G.I. lerner
Biology
Complete reference to prepare for the exam
Single State exam- This new form certification, which has become mandatory for graduates high school. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.
This complete reference book of biology lists all necessary materials for quality training to the exam.
1. The book includes verifiable examination papers theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels knowledge and skills.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. Sequence of presentation educational material begins with General Biology, as the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples test items all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper. Special attention you need to pay attention to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
Proposed tutorial in biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as to teachers. However, the book will be useful to all students. secondary school, because will allow not only to study the subject within school curriculum but also systematically check its assimilation.
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.
concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .
Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human pedigrees, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)
Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes taking place in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. You can observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.
Experiment (Experience)- a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses . Examples of experiments are crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of any cell organelle, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of a given experience.
Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, the following: “How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?” or “How can I prepare for serious exams in the shortest possible time?”.
It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.
Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, “If plants emit oxygen in the light, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, because. oxygen must support combustion. The hypothesis is tested experimentally. (See Hypotheses for the Origin of Life on Earth.)
Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. Faithful scientific theories confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and the chromosome theory of T. Morgan were confirmed by many experimental studies in different countries peace. The modern evolutionary theory, although it has found many scientifically proven confirmations, still meets opponents, because. not all of its provisions can be present stage development of science to confirm the facts.
Private scientific methods in biology are:
genealogical method - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.
historical method - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). The evolutionary doctrine has developed largely due to this method.
paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in earth's crust, in different geological layers.
centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.
n1.doc
Georgy Isaakovich Lerner
Biology. A complete guide to preparing for the exam
“BIOLOGY: A complete guide to preparing for the exam / G.I. LERNER: AST, Astrel; Moscow; 2009
ISBN 978-5-17-060750-1, 978-5-271-24452-0
annotation
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of biology, necessary for passing the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks conform to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
G.I. lerner
Biology
A complete guide to preparing for the exam
From the author
The Unified State Examination is a new form of attestation that has become mandatory for high school graduates. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.
This complete guide to biology provides all the materials you need to prepare well for the exam.
1. The book includes the theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. The sequence of presentation of educational material begins with "General Biology", because. the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Particular attention should be paid to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
The proposed textbook on biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren of a comprehensive school, because will allow not only to study the subject within the school curriculum, but also to systematically check its assimilation.
Section 1
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.
concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .
Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human pedigrees, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)
Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes taking place in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. You can observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.
Experiment (Experience)- a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses . Examples of experiments are crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of any cell organelle, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of a given experience.
Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. A scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, the following: “How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?” or “How can I prepare for serious exams in the shortest possible time?”.
It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.
Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, “If plants emit oxygen in the light, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, because. oxygen must support combustion. The hypothesis is tested experimentally. (See Hypotheses for the Origin of Life on Earth.)
Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. True scientific theories are confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and the chromosome theory of T. Morgan were confirmed by many experimental studies in different countries of the world. The modern evolutionary theory, although it has found many scientifically proven confirmations, still meets opponents, because. not all of its provisions can be confirmed by facts at the present stage of development of science.
Private scientific methods in biology are:
genealogical method - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.
historical method - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). The evolutionary doctrine has developed largely due to this method.
paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in the earth's crust, in different geological layers.
centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.
Cytological or cytogenetic , - study of the structure of the cell, its structures using various microscopes.
Biochemical - study chemical processes occurring in the body.
Each particular biological science (botany, zoology, anatomy and physiology, cytology, embryology, genetics, breeding, ecology, and others) uses its own more particular research methods.
Every science has its own an object and your subject of study. In biology, the object of study is LIFE. The carriers of life are living bodies. Everything related to their existence is studied by biology. The subject of science is always somewhat narrower, more limited than the object. So, for example, one of the scientists is interested in metabolism organisms. Then the object of study will be life, and the subject of study will be metabolism. On the other hand, metabolism can also be an object of study, but then the subject of study will be one of its characteristics, for example, the metabolism of proteins, or fats, or carbohydrates. This is important to understand, because questions about what is the object of study of a particular science are found in exam questions. In addition, it is important for those who will be engaged in science in the future.
EXAMPLES OF TASKS
Part A
A1. Biology as a science studies
1) general signs of the structure of plants and animals
2) the relationship of living and inanimate nature
3) processes occurring in living systems
4) the origin of life on Earth
A2. I.P. Pavlov in his works on digestion used the research method:
1) historical 3) experimental
2) descriptive 4) biochemical
A3. Ch. Darwin's assumption that everyone modern look or groups of species had common ancestors - these are:
1) theory 3) fact
2) hypothesis 4) proof
A4. Embryology studies
1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth
2) the structure and functions of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the organism from birth to death
A5. The number and shape of chromosomes in a cell is determined by research
1) biochemical 3) centrifugation
2) cytological 4) comparative
A6. Selection as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) conservation of the biosphere
3) creation of agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers
A7. Patterns of inheritance of traits in humans are established by the method
1) experimental 3) genealogical
2) hybridological 4) observations
A8. The specialty of a scientist who studies the fine structures of chromosomes is called:
1) breeder 3) morphologist
2) cytogeneticist 4) embryologist
A9. Systematics is the science that deals with
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying relationships between organisms
4) classification of organisms
Part B
IN 1. Indicate three functions that modern cell theory performs
1) Experimentally confirms scientific data on the structure of organisms
2) Predicts the emergence of new facts, phenomena
3) Describes cellular structure different organisms
4) Systematizes, analyzes and explains new facts about the cellular structure of organisms
5) Puts forward hypotheses about the cellular structure of all organisms
6) Creates new methods of cell research
Part C
C1. The French scientist Louis Pasteur became famous as the "savior of mankind", thanks to the creation of vaccines against infectious diseases, including such as rabies, anthrax and others. Suggest hypotheses that he could put forward. Which of the research methods did he prove his case?
1.2. Signs and properties of living things: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, reproduction, development
The main terms and concepts tested in the examination paper: homeostasis, unity of animate and inanimate nature, variability, heredity, metabolism.
Signs and properties of living. Living systems have common features:
– cellular structure . All organisms on earth are made up of cells. An exception are viruses that exhibit the properties of a living thing only in other organisms.
Metabolism - a set of biochemical transformations occurring in the body and other biosystems.
Self-regulation - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis). Persistent disturbance of homeostasis leads to the death of the organism.
Irritability - the ability of the body to respond to external and internal stimuli (reflexes in animals and tropisms, taxis and nastia in plants).
Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new features and properties as a result of the influence external environment and changes in the hereditary apparatus - DNA molecules.
Heredity The ability of an organism to pass on its traits from generation to generation.
Reproduction or self-reproduction - the ability of living systems to reproduce their own kind. Reproduction is based on the process of duplication of DNA molecules with subsequent cell division.
Growth and development - all organisms grow during their lives; development is understood as individual development organism, and the historical development of living nature.
System openness - a property of all living systems associated with a constant supply of energy from the outside and the removal of waste products. In other words, an organism is alive while it exchanges matter and energy with the environment.
Ability to adapt - during historical development and under the influence natural selection organisms acquire adaptations to conditions environment(adaptation). Organisms that do not have the necessary adaptations die out.
commonality chemical composition . The main features of the chemical composition of a cell and a multicellular organism are carbon compounds - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids. In inanimate nature, these compounds are not formed.
The commonality of the chemical composition of living systems and inanimate nature speaks of the unity and connection of living and inanimate matter. The whole world is a system based on individual atoms. Atoms interact with each other to form molecules. Molecules in inanimate systems form rock crystals, stars, planets, and the universe. From the molecules that make up organisms, living systems are formed - cells, tissues, organisms. The relationship between living and non-living systems is clearly manifested at the level of biogeocenoses and the biosphere.
1.3. The main levels of organization of wildlife: cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic
The main terms and concepts tested in the examination papers: standard of living, biological systems studied at this level, molecular-genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.
Organization levels living systems reflect subordination, hierarchy structural organization life. Living standards differ from each other by the complexity of the organization of the system. A cell is simpler than a multicellular organism or population.
The standard of living is the form and way of its existence. For example, a virus exists as a DNA or RNA molecule enclosed in a protein shell. This is the form of existence of the virus. However, the properties of a living system, the virus shows only when it enters the cell of another organism. There he breeds. This is his way of being.
Molecular genetic level represented by individual biopolymers (DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and other compounds); at this level of life, phenomena associated with changes (mutations) and the reproduction of genetic material, metabolism are studied.
Cellular - the level at which life exists in the form of a cell - the structural and functional unit of life. At this level, processes such as metabolism and energy, information exchange, reproduction, photosynthesis, transmission of nerve impulses, and many others are studied.
Organismic - this is the independent existence of a separate individual - a unicellular or multicellular organism.
population-species - the level, which is represented by a group of individuals of the same species - a population; It is in the population that elementary evolutionary processes take place - the accumulation, manifestation and selection of mutations.
Biogeocenotic - represented by ecosystems consisting of different populations and their habitats.
biospheric - a level representing the totality of all biogeocenoses. In the biosphere, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy with the participation of organisms take place. The products of vital activity of organisms participate in the process of evolution of the Earth.
EXAMPLES OF TASKS
Part A
A1. The level at which the processes of biogenic migration of atoms are studied is called:
1) biogeocenotic
2) biosphere
3) population-species
4) molecular genetic
A2. At the population-species level, they study:
1) gene mutations
2) the relationship of organisms of the same species
3) organ systems
4) metabolic processes in the body
A3. Maintaining a relatively constant chemical composition of the body is called
1) metabolism 3) homeostasis
2) assimilation 4) adaptation
A4. The occurrence of mutations is associated with such a property of the organism as
1) heredity 3) irritability
2) variability 4) self-reproduction
A5. Which of the following biological systems forms the highest standard of living?
1) amoeba cell 3) herd of deer
2) smallpox virus 4) nature reserve
A6. Pulling the hand away from a hot object is an example
1) irritability
2) ability to adapt
3) inheritance of traits from parents
4) self-regulation
A7. Photosynthesis, protein biosynthesis are examples
1) plastic metabolism
2) energy metabolism
3) nutrition and breathing
4) homeostasis
A8. Which of the terms is synonymous with the concept of "metabolism"?
1) anabolism 3) assimilation
2) catabolism 4) metabolism
Part B
IN 1. Select the processes studied at the molecular genetic level of life
1) DNA replication
2) inheritance of Down's disease
3) enzymatic reactions
4) the structure of mitochondria
5) cell membrane structure
6) blood circulation
IN 2. Correlate the nature of the adaptation of organisms with the conditions to which they were developed. 
Part C
C1. What adaptations of plants provide them with reproduction and resettlement?
C2. What is common and what are the differences between different levels of organization of life?
G.I. lerner
Biology
A complete guide to preparing for the exam
The Unified State Examination is a new form of attestation that has become mandatory for high school graduates. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.
This complete guide to biology provides all the materials you need to prepare well for the exam.
1. The book includes the theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. The sequence of presentation of educational material begins with "General Biology", because. the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Particular attention should be paid to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
The proposed textbook on biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren of a comprehensive school, because will allow not only to study the subject within the school curriculum, but also to systematically check its assimilation.
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.
concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .
Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human pedigrees, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)
M.: 2015. - 416 p.
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school. The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
Format: pdf
The size: 11 MB
Watch, download:drive.google
CONTENT
From author 12
Section 1. BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature. The role of biology in shaping the modern natural-science picture of the world 14
1.2. Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.
Biological systems. General features of biological systems: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution 20
Section 2. CELL AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
2.1. Modern cellular theory, its main provisions, the role in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world. Development of knowledge about the cell. The cellular structure of organisms is the basis of unity organic world, evidence of the relationship of wildlife 26
2.2. variety of cells. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Comparative characteristics of cells of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi 28
2.3. Chemical composition, organization of the cell. Macro- and microelements. The relationship of the structure - and functions of inorganic and organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, ATP) that make up the cell. Role chemical substances in the cell and the human body 33
2.3.1. Inorganic substances of the cell 33
2.3.2. organic matter cells. Carbohydrates, lipids 36
2.3.3. Proteins, their structure and functions 40
2.3.4. Nucleic acids 45
2.4. Cell structure. The relationship of the structure and functions of parts and organelles of the cell is the basis of its integrity 49
2.4.1. Features of the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Comparative data 50
2.5. Metabolism and energy conversion are properties of living organisms. Energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship. Stages of energy metabolism. Fermentation and respiration. Photosynthesis, its significance, cosmic role. Phases of photosynthesis.
Light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, their relationship. Chemosynthesis. The role of chemosynthetic bacteria on Earth 58
2.5.1. Energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship 58
2.5.2. energy exchange in a cage (dissimilation) 60
2.5.3. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis 64
2.6. Genetic information in a cell. Genes, genetic code and its properties. Matrix nature of biosynthetic reactions. Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids 68
2.7. A cell is the genetic unit of a living thing. Chromosomes, their structure (shape and size) and functions. The number of chromosomes and their species constancy.
Somatic and sex cells. Cell life cycle: interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is the division of somatic cells. Meiosis. Phases of mitosis and meiosis.
The development of germ cells in plants and animals. Cell division is the basis for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. The role of meiosis and mitosis 75
Section 3. ORGANISM AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
3.1. Diversity of organisms: unicellular and multicellular; autotrophs, heterotrophs. Viruses - non-cellular forms life 85
3.2. Reproduction of organisms, its significance. Reproduction methods similarities and differences between sexual and asexual reproduction. Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates. External and internal and fertilization 85
3.3. Ontogeny and its inherent regularities. Embryonic and postembryonic development of organisms. Causes of impaired development of organisms 90
3.4. Genetics, its tasks. Heredity and variability are properties of organisms. Main genetic concepts and symbolism. Chromosomal theory of heredity.
Modern views about gene and genome 95
3.5. Patterns of heredity, their cytological basis. Patterns of inheritance established by G. Mendel, their cytological foundations (mono- and dihybrid crossing).
Laws of T. Morgan: linked inheritance of traits, violations of gene linkage. Sex genetics. Inheritance of sex-linked traits.
Interaction of genes. The genotype as an integral system. Human genetics. Methods for studying human genetics. Solution of genetic problems. Drawing up crossbreeding schemes 97
3.6. Regularities of variability. Non-hereditary variability (modification).
reaction rate. Hereditary variability: mutational, combinative. Types of mutations and their causes. The significance of variability in the life of organisms and in evolution 107
3.6.1. Variability, its types and biological significance 108
3.7. The value of genetics for medicine. Human hereditary diseases, their causes, prevention. The harmful effects of mutagens, alcohol, drugs, nicotine on the genetic apparatus of the cell. Protection of the environment from pollution by mutagens.
Identification of sources of mutagens in the environment (indirectly) and assessment of the possible consequences of their influence on one's own body 113
3.7.1. Mutagens, mutagenesis, 113
3.8. Breeding, its tasks and practical significance. Contribution of N.I. Vavilov in the development of breeding: the doctrine of the centers of diversity and the origin of cultivated plants. Law homologous series in hereditary variation.
Methods for breeding new varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms.
The value of genetics for selection. Biological bases cultivation of cultivated plants and domestic animals 116
3.8.1. Genetics and selection 116
3.8.2. Methods of work I.V. Michurina 118
3.8.3. Centers of origin of cultivated plants 118
3.9. Biotechnology, its directions. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning. The role of cell theory in the formation and development of biotechnology. The importance of biotechnology for the development of breeding, agriculture, the microbiological industry, and the preservation of the planet's gene pool. Ethical aspects of the development of some research in biotechnology (human cloning, directed changes in the genome) 122
3.9.1. Cellular and genetic engineering. Biotechnology 122
Section 4. SYSTEM AND DIVERSITY OF THE ORGANIC WORLD
4.1. Diversity of organisms. The significance of the works of C. Linnaeus and J.-B. Lamarck. The main systematic (taxonomic) categories: species, genus, family, order (order), class, type (department), kingdom; their subordination 126
4.2. The kingdom of bacteria, structure, vital activity, reproduction, role in nature. Bacteria - causative agents of diseases of plants, animals, humans. Prevention of diseases caused by bacteria. Viruses 130
4.3. Kingdom of fungi, structure, life, reproduction. The use of mushrooms for food and medicine. Recognition of edible and poisonous mushrooms. Lichens, their diversity, features of structure and life activity.
The role of fungi and lichens in nature 135
4.4. Plant kingdom. Structure (tissues, cells, organs), vital activity and reproduction of a plant organism (on the example of angiosperms). Recognition (in drawings) of plant organs 140
4.4.1. general characteristics plant kingdoms 140
4.4.2. Tissues of higher plants 141
4.4.3. Vegetative organs of flowering plants. Root 142
4.4.4. Escape 144
4.4.5. Flower and its functions. Inflorescences and their biological significance 148
4.5. Variety of plants. The main divisions of plants. Classes of angiosperms, the role of plants in nature and human life 153
4.5.1. Life cycles plants 153
4.5.2. Monocots and dicots 158
4.5.3. The role of plants in nature and human life
4.6. Animal Kingdom. Unicellular and multicellular animals. Characteristics of the main types of invertebrates, classes of arthropods. Features of the structure, life, reproduction, role in nature and human life 164
4.6.1. General characteristics of the kingdom Animals 164
4.6.2. Subkingdom Unicellular, or Protozoa. General characteristics 165
4.6.3. Type Intestinal. General characteristics. Variety of coelenterates 171
4.6.4. Comparative characteristics of representatives of the type flatworms
176
4.6.5. Type Primary cavity, or roundworms 182
4.6.6. Type Annelids. General characteristics 186
4.6.7. Type Clams 191
4.6.8. Type Arthropoda 197
4.7. chordate animals. Characteristics of the main classes. Role in nature and human life. Recognition (in drawings) of organs and organ systems in animals 207
4.7.1. General characteristics of the chordate type 207
4.7.2. Superclass Pisces 210
4.7.3. Class Amphibians. General characteristics 215
4.7.4. Class Reptiles. General characteristics 220
4.7.5. Bird class 226
4.7.6. Class Mammals. General characteristics 234
Section 5. HUMAN ORGANISM AND ITS HEALTH
5.1. Fabrics. The structure and vital functions of organs and organ systems: digestion, respiration, excretion. Recognition (in drawings) of tissues, organs, organ systems 243
5.1.1. Anatomy and physiology of man. Fabrics 243
5.1.2. Structure and functions of the digestive system. 247
5.1.3. Structure and functions respiratory system 252
5.1.4. The structure and functions of the excretory system. 257
5.2. The structure and vital activity of organs and organ systems: musculoskeletal, integumentary, blood circulation, lymph circulation. Human reproduction and development 261
5.2.1. The structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system 261
5.2.2. Skin, its structure and functions 267
5.2.3. Structure and functions of the circulatory and lymphatic system 270
5.2.4. Reproduction and development of the human body 278
5.3. The internal environment of the human body. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity. Metabolism and energy conversion in the human body. Vitamins 279
5.3.1. The internal environment of the body. Composition and functions of blood. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity 279
5.3.2. Metabolism in the human body 287
5.4. Nervous and endocrine systems. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes of the body as the basis of its integrity, connection with the environment 293
5.4.1. Nervous system. General plan of the building. Functions 293
5.4.2. The structure and functions of the central nervous system 298
5.4.3. Structure and functions of the autonomic nervous system 305
5.4.4. Endocrine system. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes 309
5.5. Analyzers. Sense organs, their role in the body. Structure and functions. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 314
5.5.1. Sense organs (analyzers). The structure and functions of the organs of vision and hearing 314
5.5.2. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 320
5.6. Personal and public hygiene, healthy lifestyle. Prevention of infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal, caused by animals). injury prevention,
first aid practices. Mental and physical health of a person. Health factors (auto-training, hardening, physical activity).
Risk factors (stress, physical inactivity, overwork, hypothermia). Bad and good habits.
The dependence of human health on the state of the environment. Compliance with sanitary and hygienic norms and rules healthy lifestyle life.
Reproductive health of the person. The consequences of the influence of alcohol, nicotine, narcotic substances on the development of the human embryo 327
Section 6. EVOLUTION OF LIVING NATURE
6.1. View, its criteria. A population is a structural unit of a species and an elementary unit of evolution. Formation of new species. Speciation methods 335
6.2. Development of evolutionary ideas. Meaning evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution.
Forms of natural selection, types of struggle for existence. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution.
Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. Elementary factors of evolution. The role of evolutionary theory in shaping
modern natural science picture of the world 342
6.2.1. Development of evolutionary ideas. The value of the works of K. Linnaeus, the teachings of J.-B. Lamarck, the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution. Elementary Factors of Evolution 342
6.2.2. Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. The role of evolutionary theory
in the formation of a modern natural-science picture of the world 347
6.3. Evidence for the evolution of wildlife. Results of evolution: fitness of organisms
habitat, species diversity 351
6.4. Macroevolution. Directions and paths of evolution (A.N. Severtsov, I.I. Shmalgauzen). Biological
progress and regression, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration. Causes of biological progress
and regression. Hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth.
Evolution of the organic world. The main aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals. Complication of living organisms in the process of evolution 358
6.5. Human Origins. Man as a species, his place in the system of the organic world.
Hypotheses of the origin of man. Driving forces and stages of human evolution. human races,
their genetic relationship. biosocial nature of man. social and natural environment,
human adaptation to it 365
6.5.1. Anthropogenesis. Driving forces. Role of laws public life in social behavior human 365
Section 7. ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR REGULARITIES
7.1. habitats of organisms. Environmental factors environments: abiotic, biotic, their significance. Anthropogenic factor 370
7.2. Ecosystem (biogeocenosis), its components: producers, consumers, decomposers, their role. Species and spatial structure of the ecosystem. trophic levels. Chains and power networks, their links. Drawing up schemes for the transfer of substances and energy (chains and power networks).
Ecological pyramid rule 374
7.3. Diversity of ecosystems (biogeocenoses). Self-development and change of ecosystems. Stability and dynamics of ecosystems. Biodiversity, self-regulation and cycling - the basis
sustainable development of ecosystems. Causes of stability and change of ecosystems. Changes in ecosystems under the influence of human activities.
Agroecosystems, main differences from natural ecosystems 379
7.4. The biosphere is a global ecosystem. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere. Living matter, its functions. Features of the distribution of biomass on Earth. The biological cycle of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere, the role of organisms of different kingdoms in it. Evolution of the biosphere 384
7.5. Global changes in the biosphere caused by human activity (ozone screen disruption, acid rain, greenhouse effect, etc.). Problems of sustainable development of the biosphere. Conservation of species diversity as a basis for the sustainability of the biosphere. Rules of conduct in the natural environment 385
Answers 390
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
Examples.
Embryology studies
1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth
2) the structure and functions of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the organism from birth to death
Selection as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) conservation of the biosphere
3) creation of agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers
Systematics is the science that deals with
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying relationships between organisms
4) classification of organisms.