One of the main tasks that the Allies set themselves after the defeat of Germany was the denazification of the country. The entire adult population of the country passed a questionnaire prepared by the Control Council for Germany. The Erhebungsformular MG/PS/G/9a had 131 questions. The survey was voluntary-compulsory.
Refuseniks were deprived of food cards.
Based on the survey, all Germans are divided into "not involved", "acquitted", "fellow travelers", "guilty" and "guilty in the highest degree". Citizens from the last three groups were brought before the court, which determined the measure of guilt and punishment. "Guilty" and "guilty in the highest degree" were sent to internment camps, "fellow travelers" could atone for their guilt with a fine or property.
It is clear that this method was not perfect. Mutual responsibility, corruption and insincerity of the respondents made denazification ineffective. Hundreds of thousands of Nazis managed to avoid trial and forged documents on the so-called "rat trails", and after only a few years - to take prominent positions in the state apparatus of Germany. Thus, the third Federal Chancellor of Germany, Kurt Georg Kiesinger, was a member of the NSDAP since 1933.
The Allies organized a large-scale campaign in Germany to re-educate the Germans. Movies about Nazi atrocities were constantly shown in cinemas. Residents of Germany also had to go to the sessions without fail. Otherwise, they could lose all the same food cards. Also, the Germans were taken on excursions to the former concentration camps and involved in the work carried out there. For the majority of the civilian population, the information received was shocking. Goebbels' propaganda during the war years told them about a completely different image of Nazism.
Demilitarization
By decision of the Potsdam Conference, Germany was to undergo demilitarization, which included the dismantling of military factories. The Western Allies accepted the principles of demilitarization in their own way: not only were they in no hurry to dismantle factories in their zones of occupation, but they were actively restoring them, while trying to increase the quota of metal smelting and wanting to preserve the military potential of Western Germany for a future war with the USSR.
By 1947, more than 450 military factories were hidden from accounting in the British and American zones.
The Soviet Union was more honest in this regard. According to the historian Mikhail Semiryaga, in one year after March 1945, the highest authorities of the Soviet Union made about a thousand decisions related to the dismantling of 4389 enterprises from Germany, Austria, Hungary and other European countries. However, this number cannot be compared with the number of facilities destroyed by the war in the USSR. The number of dismantled German enterprises amounted to less than 14% of the pre-war number of Soviet factories. According to Nikolai Voznesensky, then chairman of the State Planning Committee of the USSR, only 0.6% of the direct damage to the USSR was covered by the supply of captured equipment from Germany.
Marauding
The topic of looting and violence against the civilian population in post-war Germany is still debatable. A lot of documents have been preserved, indicating that the Western allies took out the valuable property of the citizens of defeated Germany literally by ships.
"Distinguished" in the collection of trophies and some Soviet officers. So, when Marshal Zhukov fell into disgrace in 1948, they found and confiscated 194 pieces of furniture, 44 carpets and tapestries, 7 boxes of crystal, 55 museum paintings and other luxury items. All this was taken out of Germany.
As for the soldiers and officers of the Red Army, there were not so many cases of looting according to the available documents. The victorious Soviet soldiers were more likely to be engaged in applied "junk work", that is, they were engaged in collecting ownerless property. When the Soviet command allowed sending parcels home, boxes with sewing needles, fabric trimmings, and working tools went to the Union. At the same time, our soldiers had a rather squeamish attitude to all these things. In letters to their relatives, they justified themselves for all this “junk”.
strange counts
The most problematic topic is the topic of violence against civilians, especially against German women. Until the time of perestroika, the topic of mass rape of German women was not raised either in the USSR or by the Germans themselves.
In 1992, a book by two feminists, Helke Zander and Barbara Yohr, Liberators and Liberated, was published in Germany, where a shocking figure appeared: 2 million.
The justification for this figure left a lot of room for criticism: the data was based on records in a German clinic alone, and then multiplied by the total number of women. In 2002, Anthony Beevor's book "The Fall of Berlin" was published, in which the author gave this figure without paying attention to its criticism, and the data sources were described with the phrases "one doctor concluded", "apparently", "if" and "it seems".
According to the estimates of the two main Berlin hospitals, the number of victims raped by Soviet soldiers ranges from ninety-five to one hundred and thirty thousand people. One doctor concluded that approximately one hundred thousand women had been raped in Berlin alone. And about ten thousand of them died mainly as a result of suicide. The number of deaths throughout East Germany must be much higher if one takes into account the 1400,000 rapes in East Prussia, Pomerania and Silesia. It appears that in total about two million German women were raped, many of whom (if not most) suffered this humiliation several times.
In 2004, this book was published in Russia, picked up as an "argument" by anti-Soviet people, who spread the myth about the unprecedented cruelty of Soviet soldiers in occupied Germany.
In fact, according to the documents, such facts were considered “extraordinary incidents and an immoral phenomenon,” which was followed by punishment. Violence against the civilian population of Germany was fought at all levels, and marauders and rapists fell under the tribunal. So, in the report of the military prosecutor of the 1st Belorussian Front on illegal actions against the civilian population for the period from April 22 to May 5, 1945, there are such figures: 124 crimes were recorded in seven armies of the front for 908.5 thousand people, of which 72 were rapes . 72 cases per 908.5 thousand. What two million can we talk about?
There was also looting and violence against the civilian population in the western occupation zones. Naum Orlov wrote in his memoirs: “The British guarding us rolled chewing gum between their teeth - which was new for us - and boasted to each other about their trophies, throwing up their hands high, humbled by wristwatches ... ".
Osmar Whyatt, an Australian war correspondent who can hardly be suspected of partiality to Soviet soldiers, wrote in 1945: “Severe discipline reigns in the Red Army. There are no more robberies, rapes and bullying here than in any other zone of occupation. Wild stories of atrocities emerge from exaggerations and distortions of individual cases under the influence of nervousness caused by the immoderation of Russian soldiers' manners and their love of vodka. One woman who told me most of the hair-raising tales of Russian brutality was eventually forced to admit that the only evidence she had seen with her own eyes was drunken Russian officers firing their pistols into the air and at bottles..."
The post-war state of the German economy
After World War II, Germany was divided into two independent states: the FRG and the GDR. The difficult state of the German economy, in addition to military devastation, was influenced by the dismantling of equipment from industrial enterprises, adopted by the decision of the Potsdam Conference of the Heads of Government of the powers that won the war on August 2, 1945. as compensation for damages, and the division of the country. In 1948, with the direct participation of L. Erhard, the architect of the policy of economic revival of West Germany, an economist and statesman (first the Minister of Economics, and then the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany), monetary and economic reform was carried out.
Carefully prepared economic reform was carried out simultaneously with the monetary reform, price reform, restructuring of centralized management. The old system was destroyed immediately, not gradually. The rise in prices stopped after about six months. The success of the reform was determined both by timely adjustments (for example, by revising the exchange rate of the national currency) and by the presence of a strong and authoritative government. Erhard is considered to be a representative of the neoliberal direction, but he was not a “pure” neoliberal and widely used state levers to switch to the principles of liberalism. Following the monetary reform, the administrative distribution of resources and control over them were abolished.
Industry
In the historically established unified pre-war German economy, the territory of the present GDR was an area that was underdeveloped industrially, to a large extent dependent on its western part. Before the war, the eastern part exported 45% of all industrial and agricultural products from the western part. The raw material base, metallurgical, energy and heavy industry were located mainly in the western regions of Germany. In addition, as a result of the war, 45% of the equipment of an already underdeveloped industry, 70% of energy capacities and 40% of agricultural machinery were disabled. Compared with 1936, the volume of industrial production in the territory of the present GDR was only 42%. The entire existing economic base consisted of little more than a single blast furnace, the traditional textile industry, including textile engineering, precision mechanics and optics. Due to the split of Germany through the fault of the Western powers, which formed a separate West German state, the GDR found itself cut off from the traditional centers of heavy industry, metallurgy and energy. In 1949, the year the GDR was founded, the young state lacked entire industries, and those that did exist were very underdeveloped. At the cost of incredible efforts, the working people managed to overcome the most pernicious disproportions during the first years of construction.
With the help of the Soviet Union, entire industries were recreated, including the energy base, metallurgy, machine tool building, and a significant part of light industry. The referendum of June 30, 1946 on the gratuitous expropriation of 3,843 enterprises of active Nazis and war criminals, as well as large landowners, served as a democratic basis for the transformation of numerous enterprises into public property. At the same time, this expropriation and democratic land reform marked the beginning of the process of the transfer of economic power into the hands of the working class, in alliance with the peasantry and all other sections of the working people. In the following years, with the help of the Soviet Union, the workers created numerous new enterprises. These were very difficult years of industrial construction. They demanded from all the working people an enormous effort and cost them great hardships. The imperialist circles, hostile to socialism, tried to hold back the new development, hinder it and even frustrate it.
They maliciously used the state border between the GDR and West Berlin, which was open until 1961, undermining the currency regime of the GDR, luring away highly qualified specialists from there and exporting a large amount of vital consumer goods to West Berlin. According to official data, due to the existence of the open border of the GDR until 1961, material damage was inflicted in the amount of more than 100 billion marks. After the implementation of measures to ensure the security of the state border of the GDR in 1961, there was a significant economic recovery. After almost all the peasants, who had previously been individual farmers, united in agricultural production cooperatives, socialist property became a solid economic basis for the GDR. After the VI Congress of the SED, held in 1963, which decided on the full-scale construction of socialism, great efforts were made to develop, test and put into practice effective ways and methods of managing and planning industry and all other areas of the national economy.
Political reform
The principle of the democratic state made it possible to express the will of the citizens. The focus of the basic law is a person, because the state should serve the people, and not dominate them. The political system of Germany is determined by 4 principles of the state: democratic; federal; legal; social.
The Marshall Plan On June 5, 1947, George Marshall, then US Secretary of State, proclaimed the European Recovery Program. A year later, the American Congress passed this plan, which provided for billions in loans. It included not only financial resources, but also supplies of equipment and gifts. Until 1952, the United States sent from the funds of the program
Germany after World War II. Basic Law of Germany 1949 Berlin Crisis. Division of the country
The Second World War ended for Germany with the defeat and collapse of the fascist regime in the country.
This created the conditions for building a new, democratic German state.
Germany again, like 27 years ago ( after World War I), had to start almost from scratch.
However, the situation is now complicated by two more factors:
1. The difficult economic situation of the country caused by the consequences of the war;
2. Contradictions between allies ( more precisely - between the USSR and the allies) on the further development of the country. At the same time, each side sought to make Germany its sphere of influence;
The consequences of the war for Germany were more severe than for many other European states.
Losses amounted to 13.5 million, cities were destroyed, industry was destroyed or dismantled ( allies - that's freaks!
Real marauders! The USSR exported everything from Germany - from ships to buttons). The country's economy experienced a shortage of workers (the male population died in the war). There is general speculation in the country, the “black market” is flourishing. Not enough housing. The financial system of the country is destroyed - no money has a price. Most of the population is starving.
The formation of the new German state had to take place in extremely difficult conditions.
The following made things even more difficult:
Such starting conditions did not bode well - and it turned out - the future justified the worst fears (everything happened, except third world war…).
With the end of hostilities, the territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones(4 - USA, UK, France, USSR).
This was necessary for a coordinated solution of priority problems, after which, by agreement between the allies, power was to be transferred to the new German authorities.
A special body was created to govern the country, which included all the allies - Control Council(commanders of four armies who became military governors).
It was them that the Control Council carried out. The main place in them was occupied by a policy called " four D»:
| Demilitarization | The elimination of the country's military industry. Transfer of the economy to peaceful construction. The elimination of the monopolies that led the country to war. Dissolution of the Reichswehr (German army). |
| Denazification | Prohibition and dissolution of all fascist organizations ( NSDAP, SS, and others). Prohibition of any paramilitary formations. Removal of Nazis from the state apparatus and prosecution of fascist criminals. |
| Democratization | Restoration of all political (and other) rights and freedoms. Creation of a democratic party system, holding democratic elections. |
| Decentralization | Restoration of the federal structure of the country and local self-government. Formation of local authorities. |
Initially, the Allied policy towards Germany was carried out in one direction.
The implementation of the most important measures listed above did not cause doubts and special disagreements.
However, when determining the ways of further development of the country, such disagreements appeared very quickly. And that's why:
After the implementation of the plan four D”, the next stage was to be the creation of German state bodies and the transfer of power to them.
However, by this time, the territory of Germany was becoming more and more clearly an arena of confrontation between communism and capitalism (USSR and USA). No one wanted to give in - as it turned out very soon, the policy in different zones varied quite significantly.
Soon a line of confrontation emerged - the USSR on the one hand, the allies (USA, Great Britain, France) on the other. The activities aimed at creating a German state, carried out in the eastern and western zones, were diametrically opposed, and actually aimed at building different models of the state.
This very quickly led to a political crisis.
Events unfolded like this:
| The split of Germany and the formation of the FRG and the GDR | |
| "Two-Headed Politics" | The main difference existed, a clear fuck, between western zones and the USSR zone. In fact, two different states were built on these territories. In the eastern lands, transformations began according to the Soviet model ( building a totalitarian state), while in the West, the Allies carried out liberal transformations according to their own model. Such differences could not but lead to serious disagreements about the future of the country. They were not long in coming - Paris session of the Ministerial Council ( May 1946) failed to resolve any of the issues. |
| "Economic glitch" | Different economic policies in the occupation zones led to the creation of a special situation:
This situation did not please the USSR at all - as a result, a regime was introduced between the zones to control the movement of goods and people. |
| "Bison" | In the summer of 1946, the situation escalated even more. After the announcement of the US State Department about the unification of the American and British zones, such a merger was carried out in December 1946. The combined zone was called " bison". Its main feature was that it was not occupational, but already German authorities- became the main Economic Council(head L. Erhard). Thus, "Bizonia" became the prototype of the future Germany. |
| Wasted Effort | Despite the difficulties, attempts to find a common solution for Germany still continued. However, the negotiations were doomed to failure even before they began. This was confirmed by the Ministerial Council session in March 1947. Like the previous one, it did not solve a single problem, but created many new ones. The next one (November 1947) ended with the same "result". After its completion, the parties did not even agree on the next one. This was a bad sign. |
| "Trizonia" | In February 1948, the French zone of occupation also became part of the "Bison" - formed " Trizonia».
Now all the Western sectors formed a single economic and political space, almost coinciding with the territory of the future FRG. The power in this territory again belonged to the German authorities. |
| "Trick with ears" | The first action taken by the German administration was monetary reform. She had to solve two main problems:
On the territory of Trizonia, their own brand was introduced, which did not have circulation in the Soviet occupation zone. Now Trizonia has become completely independent financially. The monetary reform led to two main results:
The USSR regarded the reform as an attempt to proclaim an independent German state and reacted extremely negatively to it. This event predetermined the subsequent development of Germany. |
| "Berlin Crisis" | Monetary reform (which the USSR called " separate”) did not like the Soviet administration. As a response, they chose, however, primitive tactics " hitting the head with a sledgehammer”(True, as it turned out - in its own way ...). On June 24, 1948, Soviet troops completely interrupted communication between West Berlin and the rest of the world, organizing its blockade. The USSR hoped that this would force the allies to make concessions in the negotiations. However, the number did not pass - the United States organized the delivery of the necessary goods to the blockaded city by air ("air bridge") - within 11 months everything needed was delivered to the city. The USSR did not have the audacity to shoot down American planes (that would mean war). The blockade had to be ended. The incident became known as the "Berlin Crisis". He finally determined the split of Germany. The positions of the USSR were undermined - after an attempt at forceful pressure, the Germans no longer believed in " good intentions» of this country. The flow of refugees from east to west increased. |
| "Yoshkin cat" | After unsuccessful attempts to reach an agreement, West Germany had no choice but to start developing its own constitution, and postpone the issue of unification for the future. By 1949, the development of their own constitutions began in both German states - in fact, the split of the country into two parts became a reality. |
Despite the failure of the London Conference (cf.
chapter " Wasted Effort”), she nevertheless gave certain results. The most important of these was the achievement of agreement between the Western states (USA, Great Britain, France) on the creation of a separate West German state. The formation of such a state was to be enshrined in a new constitution. At the same time, German politicians were asked to convene a Constituent Assembly ( for its adoption) no later than September 1, 1948.
Such a proposal, although it was quite obvious to the Germans themselves, did not arouse much enthusiasm - it was a clear step towards the split of the country.
At the same time, it was also impossible to leave the situation unchanged.
This issue had to be resolved at a meeting of the prime ministers of the German lands (in the lands there were already Landtags and governments).
In the end, a compromise solution was reached:
The decisions of the heads of the lands were approved by the allies ( let at least such a constitution than none).
The main goal of the formation of the Western European state- the creation of a kind of "core", which would then be joined by the eastern lands. So the West Germans tried to find at least some solution to the existing problems. There were probably no other options.
Parliamentary Council ( 65 members elected by the Landtags, thus a body formed by indirect elections) began work on September 1, 1948.
(Bonn). K. Adenauer (SPD) became chairman. The bill did not cause much debate - it was assumed that it would soon be replaced by the "real" Constitution ( fuck you replace it- because of the USSR, the country was divided for half a century!).
On May 8, 1949, the Basic Law (OZ) was adopted by a majority vote. Landtags quickly ratified it (approved). Problems arose only with Bavaria ( Well, she always had her own opinion...) who considered the OZ "too centralist" ( limiting its "precious" powers in favor of the center).
However, she also pledged to abide by his norms.
On May 23, 1949, the OZ entered into force. This was the birth date of the new German state. It got the name Federal Republic of Germany.
| Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany 1949 | |
| general characteristics | Adopted following the results of the Second World War, the elimination of the fascist regime in Germany, and the post-war conditions in the country. It is the most democratic constitution in the history of Germany, and is sustained in line with most post-war European constitutions ( France, Italy, etc.). He took in himself the best features of the Constitution of 1919, adding new ones to them. Main feature - the basic law was seen as temporary, before the unification of the country ( This, however, was only possible after 50 years ...). Adopted by the Parliamentary Council, consisting of representatives of the states, entered into force on May 23, 1949. |
| Basic principles |
|
| Structure | It is generally traditional - a preamble, 11 sections, 146 articles. No other acts are included in the constitution, the preamble does not contain legal norms and has no legal force. |
| Legal status of the individual | The main advantage of the new constitution. The section containing the norms on the rights and freedoms of citizens is in an "honorable" place, starting the constitution ( first section). |
| Form of government | Parliamentary republic in its purest form. The head of state (president) and the head of the executive branch (federal chancellor) are separated, the government is formed by parliamentary means and is responsible to parliament. Significant powers are concentrated in the personal federal chancellor (the Federal Republic of Germany is sometimes called " chancellor republic») |
| Order of change | Constitution rigid type(although not especially) - a qualified majority of votes of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat is required for the change. Ratification of the amendments by the Länder is not required ( this is not the USA for you - you will change the hell there ...). |
The formation of the West German state and the adoption of the Basic Law, essentially meant the final division of the country.
At the same time, in the eastern lands, the formation of a socialist German state - the GDR.
In many ways, the processes that took place during 1949 could still be regarded as temporary, and the hope for the unification of the country still remained. As noted above, the German constitution was of the nature temporal- it was assumed that the eastern lands would soon be included in the unified German state.
However, in the next few years, the last illusions were dispelled - both German states became the arena of political confrontation between the socialist and capitalist worlds.
Under such conditions, the unification had to be forgotten for a long time - it seemed forever.
Previous16171819202122232425262728293031Next
State and political development of Germany after World War II
World War II (1939-1945) ended in complete military and political defeat for Germany. After the military surrender (May 8, 1945), the former German state both nominally and practically ceased to exist. Power in the country and all management functions were transferred to the military administration of the powers that occupied Germany.
21.1.1 The Potsdam agreements and the creation of a military control office in occupied Germany.
The principles of the post-war structure of Germany were determined by the decisions of the Crimean (January 1945) and, most importantly, Potsdam conferences (July-August 1945) of the allied states (USSR, USA and Great Britain).
They were supported by France and a number of other countries that were at war with Germany. According to these decisions, the totalitarian state in Germany was to be completely destroyed: the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it were banned, most of the punitive institutions of the Reich (including the SA, SS and SD services) were declared criminal, the army was disbanded, racial laws and acts of political significance were abolished .
The country should have been consistently carried out decartelization, denazification, demilitarization and democratization. The further solution of the "German question", including the preparation of a peace treaty, was placed in the hands of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Allied States.
June 5, 1945 the Allied states promulgated the Declaration on the defeat of Germany and on the organization of a new order of government.
The country was divided into 4 occupation zones, which were given under the administration of Great Britain (the largest zone in terms of territory), the USA, the USSR and France; the capital, Berlin, was subject to joint administration. To resolve common issues, an allied Control Council was formed from the commanders-in-chief of the four occupying armies, decisions in which would be made on the principle of unanimity. Each zone created its own administration similar to a military governorate.
The governors were entrusted with all issues of restoring civilian life, implementing the policy of denazification and demilitarization, as well as the prosecution of Nazi criminals, the return of previously forcibly displaced persons and prisoners of war of all nationalities.
After the establishment of military administration in all zones, activities were allowed political parties democratic direction. The new parties were to play a major role in the restoration of state structures and in the political organization of the population (albeit for different purposes from the positions of the USSR and the Western powers).
In the eastern zone of occupation (USSR), the resurgent Social Democratic and Communist parties became the dominant political force. Under pressure from the Soviet administration and under the leadership of leaders who were in the USSR during the war years, they merged into Socialist Unity Party of Germany(April 1946), which set the goal of establishing a socialist state in the country in the spirit of revolutionary Marxism and with a complete social reorganization of the country according to the Soviet model.
In the occupation zones of the Western powers, the newly formed party - Christian Democratic Union(June 1945); in Bavaria, the association became similar in direction Christian Social Union(January 1946). These parties stood on the platform of democratic republicanism, the creation of a social market economy society based on private property.
At the same time, the Social Democratic Party of Germany was revived in the western zones (June 1946). In the autumn of 1946, in an atmosphere of political pluralism, the first elections were held for local bodies and Landtags.
The divergence of political courses of the parties of the eastern and western zones led to a civil confrontation in the country, which was aggravated by a sharp divergence of the military-political goals of the USSR and the USA in Europe, their positions on the fate of Germany (the USA assumed the political fragmentation of the country into several independent lands, the USSR - the creation of a single states of "people's democracy").
Therefore, the situation predetermined the state division of Germany
21.1.2 The course towards the creation of a West German "welfare state". The role of the state in regulating the economy.
Allied management of the German economy at first was reduced to the introduction of a system of strict control over production and distribution in order to provide the Germans with essential products and reparation supplies to compensate for damage to countries affected by the war.
The first step towards the democratization of Germany was to be decartelization.
According to the Potsdam Accords, a plan was developed "for reparations and the level of the post-war German economy", providing for the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the introduction of restrictions and bans on the production of many types of products.
The production of any type of weapons was completely prohibited. However, the Allied Control Council was never able to develop general criteria for the concept of "monopolistic association". In this regard, decartelization began to be carried out according to the principle of denazification.
This was facilitated by the fact that a significant part of the major German industrialists were arrested for complicity in the crimes of the Reich, and their property was sequestered. With the exception of that part of it that went to reparation supplies, it was transferred to the disposal of the lands.
The destruction of a large economic potential in the course of decartelization in the Anglo-American zone ended by 1950, in the Soviet zone even earlier.
It also had certain positive consequences, expressed not only in the restructuring of industry, in the renewal of production technology, but also in a fundamental change in the entire state economic policy, aimed from now on not at militarization, but at the restoration and growth of industrial production in peaceful purposes.
With the beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947.
in the western zones, the policy of reviving the German economy began to be pursued more and more actively in the name of ensuring "security together with the Germans." The Germans themselves had to restore the economy and determine the strategic direction of its future development.
A series of reforms were carried out aimed at restoring the ruined financial system of the country (currency reform, tax reform, etc.)
The state resolutely refused to finance industrial development.
Only the fuel and energy, mining industry, ferrous metallurgy in 1948-1951. subsidized by the state. Direct state subsidies were subsequently limited to three areas: the introduction of scientific achievements, social assistance for the retraining of personnel, and the development of transport infrastructure.
In January 1948
the central bank was also recreated, called the Bank of German Lands (BNZ), which, according to the law, was supposed to pursue an independent monetary policy, not obeying the instructions of any party, public and state (except for the judiciary) bodies. Moreover, his activities, according to Art. 4 of the Law, was equated with the governing bodies of the united western economic zone.
In April 1948, the "Marshall Plan" came into effect. Billions of dollars were poured into the German economy.
The new currency was recognized by the population.
In the course of the referendum held back in 1945 on the question of property in both the Soviet and American zones, preference was given to public forms of property. In the American zone, this decision was not implemented. In the British zone, the "socialization" of property was vetoed by the occupation authorities. The majority of Germans were determined to choose some kind of centrist "third course", the creation of a "social market economy" and a "welfare state".
The discussions in the Parliamentary Council revolved around two models.
Bourgeois parties of a Christian persuasion proposed the creation of "social capitalism". The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) is the creation of "democratic socialism". There were many common points of contact between them.
In the elections of August 14, 1949, the Germans voted for the CDU/CSU, which, together with the small bourgeois parties, won a majority in the Reichstag. They thereby voted for the creation of a "social market economy", a "welfare state" in Germany.
Creation and maintenance of market competitive orders were defined as a strategic direction.
The state pursued a policy of deconcentration of production, introduced control over the activities of monopolies, over pricing, in every possible way encouraging the creation of new, primarily medium and small firms. To this end, the legal forms of their registration upon obtaining the status of a legal entity were simplified, preferential loans were provided, etc.
The implementation of the policy of a social market economy led to rapid economic growth, which was called the "economic miracle" in the West German press. The level of pre-war development was reached in West Germany as a whole by the end of 1950.
Division of Germany.
During 1945 - 1948.
the western zones consolidated. They carried out administrative reforms. In 1945, the division into historical lands was restored, and under the control of the military authorities, local representative bodies - Landtags and land governments - were revived. The unification of the British and American zones of occupation (in the so-called Bizonia) in December 1946 led to the formation of a unified body of power and administration.
This was the Economic Council (May 1947), elected by the Landtags and empowered to make general financial and economic decisions. In connection with the spread of the American "Marshall Plan" (providing for financial and economic assistance to ruined Europe) to Germany, these decisions acquired an ever more unifying significance for the western zones.
(And at the same time, the implementation of the "Marshall Plan" contributed to the separation of the eastern zone, since the government of the USSR rejected it). The Council of Lands took shape in Bizony - a kind of second government chamber, as well as the Supreme Court; in fact, the functions of the central administration were performed by the Administrative Council, controlled by the Economic Council and the Council of the Lands.
Further differences between the Western allies and the USSR regarding the post-war structure of Germany, the difference between the first economic reforms in the East and West of Germany predetermined the course of the Western allies towards the state isolation of the western zones.
In February-March and April-June 1948, at the London conferences of 6 allied countries (USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg), a political decision was made to create a special West German state.
In 1948, the French zone of occupation was attached to Bizony (the so-called "Trizonia" was formed). In June 1948
in the West German lands, their own monetary reform was carried out. On July 1, 1948, the military governors of the Western powers proclaimed the conditions for the formation of the West German state (according to special instructions to the group for the preparation of the constitution, which began work in August 1948, the Western state was to become federal).
In May 1949, the process of discussing and approving the developed West German constitution was completed. At the next session of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the victorious states (May-June 1949), the split became, as it were, officially recognized.
Germany joined NATO. Relevant agreements were signed in Paris, ratified by the Bundestag on February 27, 1955, and entered into force at the beginning of May 1955. The Paris Agreements determined the sovereignty of Germany, on the basis of which the country received the right to create a half-million army (12 divisions), and in NATO headquarters Bundeswehr officers began to work.
In October 1949
In response to the creation of the Basic Law of the FRG (the Bonn Constitution), the GDR adopted a socialist Constitution. It had a certain resemblance to the Bonn Constitution.
However, the course towards the construction of socialism, taken by the leadership of the GDR from the beginning of the 50s. 20th century was accompanied by non-observance of many democratic principles. In 1952
the federal political and territorial structure became unitary: instead of five lands as subjects of the East German federation, 16 districts were formed. On August 19, 1961, the government of the GDR built a barrier along the entire border of West Berlin, and then a well-known wall.
In the GDR, a referendum was held on the adoption of a new constitution. Over 94% of the citizens of the GDR voted "for" the socialist norms and principles of the Constitution, in particular for the planned economy.
All this contributed to the further disunity of the German lands.
1949 German constitution
The development of the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany was carried out by a special government commission on behalf of the conference of prime ministers of the lands of the western zones in August 1948.
One of the most important tasks was the revival of state federalism in full, as well as the creation of legal guarantees against presidential usurpation of power in comparison with what was established in the Weimar constitution. These internal political and legal tasks predetermined much in the content of the basic law of the restored republic. To adopt the constitution, a special Parliamentary Council was formed - consisting of 65 councilors elected from 11 landtags on the basis of party representation (as well as another 5 delegates from Berlin).
As a result, all the main political parties of the then Germany were represented in the Parliamentary Council: the Christian Democratic Union, the Christian Social Union (Bavaria), the SPD, the Free Democratic Party, the KPD, etc. May 8, 1949 by a majority of votes (53:12) Council adopted the German constitution. Then it was approved by the landtags of the lands (except for Bavaria), the western military governors, and on May 23, 1949.
The German constitution came into force.
The German Basic Law of 1949 originally consisted of a preamble and 172 articles. Despite the “rigid” nature of the document (for the introduction of constitutional amendments, the consent of 2/3 of both houses of parliament is required), since 1951, changes have been made to it almost annually.
As a result, the Basic Law was enlarged: by now, 42 additional articles have been included in it (and only 5 have been excluded). Now it consists of 11 chapters and 146 articles. The basic law is preceded by a meaningful preamble.
The constitution proclaims the Federal Republic of Germany a democratic, legal and social state.
A significant place in it is given to the rights and freedoms of citizens (freedom of the individual, equality before the law, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion, press, assembly, etc.). Freedom and inviolability of property were guaranteed.
But at the same time, it was declared that “property obliges, and the use of it should serve the common good” with the consolidation of the advantages of public property. It proclaimed party pluralism; the primacy of norms of international law over intranational norms was established.
The main state bodies of Germany are: the Bundestag, the Bundesrat, the federal president, the federal government headed by the chancellor, the federal constitutional court.
The Bundestag is the lower house of parliament, elected for 4 years by universal, direct and secret suffrage, according to a mixed electoral system.
The existing 5% barrier makes it possible to weed out the most radical groups of both the right and the left. The Bundestag is the main legislative body.
The Bundesrat (upper house of parliament) is formed from representatives of the lands, its consent is necessary for the adoption of laws that change the constitution, the boundaries and territory of the lands, the structure of land authorities, etc.
The federal president is elected for 5 years by the federal assembly.
It has limited powers: it represents the head of government for approval, appoints and dismisses federal judges and officials, and represents the country in the international arena.
The real leadership of the executive power is exercised by the federal government headed by the chancellor. The chancellor presides over the government; has the right to form this government; selects candidates for ministers and puts forward a proposal binding on the federal president regarding their appointment and dismissal.
Has the right of legislative initiative. The Federal Chancellor is, moreover, the only government official elected by the Bundestag on the proposal of the Federal President. The president always proposes for the post of chancellor the candidate who is the leader of the coalition party bloc - and this means that the head of the German government combines party and state-political power.
Thus, in the Federal Republic of Germany there was a "regime of chancellor democracy."
In the system of separation of powers, the executive branch comes to the fore.
Introduction
After the Second World War, Germany ceased to exist as an independent state, it was occupied. Part of its territory is taken away. It was a country where, as one contemporary wrote, "amid hunger and cold, hope died."
At that time, Germany faced the urgent task of restoring the economy, reviving industrial production, agriculture, trade, financial and banking systems, returning the life of the people to a peaceful way of life and a new development of the state administration system.
The purpose of the work: To identify the state of the German economy in the second half of the 20th century.
Based on the purpose of the work, we define the tasks:
- Consider the economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.
- Consider Marshall's plan.
- Consider L. Erhard's reforms. "Economic miracle"
The economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.
If after World War I the territory of Germany practically did not suffer from hostilities, then after World War II the country lay practically in ruins. Industrial production was at the level of a third of the pre-war level, the housing problem was acute, most of the housing stock was violated during the war, at the same time, more than 9 million Germans were deported to Germany from East Prussia and lands along the Oder and Neisse.
The standard of living fell by 1/3. Money depreciated, the money supply did not have a commodity cover, barter trade was spreading. According to the then calculations of the occupying authorities, the average German's income allowed him to buy a pair of shoes every twelve years, and a suit once every fifty years.
Moreover, the occupation authorities began dismantling and exporting industrial equipment at the expense of reparations. Among the objectives of the occupation of Germany declared by the Potsdam Conference, which had primary economic consequences, were: the complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany, including the elimination or control of all its war industries, as well as the right of the peoples affected by German aggression to receive reparations, in particular, the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the division of the entire German fleet between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain.
The Soviet occupation command considered, first of all, the possibility of obtaining maximum compensation to the Soviet Union for the losses incurred during the war. The share of surviving industrial enterprises dismantled and exported to the USSR amounted to 45% in the Soviet zone (in the zones of other victorious states it did not reach 10%).
At the same time, the USSR supported political transformations aimed at orienting Germany towards the communist (socialist) path of development. The original plan of the US administration was to weaken Germany as much as possible economically while maintaining it as an agricultural country. Thus, by 1948, Germany was politically divided and economically bankrupt. Goods, the inflow of which was already scarce, mostly ended up in warehouses and only a small part of them made it to the market.
Incredibly swollen (by a factor of 5) money supply - a consequence mainly of the unbridled financing of military projects - did not give any opportunity to pursue a reasonable monetary and financial policy.
Although total rationing, freezing prices and wages somehow managed to maintain external order, all attempts to curb inflation (600% of the pre-war level) with frozen prices were doomed to failure and the economy fell into a primitive state of barter. The black market and barter exchange flourished. The deterioration of the economic situation was facilitated by the influx of refugees into the western zones of occupation from the eastern zone and countries of Eastern Europe.1
Marshall Plan.
As part of the emerging Western orientation towards the restoration of the German economy, a plan was developed, which George Catlett Marshall, then US Secretary of State, announced on June 5, 1947. The program for the restoration of Europe, later called the Marshall Plan, was adopted by the US Congress in 1948.
This plan provided for assistance to European countries affected by the war in the form of loans, equipment and technology. The plan was designed for 4 years, the total amount of appropriations allocated in the framework of economic assistance to European countries amounted to about 12.4 billion rubles from April 1948 to December 1951.
dollars, of which the main part fell on the UK (2.8 billion dollars), France (2.5 billion dollars), Spain (1.3 billion dollars), West Germany (1.3 billion dollars), Holland (1.0 billion . dollars).
It should be noted that the implementation of the Marshall Plan faced some opposition in the United States. Even a year after the program began, Marshall criticized his staff for being too slow and not even starting practical action yet.
In order to get the Marshall Plan through Congress, the government had to do a tremendous amount of work. Many deputies, like the people, were against financial aid to Europe. Marshall's employees gave lectures, showed films about the destruction in Europe.
Arranged a kind of excursion overseas for congressmen from among the doubters. Curiously, one of these deputies was Richard Nixon. After a trip to Europe, he turned 180 degrees and became an ardent supporter of Marshall's idea.
Although the Marshall Plan was not the only driving force behind the post-war reconstruction, it nevertheless provided an important incentive to accomplish what at first seemed impossible.
Only a few years passed, and the production of agricultural and industrial products exceeded the pre-war level.
An important feature of the Marshall Plan was a fundamentally new scheme for calculating loans, which led to a multiple increase in the funds involved.
For example, a German factory ordered some parts from the USA. However, the American manufacturer of these parts received dollars for them not from the customer, but from the government's Marshall Plan fund. The customer, on the other hand, contributed the equivalent in German marks to a specially created European fund.
In turn, this fund financed long-term concessional loans to enterprises for new investments. Ultimately, as enterprises repaid their debts, the fund's funds allowed European states to pay off the United States as well.
The Marshall Plan had three main goals: first, it encouraged European countries to resume political and economic cooperation and strengthened their integration into the world economy. Second, he allowed them to purchase raw materials and equipment from countries with hard currencies.
Thirdly, this plan was also a program of state support for the economy of the United States itself, since it stimulated American exports. Germany officially became one of the countries participating in the Marshall Plan on December 15, 1949, that is, shortly after its founding, and its participation continued until the end of the plan.
George Marshall's contribution to the economic recovery of Europe after the Second World War was the basis for his Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.2
3. Reforms L. Erhard. "Economic miracle".
Ludwig Erhard (1897-1977) was the most important figure traditionally associated with the economic side of the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany.
The main elements of the development model proposed by Erhard for the "social market economy" were:
- the target setting is a high level of well-being of all segments of the population;
- the way to achieve the goal is free market competition and private enterprise;
- the key condition for achieving the goal is the active participation of the state in ensuring the prerequisites and conditions for competition.
At the end of 1949, the first, most dangerous phase in the development of the economic situation ended, which was characterized by tension between the volume of goods and the volume of the money supply and manifested itself in an almost chaotic rise in prices.
In the first half of 1950, the volume of German production grew monthly by 3-5 percent, setting an absolute record - 114% compared to 1936, in foreign trade even a doubling of exports was achieved in six months, mechanical engineering, optics, and electricity production developed at an accelerated pace. In the same 1950, the card system was abolished in Germany. By the mid-1950s, after some slowdown in economic growth, a new upsurge began, caused by an influx of capital, a significant renewal of technical production, and government measures to revive heavy industry.
In 1953-56, the annual increase in industrial output was 10-15%. In terms of industrial production, Germany ranked third in the world after the United States and Great Britain, and surpassed Great Britain in some types of production. At the same time, small and medium-sized businesses formed the basis of the rapidly growing economy: in 1953, enterprises with fewer than 500 employees provided more than half of all jobs in the economy, and unemployment had a steady downward trend (from 10.3% in 1950 to 1.2% in 1960).
By the early 1960s, Germany was second only to the United States in terms of production and exports. The rapid development of the German economy in the fifties and sixties was called the "economic miracle".
Among the factors that contributed to the development of the economy, it should be noted the renewal of fixed capital, the intensification of labor, the high level of investment, including foreign ones.
Also of great importance was the direction of budgetary funds for the development of civilian industries by reducing military spending, as well as an increase in taxes on corporate profits.
A special mention deserves the agrarian reform, which betrayed the main part of the land to small average owners. Developing in an intensive way, German agriculture was characterized by the rapid introduction of the latest achievements of agricultural science into practice, which ensured an increase in agricultural productivity and productivity.
As production intensified, small-scale farming yielded to larger farming. The post-war recovery of Germany laid the foundation for the "economic miracle" - the rapid growth of the German economy in the fifties and sixties, secured the position of Germany in the European economy throughout the second half of the twentieth century, and became the economic basis for the unification of Germany at the end of the twentieth century.3
Conclusion
Thus, the history of the economic revival of Germany after the Second World War is one of the examples of the successful implementation of the ideas of economic liberalization with a balanced participation of the state in the economic life of the country and ensuring the social nature of economic transformations.
The necessary conditions for the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany were external (Marshall Plan) and internal (political stability, political support for reforms, monetary reform, liberalization of prices and trade, including external, directed and limited state intervention in economic life) factors.
Determine to which country the characteristic of its development in the second half of the 19th century belongs.
1. Capitalist development begins after the revolution of 1868 (the introduction of a monetary unit, the abolition of internal customs, monetary compensation to feudal lords)
2. Gradual loss of leadership in the world economy while maintaining the role of the "world driver" active export of capital to the colonies.
Parcel private ownership of land, the outflow of capital from their industry to the credit and banking sector.
4. Slow solution of the agrarian issue in the 60-70s. gg. 19th century restrained economic development, a sharp rise in the 90s; significant role of foreign capital; high concentration of production
Increasing the pace of development after the unification in 1871, the predominant growth of heavy industry and the latest science-intensive industries; a significant role of the state in stimulating the development of heavy industry and the military-industrial complex.
A. Germany.
B. Japan.
V. England.
G. Russia.
D. France.
Answer:
A. Germany. - 5
B. Japan. - one
V. England. -2
G. Russia. - 3
France. - four
Bibliography
- History of the world economy. Textbook for universities / Ed. Polyaka G.B., Markova A.N. – M.: UNITI, 2004.- 727 p.
- Bor M.Z. / History of the world economy, 2nd ed., M., -2000. – 496 p.
- Russian history. Textbook manual for universities / Markova A.N., Skvortsova E.M.
- Erhard L. Welfare for all: Per. with him. - M .: Beginnings-press, 1991
- History of the economy.
Textbook for universities / Konotopov M.V., Smetanin S.I., - M., 2007 - p.352
60. Germany after World War II: from split to unification (1945 - 1990).
After the termination of the state existence of Germany on May 23, 1945, the territory of the former Austria was separated from its territory (divided into 4 zones of occupation), Alsace and Lorraine (returned to France), the Sudetenland (returned to Czechoslovakia), the region of Eupen and Malmedy (returned part of Belgium), the statehood of Luxembourg was restored, the territories of Poland annexed in 1939 (Posen, Wartaland, part of Pomerania) were separated. The Memel (Klaipeda) region was returned to the Lithuanian SSR. East Prussia is divided between the USSR and Poland. The rest is divided into 4 occupation zones - Soviet, American, British and French. The USSR transferred part of its occupation zone east of the Oder and Neisse rivers to Poland.
The members of the anti-Hitler coalition, primarily the United States, the USSR, Great Britain, and later France, at first sought to implement a coordinated occupation policy. The main tasks in this policy were demilitarization and "denazification".
The principles of the occupation policy and most of the territorial changes were fixed by the Potsdam Agreement.
Later, the political and economic unification of the American, British and French occupation zones took place in the so-called. Trizonia, since 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).
A peace treaty with Germany following the results of World War II has not been signed to date.
Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in 1949 on the territory of the British, American and French occupation zones. The capital of Germany was the city of Bonn. France tried to separate the Saar region from Germany, but in the end, under the Luxembourg Treaty of 1956, the Saarland was reunited with Germany.
Thanks to the help of the Americans under the Marshall Plan, rapid economic growth was achieved in the 1950s (the German economic miracle), which lasted until 1965. To meet the need for cheap labor, Germany supported the influx of guest workers, mainly from Turkey.
Until 1969, the country was ruled by the CDU party (usually in a bloc with the CSU and less often with the FDP). In the 1950s, a number of emergency laws were developed, many organizations were banned, including the Communist Party, and professions were banned. In 1955 Germany joined NATO.
In 1969, the Social Democrats came to power. They recognized the inviolability of post-war borders, weakened emergency legislation, and carried out a number of social reforms. In the future, the Social Democrats and Christian Democrats alternated in power.
West Berlin
Since 1945, Berlin has been divided between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition into four occupation zones. The eastern zone, occupied by Soviet troops, later became the capital of the German Democratic Republic. In the three western zones, control was exercised, respectively, by the occupying authorities of the United States, Great Britain and France.
After the formation of the FRG and the GDR, both states declared their claims to sovereignty over West Berlin.
With the conclusion of the Quadripartite Agreement on September 3, 1971, the ratio of the FRG - West Berlin - GDR was put on a new legal basis. The occupation regime remained in West Berlin.
In 1990, West Berlin became part of a united Germany.
German Democratic Republic
The proclamation of the GDR took place on October 7, 1949 - a month later, in response to the creation of the three western occupation zones of the Federal Republic of Germany on the territory.
The USSR removed machinery and equipment from the Soviet occupation zone and levied reparations from the GDR. Only by 1950 did industrial production in the GDR reach the level of 1936. The events of June 17, 1953 in the GDR led to the fact that instead of collecting reparations, the USSR began to provide economic assistance to the GDR.
As proclaimed, the citizens of the GDR had all democratic rights and freedoms. Although the Socialist Unity Party of Germany occupied the dominant position in the country (its leading role was enshrined in the Constitution), four other parties existed alongside it for decades.
The rates of economic development of the GDR were lower than in the FRG, and the lowest among the Warsaw Pact states. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the GDR remained the highest among the Eastern European states. By the 1980s, the GDR had become a highly industrialized country with intensive agriculture. In terms of industrial output, the GDR occupied the 6th place in Europe.
Berlin Wall
The lack of a clear physical boundary between the zones of occupation in Berlin led to frequent conflicts and a massive drain of specialists from the GDR. East Germans preferred to get an education in the GDR, where it was free, to work in West Berlin or the FRG. In August 1961, the GDR authorities began building a guarded wall that physically separated West Berlin from the GDR. The Berlin Wall was largely destroyed in 1990.
Modern history of Germany
Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR were perceived with caution by the authorities of the GDR and with enthusiasm in the FRG. In 1989, tensions in the GDR began to increase. In the fall, long-term leader of the country Erich Honecker left his post as top party leader, his place was taken by the former leader of the Union of Free German Youth Egon Krenz. However, he did not stay at the head of state for long, only a few weeks. In early November, a grandiose demonstration began in Berlin, ending with the destruction of the Berlin Wall. This was the first step towards the unification of the two German states. Soon, the German mark of the FRG came into circulation on the territory of the GDR, and in August 1990, the Treaty on the Establishment of Unity was signed between the two parties.
Germany after World War II. Formation of two German states
Plan
1. Post-war settlement of the German question
2. Period of occupation
3. The Berlin crisis of 1948 and the split of Germany
1. Post-war settlement of the German question
The question of the fate of Germany WAS one of the central questions in the discussions by the heads of state of the anti-Hitler coalition on the ways of a post-war settlement. The leitmotif of these negotiations was the ideas of just retribution for the perpetrators of the war and the protection of the world community from the new threat from Germany. Already at the Soviet-British negotiations in Moscow in December 1941, both sides announced the need to reject part of the territory of the Reich: the restoration of sovereign Austria, the return of East Prussia to Poland and the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, and possibly the creation of independent states in the Rhineland and Bavaria. In the American administration, the idea of dismembering Germany had both supporters and opponents. In October 1943, at the Moscow Conference, the United States presented the document "Basic Principles for the Surrender of Germany", which dealt only with the "decentralization" of Germany, aimed at "reducing Prussian influence on the Reich."
In November 1943, the American and British delegations spoke at the Tehran Conference in support of the toughest solution to the German question. The formation of five autonomous states on the territory of Germany or the rejection of the South German lands for the formation of the Danube Federation together with Austria and Hungary was supposed. Stalin took a different position, believing that the radical dismemberment of Germany could only become the basis for a new outbreak of German nationalism and revanchism, while the eradication of militarism and Nazism in Germany would be more facilitated by the post-war cooperation of the coalition countries. On January 15, 1944, the British government submitted a plan for the division of Germany into occupation zones for consideration by the Allies. For the first time, the line was marked in it, which later became the border between the FRG and the GDR. At the Quebec Conference in September 1944, Churchill also agreed with the plan for post-war policy towards Germany, developed by the US Secretary of the Treasury under Morgenthau. This project involved the territorial division of Ternia, the reduction of its industrial potential and the stimulation of agricultural production under strict international control. Only as the end of the war approached did the position of the United States and Great Britain soften significantly.
At the Yalta Conference in 1945, the question of the territorial division of Germany was no longer directly raised. The project for the formation of zones of occupation was only confirmed, and the territory was allocated from the American and British zones to form the zone of occupation of France. In the Yalta communiqué, for the first time, the general formula for the post-war settlement of Germany was promulgated - “demilitarization and democratization of the country.” The fulfillment of these tasks required the denazification of the political system of Germany, with the Germans being given the right to subsequently decide on the state structure and decentralization (demonopolization) of the German economy as the basis for the destruction of its military-industrial potential. The question raised by the Soviet side of collecting reparations from Germany was not resolved, although the validity of such compensation for material damage was recognized by all delegations.
The German question was finally resolved at the Potsdam Conference, which took place from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The Conference approved the Declaration on the Defeat of Germany and a communiqué confirming the principles of policy towards Germany formulated in Yalta. The territory of Germany, including the territory of Berlin, was divided into four zones of occupation. At the same time, the Soviet zone included 40% of the territory, 30% of the population and 33% of the production potential. For coordination, the Council of Foreign Ministers of the five powers (USSR, USA, France, Great Britain, China), as well as the Control Council of Commanders-in-Chief, and joint commandant's offices in Berlin were created. The principle of preserving the economic unity of Germany and the right of the German people to create a single democratic state was consolidated. But it is characteristic that the concept of "Western zones" was already introduced into the text of the Potsdam Agreement.
The Potsdam Conference established new German borders: East Prussia was given to the Soviet Union, the territory up to the Oder and Western Neisse - to Poland, the Sudetenland was returned to Czechoslovakia, the sovereignty of Austria was restored. Germans living in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary were subject to deportation to Germany.
The question of the amounts and sources of reparation payments caused a discussion. As a result, the proposal of the American delegation was accepted, according to which reparations were to be collected by each government in its zone of occupation, as well as from German assets abroad (in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Finland and Austria). The USSR abandoned the gold seized in Germany in favor of the Western powers, but received the right to 10% of industrial equipment from the western zones of occupation. The German fleet was divided equally between the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. The final amount of reparations was not determined, since the British and American delegations expressed doubt about the ability of Germany to meet the demands of the SSSK
The Allied Control Council (SCS), consisting of the commanders-in-chief of the occupying forces of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France, was created in June 1945. In the first months of its work, the SCS adopted directives "On the liquidation of the Wehrmacht", military construction in Germany”, specifying the communiqué of the Potsdam Conference. SCS received full power in Germany. Its decisions were taken by consensus with the possibility of any party to use the right of veto. But administrative rule was carried out autonomously in the occupation zones. Under the control of the occupation authorities, local self-government and German political parties were recreated. As a preliminary step towards the formation of a unified German government, it was supposed to create central departments (finance, transport, foreign trade and industry) operating under the control of the SCS.
2. Period of occupation
german war occupation crisis
The crushing defeat in the war brought Germany to the brink of an economic and socio-psychological circle. Only the losses of the Wehrmacht amounted to 13.5 million people. In total, Germany lost about a tenth of its population during the war years. Many cities, especially in the eastern part of the country, lay in ruins. Much of the industrial equipment was destroyed by bombardment or dismantled by the victors. In 1946, industrial production was about 1/3 of the pre-war level, and agriculture was thrown back for three decades. The economy experienced an acute shortage of workers. The transport infrastructure and energy system were completely destroyed, interregional trade links were broken. General speculation, the dominance of the "black market" and empty store shelves have become commonplace. Due to the destruction of the war and the displacement of the population, the housing problem has worsened. In 1945, the level of provision of the population with basic necessities per capita was as follows: a pair of shoes for twelve years, a suit for fifty years, a plate for five years, one diaper for five years. Most of the Germans were starving.
Material losses were supplemented by the complete disorganization of the financial system. The amount of money in circulation was many times greater than the cash commodity reserves, and the public debt from 27.2 billion marks at the end of 1938 increased by May 1945 to 377.3 billion. Inflation reached 600% in relation to the pre-war level . The working day was 16 hours or more, and wages remained at the 1940 level.
The psychological shock that engulfed German society had no less devastating consequences. Inner emptiness, apathy, embittered aversion to politics, and fear of the future have become characteristic features of the mindset. The most difficult problem was the revival of national self-consciousness, a new understanding of one's place in the world, and the solution of the question of guilt in the war. The formation of civil authorities was extremely complicated. The political activity of the masses remained minimal. Most of the former bureaucratic and political elite were accused of links with the Nazis and removed from public positions. There was no mass resistance movement, which, in a similar situation in France and Italy, provided personnel for the new administrative apparatus. Failed to reach agreement on the formation of the German government and the allies.
Already in October 1945, the American administration raised the question of creating central German departments in accordance with the decisions of the Potsdam Conference. But these proposals caused a strong protest from France, which sought the maximum decentralization of the German state. Unable to overcome the French veto, the United States submitted to the SCS in November 1945 a proposal to create central departments for three or two zones. The Soviet administration, striving to maintain friendly relations with France and distrustful of the Americans, declared this a violation of the principle of four-sided control of Germany and a step towards its split. The management of the reconstruction process remained entirely under the control of the occupying authorities.
The activity of the Soviet Military Administration of Germany (SVAG) was complicated by the need to combine steps to normalize the material security of the population and the seizure of industrial equipment, consumer goods, transport and raw materials as reparations. Almost 22,000 wagons of "convoy and household property" and more than 73,000 wagons of "apartment property" were taken out of Germany, including 154 wagons of fabrics and furs, and even 24 wagons of musical instruments. More than 2 million heads of cattle were sent to the USSR. The dismantling of industrial equipment took place at 3474 industrial and economic facilities. It was only in January 1947 that it was decided to stop dismantling and create Soviet joint-stock companies on the basis of large enterprises, the products of which came to the USSR as reparations.
The officers of the SVAG had no experience in administrative work and were guided by strict methods of management, the formation of an orderly economic system. A special place in the structure of the SVAG was occupied by the Security Service and the Department of Propaganda and Censorship. The NKVD and SMERSH services were also very active in East Germany. In contrast to the western zones, German administrative bodies were soon created in the east of Germany. But their actions were entirely determined by the Soviet administration.
Already from the end of 1945, active steps were taken in the Soviet zone of occupation to carry out economic reform. The confiscation of industrial enterprises from persons recognized as military and Nazi criminals has acquired an exceptionally wide character. The SVAG organized a referendum on the fate of the confiscated enterprises, as a result of which they were declared people's property. Thus, about 60% of East German industry passed into the state sector of the economy. The functioning of this sector began to be carried out on the principles of planning, with the provision of broad rights for self-management to factory councils and trade unions.
During 1945-1946. agrarian reform was carried out. 3.3 million hectares of land confiscated from the junkers and bauers, together with outbuildings, livestock and 6,000 tractors, were transferred to 560,000 landless and land-poor peasants. These lands accounted for 33% of the agricultural area of the eastern zone. Communal associations of peasant mutual assistance began to be created on them, and in 1949 all plots transferred to peasants during the reform were declared people's property and became the basis for the formation of collective farms (“people's estates”).
Economic transformations in the western zones initially took on a different direction. Despite the smaller scale of destruction, the situation of the population here was more difficult than in the east. Even in the last period of the war, masses of refugees began to accumulate in southern Germany. Emigrants from the Soviet zone, as well as most of the settlers from Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, also rushed here. If in East Germany in 1945 the population was 17 million Germans, then in the western lands - 44 million. Subsequently, this difference increased even more.
The plight of the German population forced the Western administration to refrain from large-scale seizure of goods and dismantling of equipment in the form of reparations, and to ensure that German workers receive wages, regardless of the stoppage of production. An important circumstance was the fact that the influx of free German industrial goods was actually dumping for the "overheated" American economy. That is why it was exported mainly from the western zones of ChlPie, as well as special equipment of scientific laboratories of technical centers.
The occupying authorities of the western zones initially did not have a clear plan of economic measures. In all three zones, measures were taken to confiscate the property of military and Nazi criminals. But the prepared projects of nationalization or the formation of any centralized administrative structures within a particular zone were never implemented. In addition, the preservation of the "black market" was beneficial for the well-supplied soldiers and officers of the American contingent.
The different approaches of the occupation authorities to the implementation of stabilization measures were manifested during the Paris session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs in May 1946, where neither general principles for concluding a peace treaty with Germany nor unified plans for economic reforms were developed. Soon the first steps were taken towards the split of the occupied country. The reason was the intensification of speculative barter between the zones, during which the inhabitants of the western lands, who received stable wages and benefits, bought cheaper goods and food in the Soviet zone. With the consent of the administration of all four zones, on June 30, 1946, a regime of strict control over the movement of people and goods was introduced on the border between the Soviet and Western zones.
From the summer of 1946, the situation in Germany began to deteriorate rapidly. In July, the US State Department announced its intention to merge the American and British occupation zones to ensure effective administration. The agreement on the formation of an "economic united region" (Bisony) was signed in December 1946. Within the framework of the united occupation zones, a more coordinated policy began to be pursued aimed at restoring the economic infrastructure, the consumer market, and a balanced labor market. A significant role in this process was already played by the German administrative bodies, including the Economic Council, and in its composition - the Management of the Economy under the leadership of L. Erhard. All these measures were taken without coordination with the SVAG.
Political changes in the eastern and western lands of Germany also took on a different direction. Initially, this process took place in line with the Potsdam agreements. The liquidation of the NSDAP and its "subsidiaries" organizations, the German armed forces, the officer corps, and paramilitary organizations followed. To participate in political activities and to fill civil positions, only persons "capable of their political and moral qualities to help the development of democratic institutions in Germany" were allowed. In accordance with the principles of civil, racial, national equality, the judicial system was reorganized. In November 1945 - October 1946, the work of the International Tribunal in Nuremberg took place, during which Nazi and war criminals were brought to justice. A system of local German denazification commissions (spruhkammer) was created, which, together with the Allied tribunals, determined the degree of guilt of suspects. In total, five categories of such cases were identified (“primary perpetrators”, “burdened with guilt”, “less burdened”, “fellow travelers” and “unaffected”). Criminal punishment was supposed mainly for the first category, so 95% of the accused were acquitted or only partially deprived of their rights.
The process of denazification and democratization was combined with the formation of a renewed German political elite. In the eastern and western zones, party building has acquired significant specifics. In 1945, the Soviet administration permitted the activities of four parties in the East German lands - the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDPD). Already in 1948, with the support of the SVAG, the National Democratic Party (NDP) and the Democratic Peasant Party (DKP) were created, designed to expand the social base of the left bloc. Under the influence of the SVAG, the communists gained an advantage in the selection of personnel for the new police and judicial and prosecutorial bodies in the Soviet zone. The KKE had a decisive influence on the course of the radical reform of the education system, the regulation of the activities of the creative intelligentsia, and took the initiative of agrarian reform. In the leadership of the KKE there was a strong left-wing wing under the leadership of Walter Ulbricht, who defended orthodox ideological principles and the need for socialist construction in Germany. The leader of the KPD, Wilhelm Pieck, took a more moderate position, declaring in 1945-1946. about the orientation of the party towards the creation of a parliamentary democratic republic on the scale of the entire German state.
Even tougher was the struggle between the radical left and the moderate currents in the SPD. The first of them was headed by the Berlin Central Committee headed by O. Grotewohl, the second - by the Hanoverian party bureau under the leadership of K. Schumacher, supported by the administration of the British zone. The leadership of the SPD advocated unification with the communists and the formation of a single all-German leftist party. This course triumphed at the Unity Congress of the KPD and the SPD in April 1946. The new party was named the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). Its program was focused on solving pressing economic problems, "liberation from exploitation and oppression, poverty, unemployment and the imperialist military threat", in the long term - socialist construction. W. Pick and O. Grotewohl became two equal chairmen of the SED. Members of the SPD who did not support the program guidelines of a single workers' party were expelled from its ranks.
The Schumacher group did not recognize the results of the unification congress. The right-wing Social Democrats re-established the SPD in May 1946 at a congress in Hannover. Schumacher took an exceptionally tough stance towards the Communists and the Social Democrats who united with them, considering the former to be the "Soviet Party", and the latter to be traitors to German national interests. Refusing to operate in the eastern lands, the SPD nevertheless advocated a revision of the border along the Oder-Neisse and the termination of reparation payments within all zones of occupation. Schumacher was an ardent opponent of separatism and a supporter of the idea of a single, independent German state. But in the post-war conditions, he was ready to put up with even a split in the country in order to avoid the threat of a Soviet military-political presence. In the field of domestic policy, the SPD took a very radical position, seeking the immediate "introduction of socialism" through the complete expropriation of the entire bourgeoisie. K. Schumacher himself enjoyed great personal popularity as an uncompromising anti-fascist who spent ten years in Nazi camps. His leadership in Western social democracy was undeniable.
The creation of the SED, accompanied by a split in the German social democratic movement, led to the isolation of the West German communist movement. The Western occupation authorities banned the creation of unified communist and social democratic organizations under the auspices of the SED. In April 1948 a conference of West German communist organizations elected their own board under the leadership of Max Reimann. The final separation of the KKE from the SED took place on January 3, 1949. An important place in the post-war political elite of Germany was occupied by the Christian Democrats. Germany had a fairly long tradition of Christian political movement. But in the Weimar Republic, neither the Catholic Center Party nor the Protestant German People's Party held a leading position. The situation began to change in the 1930s, when the church became one of the leading opposition forces in Nazi Germany. At the end of World War II, the Christian Democratic movement consolidated not only in Germany, but also in Italy, Austria, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Christian democracy began to develop on the basis of an ideological synthesis - the liberal-democratic vision of the ways of state building was combined with the traditions of social Catholicism, the ideology of the "third way of development". Christian democracy, which abandoned the corporate ideas of social Catholicism, retained its focus on the values of social solidarity, the idea of society as a single interconnected organism, of man as God's creation, his responsibility to his conscience and God. The Christian Democratic parties abandoned clericalism, considering Christianity only as the moral and ethical basis of politics and building their program guidelines on the principles of pragmatism, advocating the humanization and modernization of society. Conservative values (order, stability, state, family, nation) in their programs turned out to be organically linked with neoliberal attitudes towards stimulating the free market, ensuring the individual's right to freedom of self-realization.
For Germany, the renaissance of Christian democracy was especially important. Christian democracy has managed to organically fill the spiritual vacuum that has formed in a country that has been destroyed, disillusioned with its past and doubting its future, to preserve the continuity of the national idea, and to formulate new positive values.
The all-German organization of the CDU was formed in Berlin in June 1945. Its leader, Andras Hermes, was soon forced to resign under severe pressure from the Soviet administration. He was replaced by trade union leader Jacob Kaiser. The CDU became an active opponent of left-wing parties on the issues of economic reforms in the Soviet zone. After the formation of the SED, the Christian Democrats took a particularly radical stance. At the second congress of the CDU in Berlin in October 1947, Kaiser declared the need to turn the party into "a breakwater against dogmatic Marxism and its totalitarian tendencies." The SVAG took active steps to discredit the CDU and restrict its activities in the East German lands. The Kaiser was accused of espionage. Persecution forced Kaiser and a number of his colleagues to leave for West Germany, O. Nushke became the leader of the party, which finally turned into East German.
The leader of the West German Christian Democracy was Konrad Adenauer, the former mayor of Cologne, dismissed in 1933 by the Nazis and appointed to this post by the Americans when the city was liberated. When Cologne passed into the British zone of occupation, Adenauer was fired again. The British authorities sympathized with Schumacher and did not trust the experienced and ambitious Adenauer, known for his conservative views, commitment to the idea of reviving Germany. Adenauer headed the Christian Democratic Union of the Western Lands, created on September 2, 1945 at a congress in Cologne. With the support of the American authorities, he began active work to form the core of his party from authoritative public figures and representatives of influential political groups. Adenauer abandoned the "activist" model of party building. The tactics of the CDU assumed the support of the widest possible range of voters and the formation on this basis of the social base of a new democratic statehood. The CDU was seen as an association of "all Christians" and "all estates", that is, a party that reflects the interests of all social groups and both Christian denominations. At the same time, Adenauer insisted on the hard anti-communist course of the CDU, equally denying both Nazi and Marxist ideological extremism.
Support for the CDU on the part of the occupying authorities in the western zones especially increased from the end of 1946, when alienation began to grow rapidly in relations between the allies, and a split in Germany became more and more likely. Adenauer was one of those German politicians who openly supported the idea of forming a West German state. Adenauer did not believe in the German spirit, hated Prussian traditions and dreamed of reviving the greatness of Germany in the bosom of Western civilization. From a Rhenish separatist, Adenauer made his way to an active defender of the idea of German and, later, European federalism. A reliable ally of the CDU in pursuing such a political course was the Christian Social Union, which arose in 1946 in Bavaria as a Catholic Christian party (later - inter-confessional). Franz Josef Strauss became the leader of the CSU. Sharing the general principles of Christian democracy, supporting the political program of Adenauer, the leadership of the CSU sought to preserve the autonomy of its movement. In the rest of the West German states, the consolidation of the Christian Democratic movement took place in 1947. The Alen program of the CDU of the British zone, adopted in February of the same year, became the general party program.
Political parties of a liberal orientation failed to acquire as strong a position in post-war Germany as the Left and the Christian Democrats. The Liberal Democratic Party arose in the eastern zone of occupation already in 1945, but it failed to spread its influence over the entire territory of Germany, being under severe pressure from the Soviet administration. From the beginning of 1946, the formation of an autonomous political movement of liberals in the western zones began. On its basis, in December 1948, the Free Democratic Party (FDP) was formed. Its leader was Theodor Hayes. The program settings of the FDP were initially very eclectic. They combined national liberal ideas and classical liberal democratic values. The FDP became an opponent of the Christian Democratic bloc and the SPD, opposing both the confessionalization and the etatization of politics.
The elections to the land representations (landtags) held in 1946 demonstrated the approximate equality of the leading political forces in Germany. Even in the Soviet zone of occupation, elections took place in a relatively democratic atmosphere. The SED managed to win about as many seats in Landtags and land governments as the LDPG and CDU combined. In the western zones, the Christian Democrats managed to head 6 land governments, the Social Democrats - 5. But soon the specifics of the East German and West German political elites also began to appear. In addition to the direct intervention of the occupation authorities, the regional characteristics of German society itself had an effect.
For several decades, North and East Germany have been distinguished by the organization of the labor movement, the greatest influence of the Communists on the scale of Germany. Historically, the Lutheran political culture prevailed here, focused on the high importance of the state principle in public life, the “Prussian psychological complex” - a penchant for centralized forms of political and social activity, respect for military and public service. It was this region that became the most natural stronghold for the development of the socialist system on German soil. Western and Southern Germany have historically been a zone of separatist movements, a significant influence of Catholicism. The Rhine and Bavarian Germans possessed ethno-psychological characteristics that significantly distinguished them from the ethnic core of the German nation. The massive movement of refugees and immigrants in the early post-war years also contributed to the polarization of German society and its political elite. Many Germans, unwilling to put up with the communist threat, fled to the western lands. Communists and left-wing socialists returning from concentration camps and emigration, as a rule, ended up in the east of the country.
3. The Berlin crisis of 1948 and the split of Germany
Already at the beginning of 1947, it became obvious that the political dialogue of the Allies on the ways of Germany's development had finally reached a dead end. During the Moscow session of the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, held in March-April 1947, the Soviet delegation renewed its demands for organizing the supply of current products as reparations. Her opponents insisted on stopping the reparation seizures and giving the Germans the opportunity to restore the economic system.
The discussion did not lead to any concrete result. An attempt to hold a meeting of representatives of all German lands, dedicated to the development of a unified strategy for restoration measures, also failed. The next London session of the Ministerial Council, held in November-December 1947, also ended without results, even without agreeing on the place and time of the next meeting.
In addition to the rigid position of the USSR in the payment of reparations, the aggravation of the German issue was associated with a change in the US foreign policy. The adoption of the "Truman Doctrine" and the beginning of an open confrontation between the two "superpowers" primarily affected the fate of European countries. The US began to view Europe in the context of a bloc strategy. One of the first steps along this path was the development of a program for the "restoration and development of Europe" (Marshall Plan). Adopted in June 1947 and considered at the Paris Conference in July 1947, this plan was approved as US law in April 1948. Initially, neither Germany as a whole nor its western zones were considered as a participant in the economic aid program. The situation changed in 1948.
In January 1948, at a meeting of Bison ministers, it was decided to carry out a set of measures to prepare for economic reform in these lands. The Supreme Court and the Central Bank were created, the functions of the Economic Council and the central departments united in the directorate were expanded. A compromise was reached with the French government. After the transfer of the Saar region under French control as a pledge of reparation payments, France agreed to the annexation of its occupation zone to the Anglo-American one. In February 1948, Trizonia was formed. The Saarland was under the control of France until it returned to the FRG in 1957 following a referendum in 1955.
In February-June 1948, two rounds of the London Conference on the German Question took place, at which for the first time there was no Soviet delegation, but representatives of Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg took part. The conference decided to convene a Constituent Assembly to draw up a constitution for the new German state. In the same period, the American administration decided to extend the Marshall Plan to the western occupation zones of Germany. The agreement on this matter stipulated that the revival of the West German economy was part of a plan for European development based on the principles of individual freedom, free institutions, building "healthy economic conditions", strong international ties, and ensuring financial stability. Conditions were provided for the control of American special bodies over the course of economic reform, the removal of customs restrictions on the German market, and the continuation of the policy of demonopolization. In the first year of the Marshall Plan, West Germany received $2,422 billion from the United States (almost as much as Britain and France combined, and nearly three and a half times as much as Italy). But since some of the German products immediately began to go to the United States to pay off the debt, in the end, Germany did not receive the largest part of American aid - a total of about 10% (6.7 billion marks).
The key problem for the deployment of economic reform in Germany was the creation of "hard money", the elimination of the disastrous consequences of hyperinflation. In the Economic Council since 1947, an active discussion of supporters of the creation of a centrally planned economy and monetarists continued. A group of experts led by Ludwig Erhard prepared a draft financial reform designed to get rid of a huge amount of depreciated money. Erhard himself believed that such a reform should be combined with measures to actively stimulate production and protect the most vulnerable consumer groups, a number of additional measures to stabilize the consumer market and enhance consumer and production motivation. The initial proposals of the American administration to carry out reform in all four zones of occupation by 1948 turned out to be unrealistic, and the proposed measures were being prepared only within Trizonia.
Monetary reform in the western zones began on June 20, 1948. The official exchange ratio was set at 10 Reichsmarks for one new German mark (in addition, each person could exchange 40 marks at a 1:1 rate). At first, only 5% of the exchanged amount could be received in hand. After checking the legitimacy of income, the tax authorities issued another 20%, then 10%. The remaining 65% were liquidated. The final exchange quota was 100 Reichsmarks for 6.5 DM. Pensions, wages, benefits were recalculated at a ratio of 1:1. All old state obligations were annulled. Thus, a huge money supply was eliminated. The emergence of "hard money" destroyed the "black market" and undermined the system of barter transactions.
Two days after the start of the reform, a package of legislative acts was enacted that abolished central planning and freed up pricing. But at the same time, restrictive controls were maintained over the prices of transport and postal services, basic foodstuffs, and housing. Catalogs of so-called "relevant prices" were published regularly, taking into account real production costs and "reasonable profits". A special program "To each person" was adopted to provide the population with a narrow range of the most necessary goods at reduced prices. Erhard continued to insist on maintaining a policy of curbing extreme forms of monopoly, developing a system of "state entrepreneurship" (direct participation of the state in the production of goods and services of public importance, in the development of transport, energy, and information infrastructure). Such an economic mechanism was considered by Erhard as a "social market economy" that equally meets the interests of society and the individual.
The successful economic reform of 1948 was accompanied by an aggravation of the political situation in Germany. Despite the availability of information about the preparation of the exchange of banknotes in the western zones (the western governors officially informed the Soviet side about the upcoming reform only two days before its implementation, but operational data made it possible to trace the entire course of preparation), the SVAG did not take any measures to prevent the emergence of East Germany masses of depreciated old stamps, capable of undermining the consumer market. True, the interzonal border, which had been closed since June 30, 1946, created a certain barrier, but Berlin, divided into four sectors, remained an exception. On June 24, Soviet troops blocked West Berlin, cutting off all communication with the western zones. This action was mostly political in nature. It was on June 24 that the Soviet zone carried out its own reform, during which special coupons were pasted on old stamps. The economic danger of an influx of money from the West was thus largely removed. The blockade of West Berlin was a means of putting pressure on the Western powers in order to force them to make concessions in the negotiations. The result of the action turned out to be the opposite.
To save the population of West Berlin, the United States organized an air bridge. Daily, 13,000 tons of food was delivered to the city, which was three times the level of deliveries in previous months. In response, the Western powers imposed an embargo on the supply of goods to the Soviet zone. After difficult negotiations, on August 30, 1948, a four-party agreement was reached to remove the western mark from Berlin. But its implementation was delayed for technical reasons, and as the West German statehood was formalized, it turned out to be impossible.
In the midst of the Berlin crisis, from July 15 to July 22, 1948, a meeting of ministers-presidents of the Western states was held in Rüdesheim, during which the Berlin mayor Ernst Reuter called for the speedy creation of a West German “core” state with the inclusion of West Berlin in it. The meeting participants confirmed the decision to convene the Constituent Assembly by September 1, 1948. But then the terms "Constituent Assembly" and "constitution" were removed in order to avoid discussions about separatism. The Parliamentary Council was formed from representatives of the Landtags, which received the authority to develop the Basic Law of the West German state as a temporary constitution, designed to operate until the final decision on the issue of German reunification.
In April 1949, the "Statute of Occupation" sent out by the three powers was handed over to the Parliamentary Council. On May 8, 1949, the Parliamentary Council adopted the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, approved by the military governors on May 12 (coincidentally, on the same day, the inter-allied agreement to end the "blockade" of Berlin and the Western "counter-blockade" came into force). The solemn act of promulgation of the Basic Law on May 23 became the day of the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany. The transformation of the institution of military governors into the institution of the High Commissioners of the Western Powers in Germany on June 20 secured the granting of limited sovereignty to West Germany.
At the same time, the formation of the East German state was also taking place. Back in 1947, the German People's Congress (NNK) began to function in the Soviet zone. During its first meeting in December 1947, the task was set to develop a broad popular movement for a united Germany. The second NNK in March 1948 put forward the initiative to hold a referendum in all German states on the adoption of a law on the unity of Germany. But at the same time, the German People's Council was formed, which received the authority to prepare a draft constitution for the East German state. Such a draft was prepared by representatives of the SED and adopted at a meeting of the German People's Council on March 19, 1949. The third NNK, held on May 29-30, 1949, approved the constitution of the German Democratic Republic and proclaimed the inter-party National Front of Democratic Germany as the leading political force. October 7, 1949, when the provisional People's Chamber was formed, became the official day of the formation of the GDR. The division of Germany is over. The last Paris session of the Ministerial Council, which worked in May-June 1949, did not prevent this process. The German question has become one of the most complex international problems of post-war history.
After the war, Germany lay in ruins. The industry was destroyed, products were issued on cards. But in 1948 a “miracle” happened. Factories began to open, goods appeared on the shelves, and the German mark became the most desired currency in the world.
Let's find out how, in just a few years, Germany has again become one of the leading powers in the world.
Marshall Plan
The first post-war years in Germany were called "zero". As the “father” of the German miracle, Ludwig Erhard, later wrote: “That was the time when we in Germany were engaged in calculations, according to which per capita had one plate every five years, a pair of shoes every twelve years, every fifty years - One suit each.
The well-known "Marshall Plan" was the first step towards Germany's exit from this crisis.
In addition to preparing the ground for the ensuing Cold War, he had clear economic objectives. Western Europe has always been the most important market for American capitalism. Even during the Great Depression, the United States was able to get out of the crisis by conquering the European market.
The "mechanism" is simple - the greater the demand in Europe, the greater the supply from the United States, the more jobs there, the higher the purchasing power of American citizens.
In the post-war period, Europe needed American goods more than ever. There was only one problem - there was nothing to buy them, national currencies depreciated. Therefore, in 1947, the United States found itself at a crossroads - either to abandon promising markets and slow down the growth of its own economy, or to provide material support to post-war Europe and receive not only a "regular customer and client", but also an ally. The United States put on the second and did not lose.
In accordance with the Marshall Plan, Germany was provided with a total of $3.12 billion in loans, equipment and technology over 4 years. And although the "plan" was not the main active force in the post-war reconstruction of Germany, it made it possible to carry out later what will be called the "German miracle." In a few years, the production of both agricultural and industrial products will exceed the pre-war level.
"Prosperity for all"
The main creator of the "new Germany" was not the American Secretary of State, but the first Minister of Economics of the Federal Republic of Germany, later the Federal Chancellor - Ludwig Erhard. Erhard's main concept was contained in the postulate that the economy is not a soulless mechanism, it rests on living people with their own desires, aspirations and needs.
Thus, the basis for the economic revival of Germany was to be free enterprise. Erhard wrote: “I see the ideal situation where an ordinary person can say: I have enough strength to stand up for myself, I want to be responsible for my own destiny. You, the state, do not worry about my affairs, but give me so much freedom and leave me so much from the result of my work that I myself and at my own discretion provide for the existence of myself and my family.
In Erhard's policy, the state was assigned the role of a "night guard", which "protected" entrepreneurial activity from monopoly, external competition, high taxes and other factors that stood in the way of the liberal market.
The introduction of a free market economy in post-war Germany was not an easy decision. It was Erhard's only initiative, the "anti-law", which contradicted the policy of the occupying authorities and nullified all previous attempts to pull Germany out of the crisis, through a planned economy and state regulation.
And it worked. Some time later, two Frenchmen Jacques Rueff and Andre Pietre, who were then in Germany, wrote: “Only eyewitnesses can tell about the instantaneous effect that the currency reform had on filling warehouses and richness of shop windows. From day to day, shops began to be filled with goods and factories resumed work. The day before, hopelessness was written on the faces of the Germans, the next day the whole nation looked to the future with hope.
New brand
But for free enterprise, another important condition was necessary - currency stability. In the post-war period, the Reichsmark was valued no more than once the "Kerenki" in the RSFSR.
On June 21, 1948, a monetary reform was carried out, aimed at the confiscation of depreciated money and the creation of a hard currency. This is how the Deutschmark appeared, which later became famous as one of the most stable currencies of the 20th century.
The monetary reform was prepared in the strictest secrecy. Firstly, in order not to provoke the intervention of the USSR, and secondly, in order to avoid panic getting rid of the old Reichsmarks.
But on the eve of the reform, rumors still leaked to the masses, causing a real "shopping hysteria" - the Germans tried to buy everything that money could still buy. As a result, black market prices have shot up to astronomical heights.
The exchange rate of the old currency for the new one was purely confiscatory. Firstly, for 10 old marks they gave one new one, with the same paying capacity. Secondly, each adult could change on June 21 at a time only 400 Reichsmarks for 40 Deutschmarks, and then another 200 Reichsmarks for new 20 within a few days. At the end of the term, all remaining Reichsmarks were either partially kept in banks or depreciated.
Through such tough measures, Erhard managed to ensure a stable exchange rate for the new currency, as well as to achieve an even distribution of funds among different segments of the population, while before that most of the country's currency was concentrated in the hands of a small but very wealthy group of people. Now a broad and stable middle class was emerging.
In the 50s, the German mark became one of the most reliable currencies in the world, in which residents of many countries kept their savings. Even when DM in 1977 was almost half its value in 1950, its purchasing power remained among the best in the world.
Freedom to prices!
Literally a few days after the monetary reform, prices were "set free". From now on, the pricing policy was based on the principle of liberalization, with only one proviso that the state retained the right of partial control over them. So he compiled a list of "appropriate prices" for certain consumer products, and also adopted a ban on arbitrary price increases in order to avoid the greed of entrepreneurs.
It was followed by antitrust decrees, according to which the share of one company in the market could not exceed 33%, two or three - 50%, and four or five - no more than 65%.
Tax incentives were introduced, which discouraged companies from the "shadow business". In short, numbers speak louder than words. By 1950, Germany had reached the pre-war level of production, and by 1962 it was three times higher.
Once, after the recovery of the German economy, its entry into the first positions of the world market, Erhard was asked what is the key to the successful development of the economy. To this he replied: "the resourcefulness of the entrepreneurs, the discipline and diligence of the workers, and the skillful policy of the government."