors. The entry of pathogenic microorganisms into water and their survival in the aquatic environment. The concept of sanitary-indicative microorganisms.
term paper, added 11/28/2011
Microbiological standards of drinking water and methods of its purification. Characteristics of intestinal bacteriophages, their significance as sanitary indicative microorganisms. Major foodborne infections. Influence of drying and freezing of fish products on microorganisms.
test, added 08/06/2015
Soil as a habitat and the main edaphic factors, assessment of its role and importance in the life of living organisms. The distribution of animals in the soil, the ratio of plants to it. The role of microorganisms, plants and animals in soil-forming processes.
- AGRICULTURAL
COOPERATION - a system of various agricultural cooperatives and their unions created by agricultural producers in order to meet their economic and other ... - AGRICULTURAL in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
COMMUNE - a form of agricultural production cooperative in the early years of Soviet power. In C to all means of production, land use, distribution were socialized ... - AGRICULTURAL in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ARTEL (KOLHOZ) is an agricultural cooperative created by citizens on the basis of voluntary membership for joint activities in the production, processing, marketing of agricultural products, ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Encyclopedia of Biology:
the science that studies microorganisms. Formed in the 2nd floor. 19th century influenced by the works of L. Pasteur, who proved the microbial nature of fermentation and ... - MICROBIOLOGY in Medical terms:
(micro- + biology) the science of microorganisms that studies their structure, physiology and biochemistry, systematics, genetics, significance in human life, in living ... - MICROBIOLOGY
(from micro... and biology) a science that studies microorganisms, their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, distribution and role in the circulation of substances in ... - MICROBIOLOGY
(from micro... and biology), the science that studies microorganisms - bacteria, mycoplasmas, actinomycetes, yeasts, microscopic fungi ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- MICROBIOLOGY
(from micro... and biology), a science that studies microorganisms, their systematics, morphology, biological properties, distribution and role in the cycle of substances in nature, ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
and, pl. no, w. The science that studies microorganisms and their practical significance and application. A microbiologist is a scientist who specializes in microbiology. Microbiological … - MICROBIOLOGY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -i, f. A branch of biologists that studies microorganisms. II adj. microbiological, th, ... - AGRICULTURAL
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY, the same as agrometeorology ... - AGRICULTURAL in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY, see Commune agricultural ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
"MICROBIOLOGY", scientific. journal of the Russian Academy of Sciences, since 1932, Moscow. Founders (1998) - Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Chemistry of Physiologically Active Compounds and Inst ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
MICROBIOLOGY (from micro... and biology), the science that studies microorganisms, their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, distribution and role in ... - MICROBIOLOGY in Collier's Dictionary:
branch of biology concerned with the study of microorganisms, mainly viruses, bacteria, fungi (especially yeasts), unicellular algae, and protozoa. This heterogeneous, artificial… - MICROBIOLOGY in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
mi`crobiolo "gia, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi`crobiolo" giem, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi`crobiolo" gie, mi` krobiolo "giya, mi`crobiolo" giya, mi`crobiolo"giya, mi`crobiolo" gii, ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
-and, only units. , w. The science that studies microorganisms and their practical significance and application. Related words: microbi "ologist, microbiological" Etymology: ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
(see biology) the science of the structure, life, variability and heredity, evolution and systematics of microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, yeasts and molds ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
[cm. biology] the science of the structure, vital activity, variability and heredity, evolution and systematics of microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, yeasts and molds and ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language.
- MICROBIOLOGY in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
- MICROBIOLOGY in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
microbiology, ... - MICROBIOLOGY full spelling dictionary Russian language:
microbiology, ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Spelling Dictionary:
microbiology, ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
branch of biology that studies... - MICROBIOLOGY
(from micro ... and biology), a science that studies microorganisms, their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, distribution and role in the circulation of substances ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
microbiology, pl. no, w. (specialist.). Department of biology - the doctrine of ... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
microbiology scientific discipline studying… - MICROBIOLOGY in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
well. The scientific discipline that studies... - MICROBIOLOGY in the Big Modern explanatory dictionary Russian language:
well. The scientific discipline that studies... - RUSSIA, DIV. AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
Rural economy, as a subject of scientific teaching, arose in Russia, as in Germany, on the basis of university science, only a century later. … - TIMIRYAZEVSKAYA AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
see Moscow Agricultural ... - in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- THE USSR. NATURAL SCIENCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Sciences Mathematics Scientific research in the field of mathematics began to be carried out in Russia since the 18th century, when L. ... - MOSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
agricultural academy. K. A. Timiryazev, Timiryazev Agricultural Academy (TSHA), one of the oldest and largest educational and research centers in ... - AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
agricultural, a type of cooperation uniting agricultural - x. commodity producers for the joint production of products or the implementation of other activities to meet the economic needs of their ... - AGRICULTURAL CENTRAL LIBRARY in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Agricultural Central Scientific All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences Sciences them. V. I. Lenin (TsNSHB VASKhNIL), in Moscow, the largest in the world scientific Library … - in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
has as its task the representation in numbers of factors, methods of conducting and results of the agricultural industry and the study of this digital material. On the Brussels... - AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
? has as its task the representation in numbers of factors, methods of conducting and results of the agricultural industry and the study of this digital material. On the … - PETROVSKAYA AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
a common name for one of the leading agricultural universities in Russia. Founded in 1865 as an agricultural and forestry academy in the village. Petrovsko-Razumovskoye near … - MOSCOW in the Directory of Hotels in Russian cities:
Agmos Krymskaya emb., 10, ship V. Bryusov (495) 9566501 Asia 109377, st. Zelenodolskaya, 3/2 (495) 3716841 Academic 117049, st. Donskaya, ... - COOPERATION in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
AGRICULTURAL - see AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION ... - COMMUNE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
AGRICULTURAL - see AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY ... - ARTEL in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
AGRICULTURAL - see AGRICULTURAL ARTEL ... - OPTINA PUSTYN in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Optina Hermitage, Kozelsky Monastery in honor of the Entry of the Most Holy Theotokos into the Temple, stauropegia of the Russian Orthodox … - SOVIETOV ALEKSANDR VASILIEVICH in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
Sovetov (Alexander Vasilievich) - a famous Russian scientist agronomist and public figure, the son of a priest, was born in 1826. Initial education S. ... - PLANT PATHOLOGY in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(from phyto... and pathology), the science of plant diseases, means and methods for their prevention and elimination. Subdivided into… - AGRICULTURAL ENCYCLOPEDIA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
encyclopedias and dictionaries, scientific and industrial reference publications containing systematized information on agriculture, page - x. sciences and related branches of folk ... - AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
education, the system of training specialists of higher and secondary qualifications and skilled workers, as well as scientific and pedagogical personnel for agriculture. … - SOIL MICROORGANISMS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
microorganisms, a set of different groups of microorganisms for which soil serves as a natural habitat. P. m. play an important role in ... - NOVOGRADSKY DAVID MOISEEVICH in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
David Moiseevich (May 10, 1898 - December 3, 1953), Soviet microbiologist. Born in Warsaw. He graduated from Moscow State University (1929) and worked there. Head of microbiological laboratories ... - THE MEDICINE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Latin medicina, from medicus - medical, healing, medeor - I treat, heal), system scientific knowledge and practical measures united by the purpose of recognition, ... - MOROCCO in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Kingdom of Morocco (Arabic - Al-Mamlaka al-Maghribiya, or Maghreb al-Aqsa, literally - the far west). I. General information M. - the state on ... - collective farms in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
collective farms, in the USSR cooperative organizations of voluntarily united peasants for the joint conduct of large-scale socialist agricultural production on the basis of public funds ...
agricultural, agricultural. App. to Agriculture. Agricultural work. Agricultural products. Agricultural machine. Agricultural Academy. All-Union Agricultural Exhibition. We have created the most...