Introduction

The problem of bilingualism has always been and is today one of the most interesting problems in modern linguistics.

The phenomenon of bilingualism is a complex complex phenomenon, which is the subject of research in various sciences, such as linguistics, psychology, methods of teaching foreign languages.

The problem of bilingualism was highlighted in the studies of domestic and foreign authors, such as N.I. Tolstoy, V.V. Ivanov, S. Erwin, E. Haugen and many others.

bilingualism bilingualism linguistic

Bilingualism

Bilingualism (lat. bi - two lingua - language) is bilingualism, i.e., the coexistence of two languages ​​in a person or in the whole people, usually the first - native and the second - acquired. If knowledge of two languages ​​is characteristic of individual members of society, then this is individual bilingualism; if for large contingents of speakers, then this is mass bilingualism.

Mass bilingualism can cover the population of one of the regions of the country (administrative-territorial region or economic region), or maybe the whole nation (nationality). In the first case, one speaks of a regional bilingualism in the second - about national bilingualism (bilingualism). If bilingualism is characteristic of all, without exception, socio-cultural groups of the people, then such bilingualism is called complete or continuous if it is characteristic only for certain social strata (merchants, transport workers, sailors, scientists, etc.), then it is called partial or group.

Not with every bilingualism there is an interaction between coexisting languages. If a bilingual (a native speaker of two languages) freely translates from one language to another, i.e. if two words correspond to one concept in his mind, then mixed bilingualism takes place (according to L.V. Shcherba - "a mixed language with two terms") if this is not the case and languages ​​function as two autonomous sign systems, then here the so-called pure bilingualism (it happens very rarely - only as an exception).

Bilingualism is a multifaceted phenomenon and can be studied in different aspects. Three aspects of the study of bilingualism stand out most prominently: 1) linguistic (sociolinguistic) 2) psychological 3) pedagogical. The methodological basis for the study of bilingualism in all these aspects should be the doctrine of nations, national language policy, and language construction in a multinational and multilingual state.

In the sociolinguistic aspect, the question of the functional loading of the second language is important - about the areas of its use (in comparison with the first language) about the degree of freedom of proficiency in it (several stages are distinguished here - the initial transitional higher one) about the specific set of socio-functional components of the second language used t .e. its forms of existence (the literary language of the Koine dialect, etc.) on the distribution of communicative functions between the first and second languages, including all available forms of them

existence) about contingents covered by bilingualism about the breadth of the use of the second language and its perception (for example, about the adoption of the Russian language as a second native language) about the assessment of bilingualism as a socio-linguistic phenomenon.

In science, bilingualism is recognized as a positive phenomenon. In the conditions of our reality, the highest goal of the development of bilingualism (and, above all, the main type of bilingualism in our country - national Russian) is to promote in every way the close rapprochement of peoples, the mutual enrichment of their cultures, the mastery of all peoples by the highest achievements of the culture of science and technology. This is facilitated by the mastery of the Russian language - one of the most developed languages ​​of international and interethnic communication.

Just as the combination of forms of existence of a language within the "language state" gives different variants of diglossia, the coexistence of functionally different languages ​​gives different variants of bilingualism that form different language situations.

Among the variants of bilingualism, the following are noted: 1) bilingualism arising from the use of two local languages ​​(most often their territorial dialects). Usually it is bilateral, for example, Tajik-Uzbek and Uzbek-Tajik bilingualism, etc.; 2) bilingualism arising from the use of the native local language and the language of regional communication, for example, in the cities of Africa (in Kenya, along with local ethnic languages, Swahili is widely used as a regional means of interethnic communication); 3) bilingualism arising from the use of the local language and the macro-intermediary language (international language); there are fundamentally different situations here: a) in antagonistic (socially heterogeneous) societies where the macro-intermediary language is often imported to the local population and can lead to the displacement of native local languages ​​b) in non-antagonistic (socially homogeneous) societies where the macro-intermediary language is, for example, the Russian language and minor languages ​​of the country are legally equal and there is a harmonic national-Russian bilingualism; 4) bilingualism consisting in the use of a regional language and a macro-intermediary language, for example, the language of the indigenous population of the union republics (in Azerbaijan - Azerbaijani in Uzbekistan - Uzbek, etc.) and the Russian language as "go the language of all the peoples of our country; 5) bilingualism consisting in knowledge of the national language and professional language (a ritual language - such as Sanskrit, the language of science - such as Latin classical Arabic and other pidgin language of a conditional language, for example, Mordovian artisans in the village of Seliksa near the city of Penza, in addition to their native language, used slang ("Ponatsky language") received by them from Russian artisans-otkhodniks of the village of Chemodanovka, Penza region).

T. a. Znamenskaya

problems of bilingualism and its influence on the linguistic personality

l __________________________________________ g

Annotation. The article deals with the problems of bilingualism and its influence on the linguistic personality. The description of types of bilingualism is given; various factors influencing the formation of a person's bilingual competence are listed: age, individual experience of a bilingual, sociocultural conditions for the interaction of two languages, etc. There are both positive and negative changes in native speech when learning another language.

Particular attention is paid to the prevention of interference of the native language in the process of teaching a foreign language. In order to achieve a high degree of authenticity of foreign language speech of bilinguals, to create a platform for the development of bilingual language competence, the teacher should take into account the peculiarities of national style, communication strategies and speech tactics of both the native and acquired languages. Comparative analysis of linguistic differences at the levels of phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, stylistics is carried out on the examples of English and Russian speech. The author is convinced that for the effective implementation of interlingual and intercultural communication, an integrative interdisciplinary approach is needed, combining linguistic theory and methods of teaching a foreign language.

Key words: bilingualism, language competence, bilingual competence, interference, linguistic self-identification, linguistic personality, linguistic authenticity, levels of bilingualism, communicative strategies, speech tactics, national communicative style.

abstract. The paper considers the problem of bilingualism and its effect on the personality of the speaker. Various types of bilingualism are described along with the factors determining the bilingual competence formation: age, individual experience, socio-cultural conditions of the native and foreign language interaction. The author points out both the positive and negative impact on the native language as the result of the second language learning.

The special emphasis is on language interference in the process of learning a foreign language. To make sure the students achieve the adequate degree of its authenticity, and therefore the bilingual competence, the teacher should take into account the specificity of national styles, communicative strategies and speech tactics of both languages. A comparative analysis of linguistic differences of the English and Russian languages ​​is demonstrated on the level of phonetics, vocabulary, grammar and national communicative stylistics. The author maintains that successful interlanguage and cross-cultural communication requires the integrative cross-disciplinary approach, consolidation of the linguistic theory and methods of foreign language teaching.

Keywords: bilingualism, language competence, natural and artificial bilingualism, bilingual competence, language interference, linguistic self-identification, linguistic authenticity, bilingual levels, communicative strategies, linguistic behavior, national communicative style.

Bilingualism, or bilingualism, is the alternating practical use of two (or more) languages, and the degree of this use and the ratio of languages ​​by different specialists and scientists is determined unequally. The American linguist L. Bloomfield, for example, believed that bilingualism implies equal knowledge of each of the languages ​​​​at the level of the native, according to this opinion, most of the inhabitants of Canada can be attributed to bilinguals.

dy, Switzerland or border regions of Belgium with France. Another point of view, expressed by W. Weinreich, is that speech competence in the native language and knowledge of a foreign language may differ.

The process of restructuring from one language code to another, i.e. the transition from one semiotic system to another, which is made by a person who masters a new language, attracts attention

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Comparison of the construction of statements by a native speaker of Russian and English

Phrase in Russian Translation of a native speaker of Russian into English Phrase in English

I'm sick and tired of this cold I've had it with this cold

There is something funny in it There's a funny side to it

He didn't understand the joke The joke was lost on him

To give a new sense to something To read a new meaning into something

many psychologists, psycholinguists, sociolinguists, since the reasons for such a restructuring are, as a rule, extralinguistic. Of course, it is of interest to both linguists and teachers, including in terms of the impact of learning a foreign language on behavior in their native language.

The French scientist A. Boileau divided bilingualism into natural (unconscious) and artificial (conscious). The first arises and exists due to natural regular contacts of multilingual peoples living in the same territory and implies that they simultaneously have two options for expressing thoughts, feelings, etc. in the corresponding languages. Natural bilingualism can be found in any of our autonomous and former Soviet republics.

Artificial bilingualism arises as a result of special training. Starting to master a foreign language, a person already has the skills of his native speech, which he seeks to transfer to a new language. Foreign words in this case are reproduced by internal translation. Seeing, for example, the English word "house" in the text, a Russian-born student correlates it not with the subject, but with the word "house". The same kind of interference, sometimes even to a greater extent, occurs at the sentence level - both when translating from a foreign language into a native one, and when constructing an utterance in a foreign language.

Language transfer is legitimate and possible if the language subsystems are comparable. For example, in Russian and English there is a category of number (singular and plural), there are parts of speech common to the two languages, categories of the present, past and future tenses, etc. However, certain linguistic phenomena and categories may be in one language and absent in another. For example, in English there are gerund and infinitive complexes, perfect forms, articles, continuous tense, but they are not in Russian; in Russian, unlike English, morphology and agreement of word forms in a sentence are developed, there is a declension of nouns, etc. In cases of allomorphism, the absence of analogies in different language systems, an unlawful transfer of the phenomena of the native language to a foreign one is very often observed. What is meant by accent in the broad sense of the word is the result of such linguistic interference - the incorrect imposition of one language on another.

The German scientist G. Schuchardt concluded that due to difficulties, verbal communication between two language communities leads diachronically to the restructuring of common languages ​​\u200b\u200bin the direction of their simplification.

So, today British scientists see a serious threat to the preservation of the idiomatic and richness of the English national language in its transformation into a global standardized means of international communication. In an effort to save effort, bilinguals try to achieve symmetry, a state of bilingual isomorphism. All linguistic phenomena that coincide in the native and foreign languages ​​are used to the maximum, and what differs is ignored. When constructing an utterance, a native speaker of Russian invariably chooses the "native" model and almost never the more idiomatic "English" structure. In table. some supporting examples from our own practice of teaching and communicating with native English speakers are given.

As we can see, in all cases, saving efforts when choosing a translation structure is intuitively manifested by the speaker in favor of the usual Russian speech logic.

There are three levels of proficiency in a foreign language: initial (the second language performs only an informative and communicative function), transitional (among other things, an expressive function is manifested) and adequate (a thought process arises in a second language). The last level is closest to natural bilingualism (examples: English and Russian by V. V. Nabokov; English and French by S. Maugham or O. Wilde). Regarding the study of a foreign language at a university, we can only talk about the initial level. When teaching a second language in terms of integration in a new language community, i.e., in the country of the language being studied, it is likely that the next two levels will be reached quickly and effectively. However, in this case, there is a threat of losing one's own identity with the native culture and society. The change in linguistic identity as a serious problem and a threat to self-identification is considered by sociolinguists, ethnolinguists

Stami, linguoculturologists.

It is widely believed that teaching a foreign language is most effective from early childhood when immersed in a foreign language environment, as happens, for example, in families of emigrants or foster families from abroad. However, in studies on these issues,

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mothers, there are not only positive results of these integration processes, but also many negative consequences. So, in the book by N. Sh. Alexandrova "Native language, foreign language and linguistic phenomena that have no name" numerous works of scientists from different countries devoted to bilingualism are analyzed. Based on the material of many languages ​​(Korean and French, German and Russian, Italian and German, Greek and Russian, Persian and German, etc.), evidence is given of the primitivization of both the first and second languages ​​and the frequent loss of the native language. Moreover, “one or another degree of impoverishment of the native language when immersed in a new language environment is observed not only in schoolchildren, but also in adults and is expressed in some deautomatization of native oral and written speech” . In this case, disautomation means uncertainty in the construction of phrases, the choice of dictionary forms, agreement, stress, etc.

In our opinion, the combination of two languages ​​in early childhood causes serious damage to language competence. Active learning of a new language is always accompanied by noticeable losses in the native language. In some cases (especially if the native language is not supported in the family), the child loses communication skills in his native language. Sometimes the changes are so irreversible that when you try to restore your native language, you have to learn it again as a foreign language.

The most favorable age for immersion in a new linguistic culture is considered to be 10-11 years old with the condition of actively contributing to the preservation of the native language. With the conscious assimilation of a second language, sad consequences can be avoided, but another problem arises - the strong influence of the native language, i.e. language interference.

An experienced teacher, in order to prevent interference, can predict possible errors, achieve maximum authenticity in preserving his own linguistic personality of a speaker in his native or foreign language. To successfully solve these problems, the teacher needs to know the most typical cases of this interference phenomenon that exist at all language levels.

I. Phonetic interference is the most stable drawback, practically not amenable to complete overcoming. Even with a good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary, the pronunciation of sounds and intonation betray a non-native speaker. For example: English students of the Russian language, as a rule, do not deafen the final consonant, they hardly master Russian intonation, which is dominated by a downward trend compared to English.

In Russians who speak English, on the contrary, final voiced consonants are stunned, vowel length is not maintained, sounds that are absent in Russian (w, combinations th, ng, ir, er), diphthongs, etc. are poorly assimilated.

II. At the lexical level, the English experience difficulties in using prepositions that do not coincide with English ones in the same combinations (wait for ...), verbs with specific prefixes (drive off, drive up, leave, leave, drive in, move out, run over, etc.); they mix seemingly identical synonyms in the usage (for example: Also (instead of also) we would like to see a new sample), etc. The forms of Russian adjectives that have complex morphology or are equipped with evaluative suffixes are difficult to distinguish for native English speakers (examples of errors: conservative instead of conservative, journalistic instead of journalistic, etc.).

Both Russians and English make such a typical lexical mistake as mixing valency, i.e. wrong combination of words. Do and make are translated by the same verb to do, hence the typical mistake of Russians in their use in English: there are stable combinations, such as to make a mistake, to make a face, to make a mess, in which the verb to do is not used, and vice versa, combinations to do the job, to do one's hair, to do one's duty, to do one's best, which do not allow the use of the verb to make. Or, despite the correspondence of the Russian verb to convince to the English convince or persuade, only one correct translation of the expression convinced bachelor is possible - confirmed bachelor.

There are differences in the internal semantic structure of words similar in meaning. For example, a mistake in Russian speech is associated with the verbs learn and teach, since both of them can be represented by the verb teach in translation. In English, the first verb means to study, and the second to teach. And such lexical traps lie in wait for the learner of a foreign language at every step.

Under the influence of analogies in the native language, when trying to use a foreign word, its meaning is often distorted. So, English science means only natural sciences, humanities - humanities; Russians, speaking English, as a rule, do not distinguish between these meanings and use science for both the natural sciences and the humanities, since in Russian the concept of science unites all branches of knowledge. The same happens with such words as barracks (barracks, not barracks), salute (greeting, not salute), minister (priest in the first sense of the lexeme), etc.

Stylistic inadequacy also leads to an excessive passion for slang, which foreigners are advised to use very carefully, as it becomes outdated very quickly and its connotations are usually understood only by native speakers, but not always realized by foreigners. So, for example, slangism joint until the middle of the 20th century. was used in the meaning of "housing", but has now acquired the meaning of "a cigarette with marijuana, a joint"; slang expression broad in 30-50s. last century meant "attractive girl or woman", now it is

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suffered semantic changes and received a clearly negative connotation. Such "transformations" occur all the time and are often not recorded in dictionaries at all, remaining facts only of oral speech. Therefore, the indiscriminate use of slang can lead, at best, to a violation of the meaning and bewilderment of the interlocutor, and at worst, to an awkward situation.

Common cases of lexical interference include the so-called "pidginization" of a language - the transfer of lexical units of other languages ​​​​into the native one, when this is not justified in any way. Of course, any language cannot do without borrowings, and it is impossible to find a replacement for many words marking new phenomena. So, the image maker, the Internet, PR that came from outside have already become familiar, there is no alternative to a completely fresh iPad, smartphone, flash mob, blogger. For most of them, there are no analogues in the Russian vocabulary. In the case of the presence of such, an invisible and unrealized struggle of lexemes for the right to exist takes place. It happens that domestic synonyms quietly disappear from the arena of linguistic "battles", as, for example, happened with the abbreviation EVM replaced by a computer, which, apparently, can soon be attributed to archaisms. Sometimes resistance is useless, since the language itself regulates the assimilation of foreign words or their displacement by the words of the native language. One of the examples of self-regulation in favor of the Russian language can be the borrowing of live journal, which in modern use is increasingly being replaced by the Russian phrase live journal (LJ).

At the same time, there is a clogging of the language with words like push-up effect, performance, promotion, introductive, blockbuster, wow, oops, etc., many of which are unreasonable substitutes for those that are in native speech.

Of course, it is impossible to influence the language and cancel the words that we do not like. However, a foreign language teacher is able to influence the literacy of students in using not only the studied language, but also their native language.

III. A grammatical system is usually more logical than a phonetic, lexical, or stylistic one. There are fairly clear rules here, so it, in comparison with other sections of the language, is easier to learn.

However, at the grammatical level, interference of native language models is observed where linguistic phenomena do not coincide. For example, English learners of Russian tend to use auxiliary verbs and complex analytical forms where they are not needed: I will go, I will speak, etc. The case forms of nouns, personal forms of verbs, agreement on gender, number and case seem very difficult to them due to the absence or mismatch of these categories and their morphological expression in English. Russians, in turn, invariably prefer the Past Indefinite form over the Present Perfect to express the past tense; avoid long forms

Continuous (Progressive), Present Perfect Continuous, Absolute Participle Construction, Verbal Complexes; find it difficult to use articles that are absent in Russian grammar. Very often, errors are caused by mechanical transfer from the native language to the target language (knowledge - knowledge, money - money are, advice - advices) or incorrect analogy within the target language (for example, agreement on the "false" plural form - the news are).

IV. Stylistic mistakes (confusing the meanings of words, their connotations in the appropriate context, special phrases, etiquette formulas, etc.) are one of the most frequent and most poorly overcome.

Comparing in Russian and English speech the ways in which speakers select language means for certain purposes of communication, one can notice the specifics of national style, which to a large extent influences the linguistic personality of the user of a particular language.

The peculiarities of the style of English and Russian speech are manifested primarily in the dialogue, which contains a set of sentences of various communicative types: questions, answers, imperatives. The greatest variety of options is among questions-requests for information and quasi-questions (question-advice, question-motivation, question-confirmation, etc.).

In most cases, a question asking for information is more direct and less variable in Russian than in English. Compare: Can you tell (do not know) what time it is? and Could you tell me the time, please? Would you know the time? Do you happen to know what time it is (what's the time)? For such questions in English speech is typical, using the concept

VG Gaka, colloquial proxemics - maintaining a psychological distance between speakers. The English often ask a question without an interrogative form in order not to put pressure on the interlocutor. For example, to find out where a bus stop or a bank is, common phrases are I'm looking for a bus-stop or I wonder if there's a bank nearby. Such speech tactics leave the addressee of the appeal the right to choose whether or not to enter into communication.

The etiquette formulas of advice in English are also more varied and tolerant. In addition to assertive advice similarly expressed in both languages, such as You need to change the situation, often accompanied by subjective modal phrases in my opinion, I think, in my opinion, it seems to me (to my mind / if you ask me I think you need a change), the English more likely than Russians to choose advice in the form of a question, such as Do (don't) you think a change would do you good?

Even more obvious are these tendencies in the manifestations of the imperative. In English, generally accepted norms of communication, excluding specific registers (administrative, military spheres or extreme situations), are characterized by communicative tolerance. For this purpose, there is

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a number of constructions (Why don "t you ...; How about ...; What would you say to .; What do you think of .; Wouldn't it be a good idea. Vdon't, etc.), indicating about the disposition to dialogue and about the recognition of the interlocutor's right to choose and make an independent decision.

In Russian, the request, advice and imperative are much more categorical. Constructions containing forms similar to those listed above in English are sometimes found in the role of advice, but almost never in the role of an imperative.

An important indicator of the national stylistics of the language are speech stereotypes. A special role in English speech behavior is played by repetitions both in the question and in the replies. Their main function is contact-establishing, or, according to R. Jacobson, phatic. Along with interjections and etiquette formulas, repetitions refer to those speech stereotypes that, due to their semantic emptiness, and at the same time their obligatory presence in the communication process, are, according to V. A. Vinogradov, a manifestation of the language in culture, a necessary part of the basic concepts of national culture.

English dialogue, unlike Russian, is inconceivable without repetitions, both in questions and in statements and replies. This is the so-called pick-up question, repeat question or echo question, for example; I arrived yesterday.- Did you?; It was midnight.-Was it?; You called him back, didn't you; I'm your mother aren't I? Answers to a direct question in English are always accompanied by a tautological repetition (Yes, I did; No, I didn't, etc.), which is not typical for the Russian language. Obviously, in most cases, these repetitions are purely decorative from an informative point of view. Nevertheless, they are the indicators of a “real” English dialogue and always betray a non-native speaker, since a Russian speaking English often neglects these “excesses” that are not typical of his native communicative style. What corresponds to the polite norm of communication in Russian - a short answer "yes" or "no", for the English takes on a categorical, "unfriendly" connotation.

The active use of repetitions in English gives speech a special dynamic of appellation (the speaker's constant appeal to the interlocutor) and interactivity (the listener's signaling about his participation in the act of communication).

Let's summarize the above. In general, the national style of English speech, compared to Russian, is characterized by a greater variability of etiquette formulas that respect the psychological distance and exclude direct pressure on the interlocutor; tolerance; appellativeness; deliberativeness; interactivity. Russian speech, on the other hand, demonstrates straightforwardness, a high degree of categoricalness and imperativeness. All these features must be taken into account when teaching a foreign language in order to achieve a high degree of authenticity of foreign language speech.

bilinguals without the hindrances that language interference imposes. The solution of these problems is possible by combining developments in the field of linguistic theory, on the one hand, and methods of teaching a foreign language, on the other. Such an integrative interdisciplinary approach allows creating a platform for the formation of bilingual language competence, which is necessary for the successful implementation of interlingual and intercultural communication.

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3. Gak VG Language and culture: language or culture? // Language and culture: materials of the II Intern. scientific conf. M., 2001.

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eleven years of development // Vopr. linguistics. 2010. No. 2. P.106-119.

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6. Sidenko A. S. On the project in the context of bilingual education: “Development of the teacher’s communicative competence by means of describing best practices” // Municipal education: innovations and experiment. 2013. No. 4. P.46-49.

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Introduction

Since the myth of the Babylonian pandemonium, people who have lost the ability to understand each other have been looking for ways to interact with each other. Peoples and ethnic groups cannot develop in isolation, and the diversity of languages ​​and their close proximity simply leave no other choice for a person than to learn foreign languages. The study of other languages ​​allows not only to establish communication and information and economic exchange, but also to enrich the culture of one's own people by introducing into it a part of the culture of the people of the language being studied. Such a cultural and linguistic exchange has existed at all times, and today it is acquiring a new color against the background of the globalization of the world community.

Globalization has a dual effect on individual nations. On the one hand, various barriers are being erased between peoples - including language barriers - which limit the interpenetration and mixing of cultures and nations among themselves. The framework allowed each ethnic group to maintain its identity and uniqueness, creating a great variety of different cultures and nationalities on the globe, but now there is a constant cultural exchange, the cultures of different ethnic groups are spreading all over the world. However, there is also an imposition of the culture of one people on another. In this regard, we can talk about the reverse side of globalization - a surge of people's interest in their origin, their roots. It becomes prestigious to know the history and culture of one's people, and to preserve them, passing them on to the next generations in order to prevent the disappearance of the ethnic group.

One of the forms of manifestation of globalization processes are interethnic marriages. In such families, where there is a mixture of not only two, and often more, nationalities, but also two languages ​​and cultures, we can observe the dual impact of globalization, which was mentioned above. On the one hand, in an international family the boundaries of differences between ethnic groups are erased, there is no racial hostility, since the members of such a family learn each other's language and culture, and on the other hand, it is quite natural for each family member to strive to maintain their cultural and national identity and instill love for their culture to children. Another form of manifestation of globalization is the growing need to learn at least one foreign language for a full life in modern society. An increase in the number of people who are fluent in at least one foreign language, intensive cultural exchange, interethnic families - in all these cases, the phenomenon of bilingualism and biculturalism takes place. Since the trend of globalization of international relations is only growing, the topic of the formation of bilingualism based on the correlation of cultures is more than relevant.

The topic of this study is the problem of the formation of bilingualism at an early stage through the correlation of cultures. The object of the research is intercultural communication, the subject is the actual phenomenon of bilingualism. The purpose of our study was to study the correlation of cultures as a way to form bilingualism. To achieve the goal, we set the following tasks:

Define the concept of bilingualism, its varieties, stages of occurrence and ways of functioning;

Determine the factors of occurrence and ways of forming bilingualism, consider the phenomenon of biculturalism;

Place of comparison of cultures in the formation of bilingualism;

The tasks set are reflected in the structural construction of the study: in the first chapter of the work, a theoretical analysis of approaches to the study of the problem of bilingualism is considered, in the first paragraph of the first chapter we give a generalized concept of the phenomenon of bilingualism, and also consider the classification and factors of this phenomenon. In the second paragraph of the first chapter, we consider the phenomenon of biculturality and how effective the method of comparing cultures in the development of bilingualism is. In the second chapter, we give practical confirmation of the theoretical conclusions that we arrived at in the first chapter.

The following research methods were used in the work:

theoretical method: analysis of literary sources on the problem under study;

empirical methods: observation, questioning, surveys;

quantitative and qualitative analysis of the research results.

The problem of bilingualism in Russian and foreign literature is devoted to many works, starting with the works of such prominent scientists as L. Shcherba, G. Vereshchagin, U. Weinreich, as well as V. Avrorin, A. Zalevskaya; however, among researchers there are a lot of disagreements and contradictions, which indicates the need to systematize knowledge on the topic. In addition, the problem of the correlation of cultures in instilling bilingualism is little disclosed, which determines the scientific novelty and practical significance of the work.

1. Bilingualism: concept, classification

bilingualism bilingualism culture

Despite the apparent unambiguity of the term "bilingualism", we still found some discrepancy. Following some scientists, we drew attention to the coexistence of actually two terms denoting the same phenomenon: bilingualism and bilingualism. Almost all dictionaries explain the origin of the word "bilingualism" as follows: Bilingualism From lat. Bi - two times + Linqua - language. Therefore, it can be assumed that at first linguists used a tracing-paper from the word "bilingualism" - "bilingualism", and many still prefer this particular term. Later, when it became fashionable to use foreign language vocabulary, the term "bilingualism" became more preferable. This, perhaps, can explain the appearance of the adjective "bilingual".

The situation with the content of the term is much more complicated. Bilingualism or bilingualism is understood as the knowledge of two languages, when both languages ​​are quite often actually used in communication. L.L. Nelyubin calls bilingualism the same knowledge of two languages, R.K. Minyar-Beloruchev speaks of bilingualism as knowledge of two languages, Schweitzer A.D. specifies that the first language is usually taken as the native language, while the second language is unrelated, but widely used by one or another ethnic community. At the same time, the degree of proficiency in two languages ​​\u200b\u200bcan be different: proficiency in oral spoken or written literary or both forms. U. Weinreich calls the practice of alternate use of two languages ​​bilingual, and V.Yu. Rosenzweig elaborates: "Bilingualism usually refers to the knowledge of two languages ​​and the regular switching from one to another depending on the situation of communication."

According to the Concise Ethnological Dictionary, bilingualism is the functioning of two languages ​​to serve the needs of an ethnic group and its individual members; It differs from a simple knowledge of another language on a par with the native and implies the ability to use different languages ​​in different life situations. And another dictionary defines bilingualism, bilingualism as the possession of two different languages ​​or dialects of one language to a degree sufficient for communication. At the same time, it is emphasized that the concept of "bilingualism" has two aspects - psychological and social. Bilingualism can characterize each individual (psychological aspect) or mass or group bilingualism can take place (social aspect). Bilingualism in the narrow sense is the equally perfect knowledge of two languages, in the broad sense - the relative knowledge of the second language, the ability to use it in certain areas of communication. All the above definitions are correct and at the same time contradict each other.

After analyzing the literature on the topic of bilingualism, we can distinguish several approaches to the definition of the concept of bilingualism, which we will conditionally designate as sociolinguistic (from the standpoint of social interaction of linguistic communities) and linguistic, consisting in turn of cognitive (from the point of view of language proficiency) and functional (from the point of view of view of the function of languages) approaches.

The sociolinguistic approach considers bilingualism as the coexistence of two languages ​​within the same speech community, using these languages ​​in the corresponding communicative areas, depending on the social situation and other parameters of the communicative act. In recent studies, sustained in line with the sociolinguistic approach, bilingualism is considered as a social phenomenon among other social phenomena. So, A.P. Maiorov understands bilingualism as "the coexistence, interaction and mutual influence of two different languages ​​in a single bilingual communicative space in a certain historical era in a multinational state." The bilingual communicative space is considered as an integral part of the social environment, which has a decisive influence on the formation and development of the individual.

The influence of languages ​​is understood as all kinds of mutual influence, interpenetration of two or more languages ​​and dialects, borrowing by one language of various linguistic facts from other languages, as well as the results of contacting languages ​​in different periods. “The concepts of “bilingualism” and “mutual influence of languages” are largely correlative, because one of them usually implies the other. Bilingualism acts not only as an intermediate link in the course of the mutual influence of languages, but also as the main, most active and comprehensive form of contact between languages, for bilingualism is actually the process of contacting languages.

Let us dwell on the linguistic (cognitive and functional) approach to the definition of bilingualism. To understand bilingualism in line with the cognitive approach, the definition of bilingual given by N.V. Imedadze: this is “a person who speaks (at one level or another) two languages, i.e. an individual who uses two language systems to communicate precisely for the purpose of communication, i.e. when consciousness is directed to the meaning of the statement, and the form is the means.

Within the framework of the indicated approach, there are both rather strict definitions of bilingualism, which impose very high, sometimes divorced from reality, requirements for the level of language proficiency, and liberal ones, which reduce the range of such requirements to a minimum.

A typical example of harsh interpretations found in foreign literature is the definition of L. Bloomfield, who considers bilingualism as the knowledge of two languages ​​at the native level (Native like control of two languages), i.e. equal knowledge of "perfection" in two languages ​​is assumed. Consonant with this definition are the arguments of the domestic researcher V.A. Avrorin that “bilingualism should be recognized as approximately equal fluency in two languages. In other words, bilingualism begins when the degree of knowledge of the second language comes close to the degree of knowledge of the first.

Such interpretations seem to us quite vulnerable, because, firstly, absolute perfection in knowledge of languages ​​is very rare, and, secondly, Bloomfield does not take into account the fact that perfect knowledge of a second language (at the native level) is often limited to certain aspects (for example, , speaking, listening, grammar, reading, etc.) and therefore cannot be assessed holistically. In addition, we agree with N.V. Imadadze, who believes that such a definition of this term “would lead to an unjustified narrowing of this concept, to an extremely rare and fraught with many psychological difficulties form - the complete functional equality of languages ​​calls into question the organic connection between language and cognitive processes; complete separation of functions can lead to a split personality.

Among the liberal ones are the views of J. MacNamara, who classifies as bilingual any subject who has minimal competence in one of the four aspects of the language - listening, speaking, reading, writing.

We found more balanced positions in the definitions of bilingualism, sustained in line with the functional approach. Thus, Mackey considered bilingualism as "the alternative use of two or more languages ​​by the same individual." At the same time, he characterizes bilingualism according to the following indicators:

by degree of proficiency: how bilingual the speaker is;

by social function: why the speech act is performed here and now in language A, and not in language B;

according to the language situation (alternation): under what conditions does the speaker switch from language A to language B;

by interference (interferens): how much languages ​​are distinguishable and how much they mix.

It should be noted that Mackey questions the ability to characterize bilingualism as an absolute phenomenon. He considers the question “How bilingual is the subject?” More legitimate than the question “Is the subject bilingual?”.

Within the framework of the functional approach, in order to facilitate the understanding of the term of interest to us, E.M. Vereshchagin considers primary (for intra-family communication) and secondary (for external situations of communication) language systems. “If the primary language system is used by a certain family member in all other situations of communication, and if he never uses a different language system, then such a person can be called a monolingual. If in certain communication situations another language system is also used, then a person who is able to use two language systems for communication is called bilingual. Vereshchagin considers the skills inherent in monolingual and bilingual, respectively, as monolingualism and bilingualism.

These interpretations affect only certain characteristics of bilingualism, but do not give a holistic view of this phenomenon. Taking into account all the above interpretations, we have developed our own definition of bilingualism: a person's possession of two different language systems to a degree sufficient for a clear and precise presentation of his thoughts in the necessary situation.

With different views on the nature of bilingualism, its various classifications are also associated. So, L.V. Shcherba distinguished two types of bilingualism:

Pure type - the use of one language in a certain setting, for example, in the family, one language is used, in public circles - another.

Mixed type - when people constantly move from one language to another and use one or another language, without noticing what language they use in each given case

Researchers Zalevskaya and Medvedeva distinguish between the concepts of natural (domestic) and artificial (educational) bilingualism (bilingualism). This implies that the second language is “grasped” with the help of the environment and due to abundant speech practice without awareness of linguistic phenomena as such, and a foreign language is “learned” through volitional efforts and using special methods and techniques.

The two language systems of bilinguals are in interaction. The hypothesis of W. Weinreich is widely known, who proposed a classification of bilingualism into three types, based on how languages ​​are acquired:

composite bilingualism, when for each concept there are two ways of implementation (presumably, most often characteristic of bilingual families);

coordinative, when each realization is associated with its own separate system of concepts (this type usually develops in a situation of immigration);

subordinate, when the system of the second language is completely built on the system of the first (as in the school type of teaching a foreign language).

According to the degree of proficiency in two languages, coordinated and subordinate (mixed) types of bilingualism are distinguished. With mixed bilingualism, a general picture of the world is formed, where one element of the content plan corresponds to two elements of the expression plan (translated equivalents in different languages). With coordinated bilingualism, two parallel systems are created, where each denotation has its own significat. Many language processes in bilingualism are associated with different types of bilingualism: due to mixed bilingualism, interference occurs, as well as spontaneous code switching, when a speaker of one language suddenly switches to another language, even in the case when this is not necessary. The problem of translation is also explained by researchers by dividing bilingualism into types: mixed bilingualism facilitates translation, since it links the same concepts in different languages ​​into one whole; with coordinated bilingualism, on the contrary, it is difficult to find translation equivalents, because in this case, as S. Karalyunas notes, "each word - both of one and another language - has a separate meaning."

As mentioned above, considering the problem of bilingualism, L. V. Shcherba singles out pure and mixed bilingualism. In accordance with this, the scientist distinguishes between two types of language acquisition. The first type takes place during the assimilation of a second language in a “non-translatable” way from its speakers and, therefore, nationally specific cognitive structures are assimilated, being represented by units of the language, without distortion. With mixed bilingualism, the language being studied is perceived through the prism of the native language. The structure of the language being studied is distorted by the categories of the native language, because there are no absolutely identical concepts among speakers of different languages, moreover, words can denote the same subject, but represent it in different ways, and therefore the translation is never accurate. In this regard, one of the main requirements for the study of a second language L. V. Shcherba puts forward the study of it "directly from life." The scientist calls such language acquisition the natural method and believes that only it "accustoms to the analysis of thought through means of expression." As a result, a bilingual person forms a single system of associations.

An attempt to develop a comprehensive classification of types of bilingualism, based on an interdisciplinary synthesis of various sciences, was made by H. Baetens-Beardsmore, who identified more than 30 types of bilingualism, namely:

acquired (achieved),

accompanying (additive),

progressive (ascendent),

attributed (ascribed),

asymmetric (asymmetrical),

balanced (balanced),

complex (compound),

sequential (consecutive),

coordinate (coordinate),

diagonal (diagonal),

early (early),

functional (functional),

horizontal (horizontal),

nascent (incipient),

individual (individual),

children's (infant),

late (late),

passive (passive),

absolute (perfect),

productive (productive),

receptive (receptive),

regressive (recessive),

residual (residual),

side (secondary),

collective (societal),

subordinate (subordinate),

decreasing (subtractive),

sequential (successive),

symmetrical (symmetrical),

true (true),

vertical (vertical).

Another classification is offered by S. Manina. Thus, there is mass and individual bilingualism, each of which, in turn, can be natural or acquired. The carrier of natural mass bilingualism is the community - from a small group of people to society as the natural environment of the individual. This type of bilingualism covers the entire nation or the vast majority of it, when one of the components of bilingualism acts as a means of interethnic communication. A social bilingual is constantly in a bilingual environment and is forced to alternately turn to one or the other language. For example, in multinational countries, there is a tendency of small peoples to learn the official language of the country, which is different from their native language, in order to be able to fully exercise their civil rights within their own state.

The next type of bilingualism is the professional type - individual, acquired. Its representative is a translator, who most often uses two languages ​​in communication. Unlike natural, natural bilingualism, which is usually the collective practice of peoples, translation is professional in nature, and, as a rule, is limited to the social practice of a particular individual. In fact, translation bilingualism is a kind of bilingualism that is characterized by the use of two languages ​​by an individual or a group of people in the course of their professional activities, depending on the specific communicative situation. For bilingualism of this type, the functional status of the languages ​​used and their typological proximity are important. However, there is an opinion that “linguistic communication with translation differs significantly from the usual situation of bilingualism, when a bilingual subject alternately, depending on the external environment, uses either one or another language. Translation involves the simultaneous updating of both languages. Therefore, the usual situation of bilingualism can be defined as static bilingualism, and translation as dynamic bilingualism. With dynamic bilingualism, not only two languages, but also two cultures come into contact, and the translator, accordingly, is a place of contact not only for languages, but also for two cultures. This is precisely the reason why a translator is always bilingual, as he studies not only the language, but also culture and other related topics, however, a bilingual may not always be a translator depending on various factors, including the stage of formation of bilingualism in an individual .

One more representative of professional bilingualism should be mentioned - the teacher. The teacher is a native speaker of two languages, applies his skills in professional activities and transfers knowledge of the languages ​​he speaks to students. In this case, the implementation of bilingualism will be qualitatively different than in the situation of translation. In the classroom, full-fledged communication in a second language is not fully implemented, it is only modeled with a greater or lesser degree of success. At the same time, bilingual communication in the learning process will be different for the two parties: for the teacher it is full-fledged bilingualism, for students it is forced bilingualism, associated with efforts, willpower, memory, and speech organs due to the presence of communication obstacles. The most typical variant of communication will be the one in which a foreign language is such for both students and teachers.

Analyzing the creative process of a translator and a teacher, one can come to the conclusion that the constant concern of a professional bilingual is the search and selection in the process of speech of such forms of expression that would maximally correlate in their content with the forms of expression adopted in another language. Here an important role is played by the cultural and folklore aspect, which we will discuss in the next paragraph of this chapter.

Another type of bilingualism is diglossia - the simultaneous existence in the society of two languages ​​used in different functional areas or communicative situations - that is, one language is regarded as "home" and the other is "official". Thus, diglossia implies a hierarchy of the languages ​​used. An important condition for diglossia is the fact that speakers make a conscious choice between different communicative means and use the one that is best able to ensure the success of communication.

We can call forced rather than natural bilingualism the kind in which a person becomes an emigrant, and he has to communicate in a language that is not his own. At the same time, emigrants, of course, continue to speak their native language. The choice of language depends on the situation, place, interlocutor and a number of other factors. The mixing of two languages ​​in a bilingual emigrant does not always imply a lack of linguistic competence, but may be a strategy chosen at the utterance level to simplify the message or to establish communication comfort.

Observation of the speech behavior of bilinguals shows that even in the case of minimal contact between languages, it is impossible to assume the strict use of one language. There is no person who would be only a monolingual. Bilinguals consciously or unconsciously use the additional resources of their dual code, which actually functions as one in their speech. It should also be noted that the native language of emigrants is much more susceptible to interference from the language of the new homeland than the language of bilinguals native to the area.

Individual bilingualism is a phenomenon no less significant than other varieties of bilingualism. Today there is no longer an impassable abyss between its two once polar varieties - social and individual bilingualism.

So, the analysis of the literature allows us to come to the following conclusions: due to the lack of a holistic understanding of bilingualism as a multidimensional interdisciplinary phenomenon, we are forced to draw up our own working definition for use in our work. The classification of types of bilingualism remains one of the controversial issues in the theory of bilingualism, which is associated both with differences in approaches to the phenomenon under study and with the disclosure of its new aspects. Terminological disorder in the description of bilingualism sometimes leads to inconsistency in the interpretation of the same concepts. There is a need to create a generalized and adequate classification of types of bilingualism, taking into account its most important aspects, which was partially completed in the work. However, this aspect is not the main one in our study, so a more thorough study of the issue is possible in further studies.

2. Formation of bilingualism: causes, factors and methods. Biculturality

Of course, the true causes of bilingualism are of a socio-historical nature and are associated with a certain cultural and historical context. That is why a purely linguistic study of bilingualism is not able to explain its specific forms and the results of the mutual influence of languages. In each specific case, it is important to take into account the socio-historical conditions for the emergence and functioning of bilingualism. At the same time, without taking into account the structural features of languages, it is impossible to give a complete description of their interaction. In this regard, bilingualism is not only and not so much a linguistic as a sociocultural concept. Accordingly, a bilingual person can be considered not only a person who knows several languages, but also knows the basics of the cultures of several linguistic communities.

When does a person become bilingual? According to V.A. Avrorin: "Bilingualism begins when the degree of knowledge of the second language comes close to the degree of knowledge of the first." E.M. Vereshchagin distinguishes three levels of bilingualism development: receptive (understanding of speech works belonging to the secondary language system), reproductive (the ability to reproduce what is read and heard) and productive (the ability not only to understand and reproduce, but also to build whole meaningful statements).

Modern studies of the problems of the mutual influence of language and identity are rooted in the history of the development of scientific views on the relationship of language with such a complex phenomenon as culture. The German philosopher and linguist W. Von Humboldt, directly linking language with culture, considered it as an expression of the individual worldview of the nation and as an active creative process that affects the spiritual development of the people. In linguistics, the most heuristic methodological direction for the study of language and identity is the romantic linguistic paradigm, associated primarily with the names of W. Von Humboldt, K. Vossler, in Russia - A. Potebnya, M. Bakhtin. E. Sapira-B's hypothesis of linguistic relativity served as the basis for the empirical base. Whorf, which acted as a powerful incentive to study the relationship between language and culture not only among linguists and psychologists, but also among anthropologists, determining the development of numerous ethnographic studies of language and culture.

The romantic linguistic paradigm became especially in demand in the second half of the last century among those researchers who sought to study the functions of language and tried to integrate language into the sociocultural context. The founder of phenomenological sociology and one of the founders of social constructivism, A. Schutz, relying on it, considered language not just as a scheme of interpretation and expression, consisting of linguistic symbols presented in dictionaries and syntactic rules listed in ideal grammar, but as a connotative formation. In his opinion, every word or expression of any language has many secondary associations shared only by members of a given community: the periphery connecting the past with the present, dependence on social context and specific situations, idioms, technical terms and jargon, dialect words, as well as all elements intellectual and spiritual life of the group (primarily literature).

This approach to the study of this problem emphasizes, firstly, the complex nature of the relationship between language and identity, requires the identification of different levels of linguistic competence and the recognition of the fact that, in order to understand a particular culture through a language, it is necessary to go beyond its vocabulary. , grammar and syntax. Secondly, this approach determines the understanding that, even when trying to integrate into another culture, by learning the language and using other means of adaptation, a person acquires not the identity that is characteristic of the representatives of this culture, but a new type of identity that is not a mechanical product. old and new, but qualitatively completely different education.

For successful acculturation, the most important characteristic of bilingualism seems to be a high level of linguistic competence in both languages, and not age and conditions for acquiring languages.

A well-known model of acculturation by the Canadian psychologist J. Berry, who proposed a typology of the formation of ethnic identity in a new culture based on the criterion of an individual's different orientation to intercultural interaction. The degree and features of identification of a person with his own and dominant group in the process of acculturation determine the development of this process according to various types - separatism, integration (biculturation), assimilation and marginalization. In this typology, we are talking about the formation of new identities, in particular, of the bicultural type in the process of a difficult initial period of adaptation in a foreign country, which usually lasts several years. However, after this period, identity transformations can either be fixed or continue.

In the last decades of the 20th century, Western sociolinguists and social psychologists proposed various models for mastering a second language, assuming a mandatory change in the original identity as a result. Here are five of the most developed models:

Sociopsychological model W. Lambert, according to which in the process of mastering a second language by an individual, his identity changes. Possible identity conflict.

social context model R. Clement. The author argues that a bilingual individual attaches great importance to the ethnolinguistic viability of both the first and second languages, and changes in identity can be caused not just by the acquisition and use of the second language, but by the degree of integration of the bilingual into the community of its speakers.

Intergroup model G. Giles and J. Byrne is based on the identification of integrative motivation as a fundamental factor in learning a second language, which determines one or another degree of identification of a language learner with a group of its speakers.

Socio-educational model R. Gardner, according to which integrative motivation is necessary for mastering a second language, covering all spheres of life, and as a non-verbal result of such integration, a change in the identity of the speaker is possible (primarily in relation to cultural values ​​and beliefs).

Preference Model B. Spolsky. In it, the possibility of identity change is shown as a non-linguistic result of language radiation. Identity transformation occurs through a change in various attitudes and motivations of a person learning a second language (first of all, towards a group of native speakers, for example, when striving for integration with them).

One of the most widespread views on ethnic and cultural identities today is the consideration of them as entities chosen by changing language codes (transition from one language to another). Within the framework of ethnographically oriented sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic approaches, ethnic identity is considered as the result of the expression of social meaning, realized by the speaker in the process of changing the language code. At the same time, for a native speaker, every act of speaking it and even silence can mean a choice of identity. The speaker always chooses the language that symbolizes for him the rights and obligations that are convenient at the moment, choosing at the same time the most suitable identity. Conscious avoidance of the use of one language, seen as an instrument of symbolic dominance and political power of one group over another, gives the bilingual individual complete freedom and provides an opportunity to acquire new identities and new values.

From the point of view of the conditions of occurrence, as discussed earlier, natural and artificial bilingualism are distinguished, which, in turn, have two options: children's and adult. Due to the influence of a multilingual environment, natural bilingualism arises; artificial is formed in the learning process.

Taking into account the above, the interest, first of all, is the formation of children's bilingualism, since it is the age of a person at which the second language is connected to the first that is fundamentally important for the nature of language acquisition. As Yu. Protasova emphasizes, up to three years they speak of dual language acquisition, after three - about primary and secondary language acquisition, after 16 - only about the acquisition of a second language. The result of learning a second language varies depending on what “amount” of a particular language the children “receive” in the classroom and in what language they communicate with their peers. Considering children's natural bilingualism, it should be understood that the use of a second language can be observed both in a monolingual (mono-ethnic) and in a bilingual (bi-ethnic) family. The bilingualism of a child most naturally develops in a bi-ethnic family, but, despite some difficulties, in a mono-ethnic family, parents, raising a child from birth in two languages ​​(one speaks to him in his native language, and the other in a foreign language), can also raise him bilingual. Differences in the nature of the development of children's bilingualism in such families are undoubtedly observed, therefore we consider them as different types according to the ethnolinguistic criterion: bi-ethnic or mono-ethnic bilingualism.

In a bilingual society, children's bilingualism develops in different ways. If two languages ​​in the family coincide with two languages ​​in society, favorable conditions are created for the formation of bilingualism, especially if both languages ​​have the same or almost the same status in society. However, such situations are rare, since languages ​​usually have different prestige.

Comparisons of identical language combinations in the conditions of simultaneous children's non-contact and contact bilingualism, which are not yet available, could expand and deepen the analysis of various forms of interaction between languages, explain their specificity.

Full-fledged bilinguals have a high level of ability to consciously analyze the structure of the language, which helps in learning foreign languages; they develop translation skills, biliteracy. In early ontogenesis, bilinguals experience a lag in the development of cognitive functions, but at school age, bilinguals can even outpace their peers in cognitive development, which leads to their high academic achievements. The socio-cultural factors of preserving the mother tongue of parents in a child in a situation of emigration are poorly studied. The formation of children's knowledge of several languages ​​allows you to develop tolerance for different cultures. If the children are descendants of emigrants, then the preservation of the language of the country from which the parents came from allows the child to cultivate interest in the culture of this country, to form a bicultural personality. However, often the peculiarities of the sociocultural situation of the development of such children prevent the formation of full-fledged bilingualism in them.

In the conditions of bilingual development, the child early begins to make a conscious choice not only between the languages ​​he speaks, but also cultures. Therefore, in the course of the formation and study of children's bilingualism, it is very important to take into account the combination of all its aspects, since there is a very close interaction of two languages, and sometimes two cultures and two ethnic groups.

In a bi-ethnic family, a child learns not only two languages, but also two cultures from their speakers. In a mono-ethnic family, parents are carriers of only one culture, in the cases we are considering - Russian-speaking. In a bi-ethnic family, a child becomes both bilingual and bicultural; in a mono-ethnic family, a child can become bilingual, but remain monocultural. The consequence of this is the lack of sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic and ethnocultural competence in his speech activity in a non-native language, both at the verbal and non-verbal levels.

Of no small importance for the formation of biculturality is the role structure of communication in each language. The balance of this aspect of speech activity plays a significant role in the assimilation of sociolinguistic competence in each of the languages. The child learns culture through language and acts of verbal communication, and the most important intermediary for the child between him and culture is an adult. What happens if the most important adults for a child - parents - communicate with him using the means of not one, but two languages? If such a situation develops in a monolingual society, then the problem of bilingual socialization exists not only for a monolingual (mono-ethnic), but also for a bilingual (bi-ethnic) family, since roles in two languages ​​in the role repertoire of a bilingual child are distributed very unevenly. The motives of his activities related to speech in the language of society are diverse and tend to constantly expand. Speech activity in a language that is not represented in the society surrounding the child decreases more and more with the age of the child. For example, speech activity in English in Russian-English bilingual children is limited to only one permanent role - son / daughter - in the situation of communication "father / mother - son / daughter", but gradually it also tends to narrow.

This is because the role repertoire of a person in a monolingual society mainly involves the implementation of communicative acts in one language, the main one for a given culture. A small child makes a “discovery” early on that one of his languages ​​is not spoken in most situations (in kindergarten, in the yard, in shops, in a clinic, other families, etc.), which makes him doubt the need for communication in this language. Even at home, his permanent role ("son/daughter") is realized only in one of two segments - in communication with dad, but not with mom (or vice versa), if bilingual education is based on the principle of "one parent - one language".

Bilingual children have monolingual and bilingual social roles. The former include all roles outside the home and part of the roles at home, unless the local principle of separating the languages ​​of communication into “home” and “external” is applied. The bilingual social role repertoire is usually limited to the son/daughter role segment. Only this role has a history of the interaction of the child with one of the parents.

Nevertheless, in terms of the distribution of social and role relations, mono-ethnic natural simultaneous bilingualism has an advantage over artificial. It consists in the fact that one of the permanent roles is realized bilingually, while with artificial bilingualism in a foreign language, usually only the variable positional role “student” is realized in the situation of communication “foreign language teacher - student”, rather limited in time for interpersonal communication. Communication in a foreign language with other children in the classroom is even more limited and has the character not of real communication, but of specially prepared, quasi-communication, characteristic of educational communication.

In a bilingual society and a bi-ethnic family, if the languages ​​learned by the child coincide with the languages ​​of the society, the linguistic and cultural variants of his verbal behavior coincide with the invariant characteristic of this society. In a monolingual society, but in a bi-ethnic family, when only one of the family languages ​​coincides with the language of society, the invariant of verbal behavior in a given country and in a country where L2 predominates is likely to differ significantly from the verbal behavior of a bi-ethnic bilingual bicultural.

The deepening of monoculturalism among Russian-English bilingual children is observed more and more clearly when they start studying at a school where all subjects are taught in Russian. The situation changes if such a family moves to an English-speaking country where the child is educated in English. If parents make every effort to maintain Russian-speaking communication at home and maintain ties with the Russian-speaking community and native speakers of the Russian language, the child is quite capable of becoming a bearer of two cultures, i.e. bicultural.

In order for a bilingual child to learn Russian-English biculturalism even in the conditions of a Russian-speaking society, it is necessary to balance communication in two languages, in the conditions of Russian-speaking and English-speaking cultures. In addition, the preservation of bilingualism and the formation of biculturalism can be facilitated by bilingual Russian-English education, which is still practically absent in Russia. Therefore, one of the main difficulties in the formation of early childhood bilingualism in a mono-ethnic family is the problem of assimilation of biculturalism.

Culture is multifaceted and multilingual, but, nevertheless, integral and harmonious, although “if the communication process were limited to the framework of language communities, then, according to U. Weinreich, in relation to cultures, humanity would present no less colorful and diverse picture than linguistically." Such harmony is possible only if there are contacts between cultures. It is a well-known fact that almost all language communities adopt something from their neighbors and are themselves a source of certain knowledge and phenomena for other communities, since the process of cultural borrowing is usually mutual and one-sided only in the sense that one people can give more than another.

Concepts and ideas about certain phenomena, objects created by nature, human hands or industry, technological processes, customs and rituals, and much more are borrowed, that is, cultural diffusion occurs. Naturally, along with cultural borrowings, the assimilation of words denoting the above things and concepts takes place, which is accordingly imprinted in culture. Thus, the development of the material sphere entails the formation of the spiritual sphere (and vice versa).

Interacting with each other, cultures are enriched and, going a long way, develop. Therefore, "culture is always, on the one hand, a certain number of inherited texts, and on the other, inherited symbols." However, this coherent, coordinated system of flow of culture into culture could not function without intermediaries, which always turned out to be bilingual members of interacting communities. As N.B. Mechkovskaya, "even a minimal mutual understanding is impossible until both parties (or one of the parties) take at least one step towards the partner." This step, which consisted in mastering the basic words of the contact language, was done by bilinguals, that is, the interaction of cultures (and, of course, languages) took place and still takes place through the mediation of individual bilingualism of a certain number of speakers.

It is for this reason that bilingualism has accompanied the evolution of mankind since ancient times, because in order for a people to develop, contacts with other national communities are simply necessary (as you know, tribes and nationalities isolated from the outside world do not create rich cultures and gradually, if they do not merge or do not contact with neighboring tribes, disappear).

As you can see, the main reason for the emergence of bilingualism is social factors, so the strengthening of economic and cultural contacts between states leads to an increase in the number of bilingual (or multilingual) members. This fact can be illustrated by many examples. Among them, in particular, it should be noted that individual bilingualism, as a rule, develops with limited cultural interactions. If the contacts are wider and more active, then usually in such conditions group or mass bilingualism develops. As a rule, this happens in the following cases: when large ethnic groups migrate, when several ethnic communities coexist within the framework of a state association, and also when neighboring states actively interact. Previously, very often such bilingualism arose during the conquest of some countries by others.

However, when forming bilingualism, along with biculturalism, one should be careful in choosing a method. In many developed countries, the so-called “immersion” method is popular, when, for example, a child in a foreign country is in the company of people who do not speak his native language. The use of one's native language outside the home is prohibited, and it is even undesirable to communicate in one's native language at home with relatives. Supporters of this method believe that, since the child will have no choice but to use the language system of the environment, he will much faster perceive the language of the new place of residence than if he continued to use his native language. However, this method has many opponents - after all, moving to a new country for a child is already a kind of psychological shock, and if you start putting pressure on him and force him to give up his native language, this can lead to stress, or even more serious consequences. Therefore, it would be correct in this respect to speak not about the method of "immersion", but about the method of "comparison", "overlay" of cultures, when the perception of the culture of two ethnic groups is simultaneously going on.

findings

So, the main factors and stages of the formation of bilingualism were described, due to the socio-cultural conditions for the emergence of bilingualism - forced or natural bilingualism, mass or individual, early or late. When learning a second language, there is certainly a change in the ethnic identity of a bilingual, which allows us to speak about the emergence of the phenomenon of biculturality - when a person becomes a bearer of two cultures at the same time.

Literary and cultural interrelations between peoples are dialogical in nature, and the dialogue of cultures presupposes the participation of more or less broad layers of cultural and linguistic communities. Bilingualism as intercultural and interlingual communication takes on a wide variety of forms that develop in varieties, depending on the level of proficiency in different languages, the degree of their prevalence or coverage of carriers, the situation of their use, the attitude of the speaker and listener towards them, and a number of other factors. The phenomenon of bilingualism is the subject of close attention of many researchers. This phenomenon is not unambiguous, in many respects has not yet been studied, but at the same time it is actively developing in accordance with rapidly changing living conditions.

Having considered various approaches to the definition of bilingualism, we have derived our own working definition of bilingualism: a person's possession of two different language systems to a degree sufficient for a clear and precise presentation of his thoughts in the necessary situation.

This definition is quite liberal, but does not contradict the point of view of the researchers we have considered. It should also be noted that due to the lack of a clear definition of bilingualism, the classification and systematization of varieties of bilingualism also remains blurry.

The study of a language is inextricably linked with the culture of its speakers, therefore, without knowing the culture of native speakers, it is impossible to fully master the language. In the learning process, it is necessary to address functional, cultural, contrastive and other aspects, which provides a holistic understanding of the language in its communicative, cognitive, cultural and aesthetic functions.

As you can see, the main reason for the emergence of bilingualism is social factors, so the strengthening of economic and cultural contacts between states leads to an increase in the number of bilingual (or multilingual) members. This fact can be illustrated by many examples. Among them, in particular, it should be noted that individual bilingualism, as a rule, develops with limited cultural interactions. If the contacts are wider and more active, then usually in such conditions group or mass bilingualism develops. Also, mass bilingualism takes place in multinational states, such as Russia.

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Similar works to - Theoretical analysis of approaches to the study of the problem of bilingualism

on your personality and on the early development of the child.

What is bilingualism? I have long wanted to write such an article and make out here, first of all, children. In simple words, bilingualism is the possession of two languages, and in Russian - bilingualism.

About him, I already spoke earlier. Indeed, according to my observations, one language is really not enough to feel free in this world. In Europe and Western countries, it is considered normal for people to know two or even several languages ​​(multilingualism), and no one is surprised. In Russia, the situation is different, although the Russian language is able to absorb many other languages, and Russia itself is able to provide space for other cultures.

Bilingualism can be artificial and natural. Natural bilingualism it's when you were born into a family of parents who speak different languages. For example, Pierre Adel, whom we were lucky to meet at a lecture at the Sarasvati club on the Arbat, has been bilingual since childhood (French and Russian). And, of course, English. Pierre speaks Russian so clearly that at first you cannot believe that he is French after all. You don’t hear the accent, you don’t catch the intonations that are not characteristic of Russian. When he starts speaking French... Well, pure French! These are the consequences of natural bilingualism absorbed from childhood.

Artificial bilingualism is knowledge of two languages. One is native, the other is purchased. That is, this is the usual study of a language with a teacher, setting the skills of speech, writing, reading, etc. As if you are invading a new environment, there is no feeling of kinship, but there is a feeling of insane interest. Yes, with this approach, we can hardly compare with native speakers in terms of understanding or pronunciation, but the language becomes

It is believed that before the age of 8, the language can be mastered naturally in the environment of this culture. Yes this is true. Psychologically, when children enter a new environment (for example, their parents moved from Russia to Italy or their mother married an Italian for the second time), it is stressful for them. Coming to a new country and assimilating there, a child goes through many psychological barriers, especially when he is enrolled in a new school. A child up to 8 years old after the first shock begins to fit into the environment more naturally than the same teenager. A teenager will no longer forget his native language and the second language will be an ordinary study for him, but a small child can automatically become a natural bilingual, since the ability to analyze what is happening to him is practically absent.

The child, however, should still be prepared for the difficulties that he may encounter. At least learn with him the basic words and phrases of the language he will encounter.

In my environment there are interesting examples of children and parents who moved to other countries:

Little Arseniy, growing up in an English family, already speaks Russian with an English accent. There is no danger of forgetting the native language, since one of the parents is Russian.

Little Dana, who speaks French, English and Russian. Parents live in France.

My wonderful student is a teenager whose stepfather is German. Understanding the language from frequent communication with a German is a half-word.

I also want to recommend. At a recent webinar Alla Barkan, specialist in child psychology, I learned that a child living in another country should be communicated in the following way. If the family speaks 2 languages, the perception should be alternate. That is, at first the child perceives the speech of the mother separately, then the speech of the father separately. Mixing languages ​​in one conversation is not welcome.

Benefits of Bilingualism.

It is believed that children with two or more languages ​​are more able to concentrate on information than their peers. They develop the skill of attention perfectly, they are able to analyze information and highlight the main thing. Do not be afraid of mixing languages. Use the principle Isolation(One person - one language). For example, father is Chinese, mother is Spanish. At home, mom speaks Spanish, dad speaks Chinese alternately, and at school the child can get into an English environment and absorb English there. Children understand the difference between languages ​​very well, although in the very early stages of development they may stir them a little, but do not worry. Everything falls into place.

Even if a diagnosis is made in the early stages - speech delay, then bilingualism will definitely not be the main reason for its delay.

In the early stages of development, if both parents are native speakers of, for example, Russian, then in order for the child to know English, he can be hired at an early age by a nanny who will speak only English to him.

It is easier for children to integrate into this life if they speak two or more languages, since they are not limited to one culture. It is easier for them to get a job, to open the world. I noticed that children who learn languages ​​are more open in life.

Bilingual children are faster in school and learning. It is a fact.

In order for the child not to forget the languages ​​​​and not to mix them up, you need to periodically engage with him, and of course, talk. Then your child will not have the fear of forgetting or mixing the language beyond recognition.

Have a great day

Questions for review

/. What trends have been observed in recent years when discussing issues of the theory of bilingualism?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of contrastive analysis?

3. What is the role of error in second language acquisition?

4. What is an "intermediate language"?

5. What is the specificity of introspective methods?

6. What determines the advantages of an integrated approach to studying the features of mastering L2?

7. What is the role of theory in organizing research into the characteristics of second language acquisition?

10.1. Questions of the theory of bilingualism

The issue of bilingualism has been widely discussed in the scientific literature of recent years, while a shift in emphasis is observed, in principle consistent with the dynamics of general scientific approaches to describing the work of the human language/speech mechanism. So, many traditional concepts of the theory of bilingualism are being reinterpreted from the standpoint of cognitive theory, see an example of such an approach regarding the concept of transfer of skills in . Researchers focus on strategies for mastering and using a second language [Poimenova 1999; Faerch & Kasper 1983; O "Malley & Chamot 1990] and the phenomenon of "intermediate language" as a system of knowledge emerging in an individual [Poimenova 1999; Hamers & Blanc 1989; Gass & Selinker 1994]. on the model of W. Levelt, and the concept of a lemma used by W. Levelt appears in a number of publications on various issues of the theory of bilingualism, for example, Carol Myers-Scotton gives a justification for the presence of a bilingual in the lexicon lemme from both languages ​​known to the individual. When explaining the mechanisms of speech errors, the use of propagating activation models takes place, mod-

ley of the course of the speech-cogitative process [Bokovnya 1995; Poimenova 1999], frame approach [Gorokhova 1986], installation theory [Kuznetsova T.D. 1982; Privalova 1995], etc. When developing models of mastering a second language, modern ideas about the course of the processes involved in this are used. When raising the question of what factors, or conditions, facilitate the acquisition of a second language, there is a recognition that there cannot be a single correct answer to this question, since each individual has abilities, knowledge and experience peculiar only to him, as well as needs, according to which one needs a rich vocabulary, correct pronunciation and syntax, while the other needs technical terms and basic syntactic rules, while the third will manage with everyday phrases (see). There has also been a shift in the focus of attention of researchers from grammar to the word when the latter is included in the situation and discourse, see, for example, [Medvedeva 1996; 1998; Aitchison 1996; Meaga 1996]; at the same time, the task is to find out what it means to "know" words and "use" words [Medvedeva 1998], discusses the specifics of an individual lexicon in bilingualism and the features of the functioning of a foreign word [Medvedeva 1998; 1999a; 19996; Myers-Scotton 1995]; the word is interpreted as a "key" to the history and culture of native speakers when considering the language in the context of the corresponding culture as one of the priority areas of research [Klyukanov 1997; 1998a; 19986; Kopylenko 1995; Sorokin 1994; Shakhovsky et al. 1998]. In the analysis of various problems, one way or another related to the acquisition or use of a second language, as well as to increasing the effectiveness of teaching a second / foreign language, currently popular hypotheses, concepts, concepts are involved, see, for example, the importance of taking into account prototypes and the basic level of generalization in bilingual studies.

It should be emphasized that studies of the problems of bilingualism are largely based on general theoretical concepts that are developed in line with the cognitive and / or activity-based approaches, therefore, they include everything that was said in the previous chapters about the specifics of the functioning of the language in an active and biased subject. involved in social interactions. To this it should be added that the revision of the traditional concepts of the theory of bilingualism takes place against the background of the revision of many concepts in related fields of science (see, for example, the discussion of the trend of rethinking the concepts of context, translation, linguistic relativity in [Klyukanov 1997] and the construction of a new conceptual apparatus for the purpose of systematically - semiotic study of the dynamics of intercultural communication [Klyukanov 1998a; 19986; 1999]).

A detailed discussion of the complex issues of the theory of bilingualism requires the writing of a number of extensive monographs. Here it seems sufficient to refer to the books [Zalevskaya 1996a; Medvedev 1999a],

including reviews of the literature on topical issues of bilingualism, and dwell on the dynamics of approaches to the study of bilingualism, focusing on the key concepts important for these approaches (see 10.2 - 10.5), as well as strategies for mastering and using the language as one of the most pressing problems of today (see chapter 11).

Before considering the dynamics of research approaches to the study of the characteristics of acquisition and use of a second language, it is important to briefly clarify some terms and abbreviations, as well as dwell on the orientation of research in this area.

First of all, it is necessary to understand the relationship between the concepts of "first language", "second language"; "native language", "foreign language". At first glance, these are two pairs of related concepts, the components of which are clearly opposed either by the time (or order) of language acquisition, i.e. "first language" (L1) - "second language" (L2), or by belonging to a particular society: "mother tongue" (RL) - "foreign language" (FL). In the accepted abbreviations, it looks like this: R1 - R2; RY - IA. However, there is no direct correspondence between these two pairs of concepts, in which the equality R1 = RJ would be obligatory; R2 = FL: in fact, for an individual both R1 and R2 can be native (this takes place, for example, in a situation of everyday bilingualism); chronologically, the "second" language can further displace the first one in terms of the time of its assimilation and become "native" (in this regard, it is often said that one of the languages ​​of a bilingual individual is dominant, i.e. the main one). In addition, the second language may not be a foreign one, but be studied in an educational environment (this happens, for example, if there is a certain language of interethnic communication in combination with a Russian language), and a foreign language is sometimes third, fourth, etc. for an individual. language. Thus, the relationship between these concepts is more complex than it seems.

In the scientific literature, the concepts of R2 and FL are usually distinguished, taking into account the fact that in the first case, language acquisition occurs in natural situations of communication (i.e., when it is spoken by native speakers of this language) and without purposeful learning, and in the second case, in artificial learning situations with a limited clock grid, but when trained under the guidance of a professional. Accordingly, the concepts of natural (everyday) and artificial (educational) bilingualism (bilingualism) are distinguished. With this approach, it is understood that L2 is "grasped" with the help of the environment and due to abundant speech practice without awareness of linguistic phenomena as such, and L2 is "learned" through volitional efforts and using special methods and techniques.

As the acquaintance with the history of foreign language teaching methods, with compendiums on the methods of teaching foreign languages ​​published in different years and with works in the field of psychology of teaching foreign languages, the opinions of scientists on the relationship between mastering the RL and the foreign language

ranged from focusing exclusively on the differences between named cases to recognizing their identity. Recently, the opinion has become more and more widespread that there are more similarities than differences between the processes of mastering RL and FL, the mechanisms of speech activity in native and foreign languages ​​are the same [Zimnyaya 1989: 167], students go through similar stages of speech development, allow similar error types, etc. There is also a revision of ideas about the interfering influence of PR on mastering a foreign language with the promotion of the role positive transfer from the Russian language to the foreign language, including in relation to strategies language acquisition and use (see literature references below for a more detailed discussion of these issues).

With regard to the relationship between the mastery of L2 and FL, a strict distinction between these cases is observed quite rarely. Many authors generally use the terms "second language" and "foreign language" interchangeably, only occasionally specifying specific conditions if they need to be taken into account for one reason or another. In English literature, the term second language (Second Language Acquisition - SLA) usually appears; the concept it denotes may be broader than the concept of foreign language, or equivalent to the latter (see, for example,).

Be that as it may, it becomes obvious that further research in the field of mastering a foreign language should, to a certain extent, take into account the results of scientific research in the field of L1 and L2 with the task of identifying both common patterns for mastering RL and FL, and specific for each of these cases. features. Further, the abbreviations R2, RIA and R2/IL are used with an emphasis on the fundamental similarity of the phenomena under discussion, which is consistent with the opinion of Natela Valerianovna Imedadze, who interprets R2 as a conditional term that can be used in relation to any acquired language, except for the native one. She rightly emphasizes that the concept of L2 is logically impossible without the concept of L1, therefore, the characterization of any form of assimilation of L2 should be based on comparison with the process of mastering L1. Here, first of all, the changes in the psyche that occur in the process of speech development in L1 are important, as a result of which the individual begins to study L2 as already a “speaking being”.

Research approaches to studying the features of mastering L2/FL are characterized by pedagogical orientation (i.e., focus on finding ways to improve the effectiveness of language learning), the desire to better understand the specifics of the process of mastering L2, to identify and explain the features of the interaction of L1 and L2, as well as relying on relevant for of one or another period of time, linguistic and / or psychological concepts and operating with key concepts arising from the accepted initial theoretical positions,

clarification or revision of the possibilities of the corresponding approach, taking into account the results obtained and / or under the influence of criticism.

Each of the considered approaches is analyzed below according to a single scheme, including the initial theoretical positions, the object of study, the objectives of the study, the methods used, key concepts and main results, the reasons for dissatisfaction with the results, conclusions, taking into account criticism. The main attention is paid to acquainting the reader with possible ways of discovering the features of mastering L2 and with the development of theoretical ideas about the nature and specifics of the interaction between L1 and L2.

The impossibility of indicating a clear chronological framework for the functioning of the discussed approaches is explained by the fact that the prerequisites for the activation of a certain approach are usually formed in the course of criticism of the previous approach (that is, in fact, in parallel with it). It is possible to judge the time of recognition of the new approach as such by the years of publication of works, to which there are many references in terms of approval or criticism. Be that as it may, the earliest approach is contrastive analysis, during the application and criticism of which error analysis took shape as a method for studying the features of mastering L2/FL.

10.2. Contrast analysis (CA)

Contrastive analysis is widely used in linguistics for various purposes. Below we will talk about the CA, which was developed in order to identify the features of the interaction of languages ​​in the process of teaching R2/FL. Further, the abbreviation R2 will be used in a broad sense, i.e. to designate L2 and FL in opposition to their mastery of L1.

The choice of CA as a research approach for these purposes was originally due to the ideas based on the psychology of behaviorism that language acquisition (L1 or L2) consists in the formation of skills through practice and reinforcement, while the skill was understood as a mechanically (through repetitions) fixed connection between some stimulus and a response associated with it. Since by the time L2 is mastered, the skills of using L1 are firmly established, they have a decisive influence on the formation of new L2 skills: there is a transfer of existing skills, which can be both positive (in cases of similarity of linguistic phenomena) and negative (in case of discrepancies between language systems). R1 and R2); negative transfer is called "skill interference" or - in short - interference. Hence, it was concluded that, firstly, the presence of discrepancies between languages ​​causes significant differences between mastering L1 and L2, and secondly, before learning L2, it is necessary to undertake a comparative analysis of L1 and L2 systems to identify facts of coincidences and discrepancies and to detect topics most "critical

moments" that should be taken into account when teaching to prevent interference. The CA used for this purpose was a comparison of two language systems, and the lists of discrepancies between linguistic phenomena obtained in this way served as the basis for predicting the difficulties and errors caused by them.

The rationale for the need and productivity of such an approach was given by Ch. Freese and further developed by his student and colleague R. Lado, who paid special attention to the need to compare not only languages, but also cultures. On the basis of the theoretical principles developed by the named scientists at the Institute of English at the University of Michigan (USA), a thorough comparison of English and Spanish was undertaken, which served as the basis for the preparation of a system of textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language to a Spanish-speaking audience (see the kit: "English Pronunciation ", "English Sentence Patterns", "English Pattern Practices", "Vocabulary in Contexf" noA under the general title "Intensive Course in English", 1954). A similar use of CA was widely undertaken by other authors, although this did not always lead to the creation of a more or less complete system of teaching aids and teaching materials. An example of the use of CA within the framework of the former USSR can be a comparative analysis of the English, Russian and Azerbaijani languages ​​in the work of R.Yu. Badger.

With the intensive use of CA in different countries, grounds for criticism of this approach accumulated, related to doubts about the theoretical validity of the ideas developed by this approach about the specifics of mastering R2 and about the predictive capabilities of CA. Thus, N. Chomsky's sharp criticism of the behaviorist concept of language acquisition gave impetus to the transition from mechanistic ideas to mentalistic ones (i.e., from interpreting language acquisition as the formation of skills through repetition and reinforcement to taking into account the mental capabilities of students).

Recognition of Serious Difficulties In a comparative analysis of some grammatical structures of various languages, it was combined with the accumulation of facts of the inadequacy of forecasts, which were built on the basis of the results of the use of CA. It became obvious that the predictions are not always justified, but at the same time, errors occur that were not predicted from the SC data. As observations have shown, interference is more often manifested when the phenomena R1 and R2 are similar than when they are completely different, far from all errors can be explained through the interference of skills, since L1 interferes with the mastery of L2 for various reasons, which include the following: 1) instead of interference of skills, there may be avoidance learners to apply such L2 rules, which have no analogues in L1; 2) some restrictions on the use of language phenomena, which differ in the compared languages, appear only under certain conditions (situations); 3) learners can turn to L1 for resources that they intentionally borrow in cases of communication difficulties due to insufficient supply of R2 resources;

when referring to this phenomenon, some authors use the term replacement interference.

The interaction of the two sources of CA criticism mentioned above (along the lines of theory and through the accumulation of facts that undermine faith in the predictive capabilities of this approach) led to a revision of a number of key concepts of CA and to a reassessment of its role in studying the features of mastering L2. Thus, the process of language acquisition began to be interpreted from the standpoint of recognition student activity, whence, in particular, it follows that the difficulties predicted by the CA can be realized not through errors due to the interference of skills, but through avoiding the use of some phenomenon. Wherein the "structural distance" between the facts of two languages ​​should be determined by taking into account how it is perceived by speakers of one language in relation to another language, since the results of the CA of language systems can not fully match how individuals perceive the facts of similarities and differences between languages.

The above explains the awareness of the need to revise the key concepts for CA of language transfer, the role of L1 in mastering L2, interference and error as a result of the influence of L1 on L2. Revealing the nature of language transfer turned out to be important for a more accurate determination conditions, at which interference occurs, and types of knowledge which are used by the individual. The interpretation of mastering L2 as an active creative process led to the recognition of its similarity with the mastery of L1, but it turned out that in this case L1 cannot be the cause of all (or even most) of the difficulties for the student, rather L1 provides a person with some grounds for a positive transfer, primarily in plan language acquisition and use strategies. From the standpoint of the previous thesis, the facts of avoiding the use of certain L2 phenomena and the use of L1 resources in case of communication difficulties also turn out to be products not of interference, but of the application of appropriate strategies. The very concept of "strategy", which contradicts behavioral ideas about mastering skills, is in good agreement with the cognitive theory of learning, from the standpoint of which the use of knowledge from L1 as a strategy for mastering L2 can be one of the manifestations of the basic mental process of relying on existing knowledge to facilitate the assimilation of new knowledge.

It is important to emphasize that, as a result of the above, the error, previously considered as evidence of insufficient learning or inability to overcome the interfering influence of R1, began to be interpreted as a phenomenon caused by a number of factors, one of which is interference that enters into a complex interaction with other factors. As for CA, despite the unreliability of predicting errors in speaking (speech production),

it can nevertheless successfully predict speech comprehension errors and cases of avoiding the use of certain L2 structures.

After periods of overestimating the role of CA as a promising approach to the study of the process of mastering L2 and the basis for improving the effectiveness of learning L2, and then abandoning CA as not justifying the hopes placed on it, the usefulness of CA as one of the components of a comprehensive study in combination with its former only with the analysis of trainees' mistakes. At present, it is customary to distinguish between the "strong" version of the CA as a research approach, which means prediction errors based previous analysis of comparative analysis errors R1 and R2, and a "weak" version of the CA, which involves the analysis of students' errors with subsequent KA for explanations registered errors.

The justification for the importance of combining CA with PL analysis methods is given in the work of Tatyana. Slama-Kazaku, which contains interesting remarks by the author regarding the analysis and classification of students' mistakes based on the materials of a comprehensive study of the process of mastering the Romanian language as a foreign language based on various L1 (English, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Greek, Danish, Spanish, Italian, German, etc.).

CA should be combined with other research approaches, including observation, experiment, introspection, etc. (see, for example: [Isaev 1992; Karlinsky 1989]). We will return to this issue below, but here it seems important to emphasize that in theoretical terms, when discussing the problem of CA it is necessary to recognize the very statement of the problem as erroneous, solely through a comparative analysis of language systems as products of the description of languages, to judge the specifics of language acquisition and the features of the interaction of languages ​​in a person as the processes of functioning of individual knowledge.

This issue is considered in more detail in [Zalevskaya 1977; 1990a; 1992] out of connection with the CA, but in terms of the inadmissibility of the substitution of concepts in the traditional identification of such, according to the definition of L.V. Shcherba [Shcherba 1974], theoretically incommensurable concepts, such as the language system and speech organization of an individual. As noted in the book, a similar opinion in direct connection with the criticism of the KA is expressed in.

It seems important to emphasize that Russian science has long pointed out the insufficiency of a simple "imposition" of language systems for the purposes of language teaching. Yes, A.A. Leontiev refers to the opinion of V.N. Yartseva regarding the need to raise the question of functional significance of this or that grammatical phenomenon and its place in the grammatical system of the language as a whole. A.A. Leontiev emphasizes that the comparison should be carried out along the line operations taking place at different stages of speech production and comprehension; analysis of their psychophysiological nature and conditionality and finding the dominant features of such operations

are possible only if there is at least a working model of the speech production process. In short, we come to the need to consider the issues of language acquisition in the broader context of the processes of speech and thought activity.

10.3. Error analysis (AO)

First of all, it should be pointed out that long before the formation of AO as a research approach aimed at identifying the features of mastering L2, the phenomenon of error attracted the attention of many scientists. With a review of the points of view expressed in connection with the problem of speech errors and reservations by psychologists (including W. Wundt, R. Meringer, X. Bowden, P. Ranshburg, O. Messmer, Z. Freud, J. Morton, etc.) , linguists, literary critics and teachers (for example, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, K.D. Ushinsky, D.N. Bogoyavlensky, B.V. Tomashevsky, etc.), can be found in the book by Yu.V. Krasikova. Below we will talk about works that are inaccessible to the domestic reader and are directly related to the formation of joint-stock companies for the purposes of interest to us.

A novice researcher should take into account that the world literature has accumulated extensive experience in the analysis of speech errors in terms of both normal and pathological speech. There are a huge number of journal articles, as well as a number of monographs and collections of articles on the phenomenon of error. The most widely cited books include: .

Error analysis in L1 is undertaken for various purposes: to identify the features of the production and understanding of speech and to model these processes; to study the structure of the mental lexicon and the mechanisms of its functioning; to detect patterns of mastery of the native language; for solving practical problems of restoring speech in aphasia, etc.

The materials of such studies are also very interesting for those who study the specifics of mastering L2/FL. Thus, the categories of lexical errors and misspellings in L1, discussed in detail in the article, are largely consistent with what can be observed in students of foreign languages ​​(for example, cases of anticipation - anticipation, replacement of the desired word with a close or opposite meaning - semantic group slips, substitutions within a certain closed series of words - a mixture of pronouns, prepositions, etc.). No less useful are publications on the problem of errors in speech pathology (speech disorders after strokes, brain injuries, etc.). The book gives examples of "neologisms" produced by sick people, the structural and semantic analogues of which are often encountered by a practicing teacher in classes in English as a foreign language. research approach, however, as rightly noted by R. Ellis, the matter usually came down to impressionistic collections of the most common errors and their linguistic classification. For pedagogical purposes, error analysis was undertaken to establish the sequence of work on linguistic phenomena or to organize classes to correct errors. Since there was no theoretical basis for explaining the role of errors in the process of mastering L2, no attempts were made to give a reasonable definition of this phenomenon or to consider it from the standpoint of the mental processes taking place. In addition, as the popularity of CA increased, interest in the analysis of errors weakened, since according to the behavioral theory of language learning, the prediction and prevention of errors, which are included in the goals of CA, are more important than the identification of errors made.

The revival of interest in the mistakes of trainees and the design of AO as a theoretically based research approach occurred in the late 60s. As noted above, this was due to a revision of the prognostic and explanatory capabilities of the CA and to a rethinking of the causes of errors. Moreover, the error began to be interpreted as source of information about the process of mastering L2.

As works, which are usually called starting points, signaling the emergence of AO as a research approach with a specific methodology for solving specific problems, were articles by S. Korder; information about them is given below according to sources: . In a 1967 article, S. Korder distinguished between two types of errors: mistakes and errors. The former refers to the facts of missteps in the flow of speech due to fatigue, excitement, etc., when a quick self-correction is possible on the part of the speaker. Obviously, in Russian they should be called reservations. The latter include typical deviations from R2 rules, i.e. mistakes, which are allowed by students in the course of language acquisition and are not amenable to self-correction, since they are a reflection of a certain stage of L2 mastering. In this case, the error acts as a manifestation of the individual's activity in the process of forming and testing his hypotheses regarding the R2 rules. In English-language publications on AO, the term Error Analysis is adopted.

In a 1974 article, S. Korder clearly formulated the AO procedure, which includes collecting student statements, identifying errors in them, describing these errors, classifying them according to the alleged causes, and also determining their significance. Note that the classification of errors according to their causes suggests explanation(or an attempt at an explanation) psycholinguistic mechanisms errors and should greatly contribute to identifying the features of mastering L2, discovering the strategies used by the trainees and the stages of language acquisition that they overcome. This formulation of the tasks of the AO stimulated the development of a taxonomy of errors and required conclusions and generalizations, which can be summarized as follows.

Research in the 70s convincingly showed that only part of the errors in R2 can be explained by the influence of R1. Such errors have been classified as interlingual(interlingual errors), i.e. errors of interlingual interference. At the same time, it was found that there are many of the same mistakes that learners of L2 make, regardless of the nature of their L1. Errors of this kind are called intralinguistic(intralingual errors), reflecting the specifics of the process of language acquisition, the course of this process, in connection with which they are also defined as "developmental errors"(developmental errors). In the book of N.V. Imedadze, such errors are called "genetic errors" in the sense that they help

trace the genesis, the formation of bilingualism or the course of mastering the native language, if the development of speech in L1 is being studied.

Errors of interlingual interference are described in detail in many foreign and domestic publications. The proposed classifications are usually products of linguistic analysis by language levels, types of speech, etc. Intralinguistic errors were also initially interpreted as caused solely by interference, and in the course of the analysis, attention was focused on those elements of the form or meaning of linguistic phenomena that could interact within the framework of the language being studied. However, in recent decades, English-language publications have emphasized that through the analysis of errors of this kind, it is possible and necessary to identify strategies used by trainees to facilitate the tasks of mastering L2.

These strategies include: overgeneralization(overgeneralization), in which students go beyond the observance of a certain rule, because they do not perceive certain phenomena as different; ignoring restrictions to apply some rule (ignorance of rule restrictions), i.e. extension of the rule to contexts in which it is not used in L2; it may be the product of distribution based on analogy; incomplete application rules (incomplete application of rules), related to the fact that the student does not master more complex structures, considering the use of relatively simpler rules sufficient for communication; forming erroneous hypotheses about the studied linguistic phenomena (false concepts hypothesized) as a result of an incorrect understanding of some characteristics specific to L2 linguistic phenomena, etc.

Other learner strategies stand out (they are discussed in detail in Chapter 11). Some intralinguistic errors are interpreted as a result of students' attempts to overcome communication difficulties; errors are considered provoked by training(induced errors), i.e. caused by the way the teacher presents two linguistic phenomena in a certain sequence, leading to a confusion of these phenomena in the minds of individuals.

In domestic literature, the term "learner's strategy" began to appear not so long ago. An example is the work [Imedadze 1979]. However, the analysis of errors has been carried out for many years from the standpoint of the theory of activity, which in itself implies the study of the specifics of processes, as a result of which the student as an active subject of activity produces correct or erroneous speech actions. In this case, the error is interpreted as a signal of an "opened seam" in the human speech mechanism [Leontiev A.A. 1970: 78]; attempts are made to establish with which stages of the speech-thinking process certain types of errors are associated. Speech errors have already been discussed above in 7.4. Among the publications on the material of the second/third languages, the following can be mentioned: [Bokovnya 1995; Voronin B.F. 1968; Eiger 1989; 1990; Kuznetsova T.D. 1978; 1982; 1983; Poimenova 1999; Privalova 1995; Trusova, Tsvetkova 1972]. The search for ways to explain errors, to detect their PL mechanisms for different purposes and on different materials is carried out by a number of researchers, including in order to increase the effectiveness of teaching a foreign language based on students' mistakes in English [Bankevich 1981], for

establishing the features of the interaction of three languages ​​when teaching German as a second foreign language on the basis of the native (Russian) and the first foreign (English) language [Poymenova 1999]; in the study of the specifics of the processes of perception of foreign language speech [Stern 1990; 1992], etc. There is a fundamental similarity between the types of errors in the native language and in the studied one - the second or foreign one, see, for example, [Tseitlin 1982; 1988] and a discussion of this issue in [Zalevskaya 1996a].

The popularity of AO as a research approach is largely due to its difference from KA both in terms of the object of analysis and in theoretical terms. Instead of the analysis of language systems undertaken by supporters of the CA, they began to study facts obtained directly from the subject of learning. Theoretically, it was recognized that the human brain has an innate ability to acquire language, which continues to function after mastering L1. The learner actively builds his L2 "grammar" in a manner similar to L1 acquisition, with at least some strategies common to both languages.

The concept of strategy, which is key to AO, began to be actively developed from the standpoint of cognitive psychology, which led to a distinction between strategies for mastering the language and strategies for overcoming communication difficulties (this is discussed in detail in Chapter 11). The notion of transfer was revised, with researchers focusing on the fact that as and why the learner draws on some (but not all) knowledge of L1 when using L2, and the conditions for transfer have come to be interpreted as depending on how self trained perceives the structural distance between the phenomena L1 and L2 (in contrast to what is established by linguists who compare two language systems). A critical analysis of simplified traditional notions of skill transfer is given in , which traces the history of research in this area and analyzes in detail the features of transfer in the fields of semantics, syntax, phonology, in oral communication and writing, and also points out the interaction of skill transfer with a number of others. factors.

A detailed comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon, which, following U. Weinreich, is usually called interlingual identification, is given in the book by A.E. Karlinsky. It seems that both in theoretical and research plans, further development of this problem is extremely important with the obligatory consideration of the variety of supporting elements for interlingual identification and with a deep PL interpretation of the concept sign from the standpoint of the specifics of individual knowledge and the principles of its functioning.

With the accumulation of experience in the application of AO as a research approach, its weaknesses began to appear, which served as grounds for criticism "from outside" and/or impulses for improving the AO procedure, introducing new key concepts, etc. Thus, a number of authors point out the need for careful handling of errors.

kami for a number of reasons related to both the collection of errors and their interpretation.

For example, Jean Aitchison notes that when collecting errors, many write down examples, but do not record enough the accompanying context, outside of which the value of the collected material may be lost. As far as interpretation is concerned, not all errors fit neatly into one category or another; some of them can be classified into a number of categories. It can also be difficult to distinguish between errors in word choice and facts of illiteracy, incompetence, when the speaker simply does not know the correct word or confuses similar words in some way. Errors of the latter type are usually called malapropisms after Mrs Malaprop, who in one of Sheridan's plays confused the words alligator and allegory. J. Aitchison also warns against hasty conclusions based on the analysis of errors, which is consistent with the opinion of a number of other authors who believe that some errors can be easier to notice than others; some errors may be less common because they are easier to avoid through appropriate strategies, and so on. Examples of difficulties encountered by a researcher in error analysis are discussed by A.A. Poimenova.

The most significant remark about the AO seems to be that by focusing on the mistakes (i.e., on what is being done by the trainees wrong), researchers have lost sight of the holistic picture of L2 mastery and the factors that ensure success this process. This reproach, combined with an indication of the difficulties in determining the genesis of a number of errors and the insufficiency of AO data for sound theoretical conclusions, was further taken into account by recognizing the need, on the one hand, to use AO in combination with other research approaches, and on the other hand, to analyze errors in more in a wide context of using L2 with an understanding of the context not only as a discourse, the interaction of the student with interlocutors, etc., but also as the totality of everything that the individual owns at the current moment of mastering L2. The latter required the introduction of the key concept intermediate language(interlanguage) as a kind of continuum along which the student L2 consistently moves forward. Other terms such as approximative system, transitional competence, idiosyncratic dialect, learner language are also used to refer to this phenomenon in English literature, but the term interlanguage is now the most common.

Intermediate language (hereinafter - TL) began to be widely studied as a manifestation of mental processes that ensure the mastery of L2. The book contains the opinion of L. Selinker that the TL is a separate language system, which is the product of the student's attempt holistically present the language being studied; it is an intermediate system made up of rules obtained using different strategies, including simplification, overgeneralization (overgeneralization), transfer (transfer). At any given moment, the TL acts as a set of rules of different types. In this sense, the mastery of L2 is a cognitive process, and the LL is a sequence of approximate systems that are found

are developing and are getting closer and closer to the system used by L2 carriers. J. Hamers and M. Blank give other definitions of the TL, one of which links this concept with variation on a certain continuum in accordance with the degree of attention that the speaker pays to the forms of speech. D. Larsen-Freeman and M. Long devote a separate chapter to the PJ, which summarizes the most significant results obtained during targeted research in this area. The concept of PU operates in his experimental study A.A. Poimenova , substantiating the importance of interpreting an error from the standpoint of what the user of the language knows at some stage of learning.

Without being able to discuss the problem of the TL in more detail here, we note that within the framework of the former USSR, the concept of the “third system” correlated with the TL was generally perceived negatively in bilingualism (see critical reviews of points of view on this issue in the books: [Zhluktenko 1974; Karlinsky 1990 ]). At the same time, one cannot ignore the fact that two fundamentally important characteristics of the PU - dynamism and consistency- are in good agreement with the results of many domestic studies. Yes, the idea moving along the continuum(i.e., dynamism) received a strong justification in an experimental psychological study of the mastery and possession of L2, carried out by N.V. Imedadze. V.A. Vinogradov talks about norm-consistency mistakes of children's speech and draws parallels between it and the study of a foreign language, when a special norm of mixed bilingualism arises as a product of the interaction of systems and norms of the native and studied languages.

One of the areas of research in this area is the search for ways to explain mechanisms errors. The following works can be mentioned as examples. T.D. Kuznetsova paid special attention to the role of the set mechanism in the formation of correct and erroneous speech actions in the second/third language. G.V. Eiger interprets the error from the standpoint of the concept of linguistic consciousness developed by him and the features of the functioning of the mechanism for controlling the linguistic correctness of the statement. A.A. Poimenova considers the mechanisms of lexical error in the light of applying strategies for overcoming communicative difficulties at different stages of the speech-thinking process when using L2, L3.

V.A. Vinogradov believes that "the mechanism of errors is fundamentally the same for the process of acquiring a language by a child and for the process of learning a second language by adults", although the acquisition of L1 differs from the study of L2 in that in the first case there are no ready-made schemes correlated with the system, and ready-made standards correlated with norm, and in the second - it is required not only to form new schemes and standards, but also to develop the ability to "turn off" the system and the R1 norm when using R2 1 . For this reason, the author distinguishes two compositions -

1 A detailed discussion of errors as violations of a system, norm, or custom is given, for example, in the works: [Vereshchagin 1969; Zalevskaya 1996a; Zeitlin 1982; 1988], see also the appendix to this chapter and tasks 2; 3.

in the mechanism of errors in speech in L2: interference and analogy. Interference is interpreted by him as "the substitution of schemes and models of the language being studied with the corresponding elements of the native language, or a change in the first on the model of the second"; it can be called both by the system and by the R1 norm. Errors caused false analogy, according to V.A. Vinogradov, always relate to the norm, their source is "the assimilated system itself, affecting the norm in such a way that the systemically possible replaces the normatively accepted" . This influence is interpreted as a kind of interference occurring within the framework of the system and norm of the same language or through analogy with the system and norm of the native language, hence interference analogy acts as the central spring of the error mechanism, the grounds for which can be: the R2 system, the R1 system, the R2 norm, the R1 norm.

It seems important to pay attention to the remarks of V.A. Vinogradov in connection with the categorization of errors: in the absence of the concept of a norm, the concept of errors cannot arise, however, the assessment of an error from the standpoint of the system and the norm of the language may differ from its assessment, taking into account what and how the student owns. The author gives examples of random coincidence of word agreement in a Russian phrase of a foreigner who, in fact, does not own the category of gender. Since phrases that do not outwardly contradict the norm can be "falsely correct", it is necessary to find out whether the correct (from the teacher's point of view) is the result of the student's application of system-normative guidelines or a random formation.

Note that well-known statements like "Give me, please, one coffee and one roll" confirm the validity of the above provision and testify to the reality of the phenomenon intermediate language the trainee with his internal system-normativity at the appropriate stages of mastering L2, which is similar to changes in the system of values ​​as L1 is mastered.

Research by L.V. Bankevich was undertaken in order to solve a number of problems in testing the vocabulary of the English language as a foreign language.

The author emphasizes that language tests should be developed taking into account "psycholinguistic model of learning students of one or another language material. The most important components of this model are the analysis of the patterns of memorization, storage and reproduction of various language units and the analysis of specific difficulties associated with certain linguistic material" [Bankevich 1981: 10]. allowed L. V. Bankevich to draw a number of very valuable conclusions that go beyond the scope of testing vocabulary.This study is also characterized by taking into account the specifics of operating with vocabulary at different stages of mastering a foreign language and as the vocabulary is accumulated (i.e., depending on what and how already owned by the student).

The greatest interest in terms of developing a general theory of errors in the book by L.V. Bankevich are represented by his considerations and the examples given at the same time related to the perception-specific and

remembering words (and possibly other language units) by focusing the student's attention on the "key points" of the word, i.e. on the elements that for the individual carry the most information about the word. As L.V. Bankevich, "it is these elements of the word that serve as the basis on which - correctly or incorrectly - the word is identified" . The author assigns a special role to the part of the word, which turns out to be common for a number of words, as a result of which it plays the role of a "magnet", as if attracting words to each other and thereby causing certain constellations of errors. Key or "critical" elements in a word (the author also calls them "dominants") can be of different length - from one sound to a syllable, their position in the word is not fixed.

L.V. Bankevich analyzes in detail the errors caused by the graphic and phonetic image of the word, errors in understanding the word-formation structure of the word and errors in understanding the semantic structure of the word (English words used by Russian students are considered, and the explanation of the errors is given by the author, taking into account modern hypotheses, one way or another related to different aspects of the functioning of the word - with the criteria for searching for words in memory, the interaction of searching for formal and semantic features, etc.). It is also useful for the interested reader to familiarize himself with a number of experimental studies conducted at Tver State University in terms of operating with foreign words of various types (see, for example: [Letyagina, Soldatov 1992; Medvedeva 1992; Poimenova 1999; Soldatov 1995; Shumova 1993, etc. ]).

Among domestic works specifically aimed at studying the process of reception of a foreign language text and offering a serious theoretical explanation of the causes of the established types of comprehension errors, it seems important to dwell on the dissertation research by I.V. Privalova. Having set as his goal the identification of the features of the functioning of psychological attitudes (in the interpretation of the school of D.N. Uznadze), which influence the understanding of a foreign language text, I.V. Privalova undertook the development of a PL model of the process of understanding a text in a foreign language, taking into account the inclusion of installation mechanisms in it.

The verbal attitude is interpreted in this study as having a level structure. Delimiting the functional and genetic aspects of the attitude phenomenon, the author clarifies that in the first case, we mean dispositional (fixed) and situational (actual) attitudes, while the general dispositional attitude is formed through the accumulation of speech experience on the basis of the R1 system, and the acquired one - on the basis of R2 . From the standpoint of the genetic aspect, I.V. Privalova considers an intralinguistic attitude, including articulatory (motor-speech), grammatical and lexical-semantic attitudes, and an extralinguistic attitude, which refers to the psychological characteristics of a bilingual individual associated with the way and style of life, worldview, social environment, general cultural level. The interaction of different types of attitudes is traced by the author through the analysis of recipients' mistakes in their perception of foreign-language (in Russian, English) journalistic and literary texts in the course of audio-lingual activities or in translation.

Undertaken by I.V. Prival analysis of 8475 errors in understanding a foreign text was combined with a contrastive analysis of the Russian and English language systems. The classification of the studied material includes meaningful errors (including: morpho-

logical, lexical, syntactic with their further more detailed subdivision) and errors of a normative type (functional-style).

Of greatest interest in the work under consideration is the study of the effect of an extralinguistic setting in understanding a foreign text. I.V. Privalova considers the scope of extralinguistic attitudes to be "the stage of actualization of denotations and their transformation into referents. When understanding a foreign language text at this stage, denotations may not correspond to the referential environment in which they were assigned, or an inadequate reflection of ethnopsycholinguistic relations between referents. In the first case, there is a misunderstanding and quasi-understanding, and in the second - misunderstanding". I.V. Privalova notes that when comparing the components verbal and non-verbal communication between two languages, zones of possible intercultural interference. She emphasizes that "an adequate understanding of the text containing these zones is possible only if the recipient has a certain socio-cultural fund of knowledge, otherwise - fixed extralinguistic attitude, the absence of which is evidenced by interference errors ". On pages 16-17 of the work under discussion, seven different zones of intercultural interference are described, identified by I.V. Privalova based on the results of error analysis.

So, an error as one of the most important key concepts of the L2/FL mastery theory is interpreted differently from the standpoint of various theoretical approaches, depending on the nature of which certain classifications of errors are proposed, while in search of an explanation of the operation of the error mechanism, researchers turn to to the features of the interaction of the language systems L1 and L2, then to the action of a psychological attitude, then to the structure of the processes of production and understanding of speech, etc.

Undoubtedly, each of the considered approaches to the analysis of the error phenomenon contributes to the description and explanation of this complex and multifaceted phenomenon. Nevertheless, the view of the error through the prism of each individual approach inevitably suffers from a certain limitation of its explanatory possibilities. To reach a new level of analysis and explanation of the mechanisms of error, it is necessary to integrate this problem into a more general picture of the work of the human speech mechanism in the conditions of mastering and mastering one or more languages, taking into account the specifics of individual knowledge and the principles of its functioning.

To build a "working" model of the human speech mechanism, science still has a lot to figure out, including answering the questions: what is the content of language acquisition? How does a person acquire this content and use it? How is the lexicon of an individual who speaks two or more languages ​​organized? Does the organization of the lexicon in the latter case depend on the type of bilingualism?

As for the practice of research in the area under discussion, there is no doubt the importance of considering an error not in itself and not for the sake of assigning it to some category, building a logically coherent classification of errors, etc. It is necessary to study errors in the broader context of the student's activity, which gives both correct and incorrect products, taking into account the real possibilities of producing or understanding certain statements at the appropriate stage of language acquisition in the presence of certain objective and subjective factors that affect the success of language comprehension. In this regard, it seems useful to quote the opinion that is expressed in the book. The authors consider the error from the standpoint of the key concept of the intermediate language. From this point of view, an error is treated as a product of a learned rule incorporated into the language system, which deviates from the norms of the language being studied, but corresponds to the student's ideas, so he does not perceive such a deviation as an error. Thus

So, to establish the fact of an error, a look from the outside is required, from the positions of a teacher or a native speaker.

It should be noted that the view of an error as a product of a certain systemic nature of everything that an individual currently owns requires a non-standard approach to correcting an error: it is necessary to correct not just some specific error, but precisely that individually established (but nevertheless typical for carriers of some I1 those studying a certain L2) connection or pattern that underlies errors of the same nature. Thereby through the introduction of changes in the structure of the TL, a basis should be formed for further correct speech actions of a similar type.

To implement this approach, purposeful studies of the specifics of the TL at different stages of mastering the SL2/FL are needed. However, such scientific research can bring the desired effect only if a “working” model of the formation of L2 / LL is built, which means that a wide range of theoretical issues related to the interaction of cognitive processes that are involved in human verbal and mental activity must be resolved; it is also necessary to implement an extensive program of experiments to test the working hypotheses formulated in the course of the development of the theory.

The foregoing closely links the problem of errors with identifying the mechanisms of verbal and cogitative activity, modeling the processes of identifying words during their perception and searching for words when speaking, etc., while the task becomes many times more complicated due to the need to solve all such problems through the prism language interactions with bilingualism and multilingualism.

10.4. Introspective Methods (IM)

The dynamics of research approaches to mastering L2 appeared to us above as a transition from a comparative analysis of language systems to an analysis of errors received from individuals themselves and further to the study of not only erroneous, but also correct speech works of students in a broader context of discourse and, moreover, formed PJ. Some authors interpret speech analysis as an independent research approach, which in the English-language literature is called Performance Analysis. It is not considered separately here, just as it was done above in relation to Interlanguage Studies, since for us it is fundamentally important at the moment that what unites error analysis, TL studies and speech analysis: in all these cases in contrast to the sources of information external to the learners used in the CA, the facts received from the subjects of learning are analyzed. However, while studying products speech, and the results of the analysis of the latter

appear before us in the light in which they are seen by observers "from outside", "outside". Therefore, as a third research approach, it seems rational to discuss the possibilities of applying some varieties of introspective methods (IM), which are gaining popularity in recent years, as they are directly to the learner his intuitions and judgments about the language being studied, about the operations performed, the grounds for making certain decisions, etc. Let us clarify that here we are not talking about introspective psychology with its theoretical specifics, but about introspection as self-observation of a person over the inner plan of his own mental life, which allows fixing its manifestations(experiences, thoughts, feelings, etc.; see more details [Psychology 1990: 351]).

The book convincingly shows that the reconstruction of phenomena that are not directly observable from speech production data (i.e., from speech products in our terminology) will always include situations in which the ambiguity of the relationship between process and product remains unresolvable. In search of methods that would provide direct access to the processes and knowledge of the learner, researchers of the characteristics of mastering L2 turned to the judgments of learners about the use of information or about ways of processing and organizing it in order to use the data obtained in this way instead of or in addition to the fact that can be deduced from the analysis of speech products. At the same time, metalinguistic judgments were borrowed from linguistics (remember the experiment in linguistics: [Shcherba 1974]), scaling, the use of questionnaires, interviews, group discussions, etc. were taken from sociology.

As pointed out in the article, back in 1973, S. Korder proposed using data obtained on the basis of intuition in studies of the features of mastering L2. Since then, attempts have been made from time to time to include introspective procedures in separate works. Only recently have such procedures been applied systematically. One of the reasons for this is the attitude to introspective data (including retrospective ones) as contradictory. At the same time, two main objections are expressed: I - retrospective data are unreliable, since they are characterized by incompleteness, inaccuracy, and are influenced by the researcher; II - the knowledge that a flashback will be required affects the performance of the task. However, according to the above authors, retrospective data can be interpreted as a reliable source of information if they meet a number of conditions, which include the following: 1) data must be collected immediately after completing the task, while the memory is still fresh; 2) the learner must be provided with contextual information to activate memory; 3) all requested information must be retrievable from memory, i.e. should be required in the course of the assignment so that it is not necessary to give answers based on inferential knowledge or on generalization; 4) for the same reason, the requested information must relate to certain problems or situations; 5) no leading questions should be asked to avoid the influence of the "starting positions" of the researcher; 6) information that introspection will be required should not be given before the task is completed.

To date, some experience has already been accumulated in the use of IM in the study of the characteristics of mastering L2, it has been found out what exactly can be studied using IM, which procedures are more effective in setting various goals.

Thus, the paper points out that knowledge of language rules at all levels, organized in a more or less analyzed, i.e., easily lends itself to introspection. structurally clear and articulated form. This is commonly referred to as language knowledge of the declarative type. The situation is different with knowledge of the procedural type, which includes cognitive and interactive processes that take place in the perception, production and assimilation of language. Most of these processes proceed automatically, they are inaccessible to introspection. But activities that require slow, controlled processing, such as certain types of translation activities, may be reflected in introspective reports. Sudden stops in automatic processing (for example, when the learner encounters some problem in perception or speech production due to lack of knowledge) force a switch to mind-controlled processing, which makes the corresponding processes available for introspection.

The book identifies three kinds of conditions under which introspection is possible in order to explore strategies for applying knowledge of a procedural type. Firstly, when mastering L2, students are faced with tasks of varying degrees of difficulty, when something is understood easily and processed automatically, while difficult fragments require the conscious application of certain learning strategies and allow introspection. Secondly, some types of work (such as dictations, compositions) require concentration of attention on what is being processed, and students are able to give an account of actions that, under other conditions, proceed automatically. Thirdly, the learner can be interrupted in the course of some task in such a way as to again make available for introspection what is usually automated.

Some authors compare the effectiveness of different types of work within the framework of IM. Thus, reasoning aloud and retrospection are considered. Reasoning aloud is interpreted by the author as an ideal means of finding out how the trainees themselves receive inferential knowledge (ie, when their actions are not guided by detailed instructions or questions). However, since this can lead to such shortcomings as the incompleteness of the protocols and difficulties in their interpretation, it is useful to supplement the reasoning aloud with retrospective interviews for a more in-depth consideration of the points made during the reasoning aloud, which increases the reliability of the results of the analysis of the protocols. The most successful in this publication is the reasoning aloud in pairs, because it stimulates the verbalization of the main thought processes, since the participants in this work have to explain and substantiate their hypotheses. It is also doubted that the reasoning aloud of the same

to the student in front of the tape recorder can be as informative as the transcripts of the pair discussions.

The publication is interesting in that it compares introspection and retrospection (immediate and delayed). The study was conducted on the material of translation as the most reliable source of information about the processes of lexical search, since the required value is given for analysis (of course, if the source text is understood correctly). The authors note that immediate introspection requires stopping and fragmenting the process of translating a coherent text, due to which the broader context is lost for lexical search and for checking the correctness of this search. Therefore, if we want to observe the process of translation of more natural parts of the text, the most reliable are delayed retrospective surveys after the translation of the whole text or a passage of text. Even if such surveys do not necessarily reveal what the trainees actually did when solving lexical search problems, they would at least reveal their preferred strategies. Also, on the technical side, delayed retrospective commenting is the easiest to organize. From here, the following picture of the possibilities of IM is built: 1) introspection allows you to detect strategies that are actually used in the planning phase of speech and speaking; 2) earlier delayed flashback reveals preferred strategies; 3) later delayed introspection is accompanied by metalinguistic statements.

R. Zimmerman and K. Schneider came to the use of a combination of procedures, which includes: a) tape recordings of protocols of thinking aloud during the translation of a coherent text by individual students, followed by retrospective commenting on problems of lexical choice; no interview; b) tape recordings of dialogues when translating coherent texts with a subsequent (delayed) interview; c) tape recordings of protocols of reasoning aloud when individual students translate short passages with lexical problems; immediate interviews; d) dialogue when translating lexical difficulties in short passages; immediate interview.

R. Zimmerman and L. Schneider also believe that lexical search in the course of a dialogue in translation is a more natural situation than thinking aloud in individual translation. According to them, different procedures make it possible to detect the following: 1) individual reasoning aloud, dialogue and immediate interviewing reveal the strategies actually used; 2) delayed commenting and delayed interviewing reveal preferred strategies and knowledge of the declarative type.

Of the publications in Russian based on the materials of studies using MI, one can name the works of G.V. Niger, where reasoning aloud (individual and in triads) was used to study the mechanism for controlling the linguistic correctness of an utterance.

Among the conclusions made by many authors in connection with the use of IM is an indication that the corresponding procedures should be trained in advance, and the results of such studies should be combined with the use of other methods, i.e. an integrated approach to the study of the features of mastering L2 is needed.

10.5. An integrated approach to the study of the features of mastering L2

It has been repeatedly noted above that representatives of different research approaches inevitably realize the need to go beyond the application of individual procedures and the formation integrated programs scientific research. At the same time, in addition to the previously considered CA, AO and IM, observation and experiment are also used, artificial languages ​​are involved to identify the principles of human processing of an unfamiliar language, etc. Diary observations are distinguished (mainly when mastering L2 in natural situations), observation from the outside, observation of a participant (when the researcher is directly involved in the actions being studied). Along with the experiment as a tool for testing hypotheses using statistical analysis, pre-experiment and quasi-experiment are distinguished with the following differences between them:

An experiment to establish a causal relationship between certain phenomena must meet two criteria: 1) the presence of experimental and control groups; 2) randomized distribution of subjects into these groups; all factors but one must remain constant;

A quasi-experiment meets one of the above criteria;

The pre-experiment does not allow for the conclusion of a causal relationship, since it does not meet any of the above criteria.

Thus, a genuine experiment is used to predict and explain certain phenomena, but a number of research procedures approach it in varying degrees on the continuum given in the discussion of this issue in the book, where it is shown that qualitative analysis is best provided by introspection, and quantitative - experiment; between them are sequentially placed: the observation of the participant, the observation from the outside, the focused description, the pre-experiment and the quasi-experiment. Focused description refers to the narrowing of the material or problem, the limitation of the set of variables, etc.

Experimental procedures are also differentiated depending on whether the “final product” of a certain process or its course, used by speakers of the language of strategy and support, is being investigated. The first of these procedures is usually called indirect (postoperative), and the second - direct (operational) (see [Sekerina 1997] for more details, which describes a number of experimental techniques using a computer and special software

security).

A.A. Leontiev pays special attention to the fact that although the experiment is traditionally considered the most objective research method, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of its application in PL, since the artificial situation of the laboratory is inevitable.

The experiment forces one to ignore a number of important interacting factors that significantly control AI behavior, and can also lead to the results caused by just such a situation. Difficulties and limitations that reduce the effectiveness of the application of the experiment in PL studies can be leveled by combining a number of experimental techniques (a reference is given to [Sakharny 1989: 89]).

Many researchers are concerned about the question of which of the research procedures provides material for methodological conclusions, in the best way revealing the features of the interaction of languages ​​in the process of mastering L2/FL. Take, for example, the opinion of A.E. Karlinsky, who makes the categorical conclusion that "the comparative study of languages ​​and the establishment of differences between them is irrelevant for the methodology, since the knowledge that a given phenomenon L2 has no analogue in L1 does not yet mean knowledge that as students should be taught this phenomenon. This information does not contain information either about the nature or the degree of difficulties that the student will encounter in mastering this phenomenon" [Karlinsky 1989: 59].

In the same work, A.E. Karlinsky compares the following three approaches to the study of interference. Under inductive method he understands the fixation of errors in the foreign language speech of students and their classification according to various criteria; the lists of errors obtained in this way are interpreted as irrelevant for the methodology of teaching a foreign language, since interference errors are not distinguished from errors that occur for other reasons, and "ignorance of the cause of errors makes it impossible for the teacher to organize purposeful work to eliminate and prevent them" . Under deductive method A.E. Karlinsky understands the use of CA, which makes it possible to purely theoretically predict the sphere of potential interference; the purely linguistic data obtained in this way do not take into account the characteristics of the students and are absolute, while speech is built on the basis of probabilistic laws. experimental method is interpreted by the author as the creation of artificial conditions for observing and studying certain phenomena with the involvement of trainees, which makes it possible to take into account their personal characteristics, the probabilistic nature of speech, etc. The most successful A.E. Karlinsky considers the combination of deductive and experimental methods into a single research procedure with the ranking of the obtained data of a statistical and probabilistic nature according to the degrees of difficulty of the studied language material, while pointing out the need to take into account both the paradigmatics and the syntagmatics of linguistic phenomena (i.e. their relationships within the language system and in the speech chain). It seems that this recommendation, as well as the assessment of the role of error analysis, needs some clarification based on the results of applying different research approaches in world science.

The combination of KA, AO and experiment was used in the fundamental research of M.K. Isaev, who showed the failure of a selective (selective) approach to contrastive comparisons and the need for a systematic CA, a comprehensive study of the properties of foreign speech (in his work - phonetic features) at various stages of the development of bilingualism. Dissertation research by M.K. Isaev, carried out on the material of two languages ​​directly in contact in the mind of a bilingual individual through the experimental identification of a vast body of facts of speech deviations in L2 at various stages of teaching Kazakhs English using six types of CA, has resulted in the development of the concept of interference as a dynamic phenomenon: "the interacting systems of two languages ​​are constant,

the stump and the nature of the influence of the L1 system on the L2 system are variable in different periods of mastering L2. At the same time, the interfering effect of some features is rather quickly lost, while the effect of others is preserved.

The following two papers have used research procedures not mentioned above. G.M. Burdenyuk and V.M. Grigorevsky found that when mastering spatial prepositions, mixed types of interference are realized, which are almost impossible to study by comparative analysis of languages. The matrix method applied by the authors allowed them to distinguish four types of interference: one-way, multi-one-way, two-way and cyclic (the latter was called "carousel"). Yu.A. Burlakov, in experimental teaching of the German language, applied two procedures for "measuring" learning outcomes and concluded that fixing the galvanic skin response of a student is a completely reliable tool for studying the formation and complication of conditioned reflex speech structures, while the electromyogram of speech muscles can serve as an indicator of the formation speech skill.

It seems extremely important to emphasize that a comprehensive study of the features of mastering L2 should not be understood as any (including random, mechanical) combination of a number of approaches. Only a work containing a theoretical substantiation of the choice of certain procedures and an explanation of the results obtained from the standpoint of the relevant theory can be of real value.

10.6. Conclusion

The desire of scientists to understand as deeply as possible and convincingly explain the specifics of mastering L2 stimulates the constant development of theory and the search for new research procedures. At the same time, within the framework of the same approach, different interpretations of similar facts are possible, depending on the theoretical positions adopted by the authors.

The development and revision of previously existing key concepts traced above and the formation of new ideas about the specifics of L2 assimilation indicate the importance of a more detailed consideration of the content of what an individual learning a new language should master, as well as clarifying the features of the processes of mastering and using the language and the strategies used by students (see. chapter 11).

QUESTIONS AND TASKS FOR IN-DEPTH STUDY

1. What are the key concepts for CA?

2. What is the fundamental difference between the behaviorist and mentalist approaches to the problem of language acquisition?

3. Why are CA data insufficient for predicting difficulties in mastering L2?

4. What new key concepts have been used in the course of criticism of KA?

5. What is the current role of the CA in the study of the features of L2 mastery?

6. What is the fundamental difference between the initial theoretical positions of CA and AO and between the objects of analysis in these approaches?

7. What are the new key concepts associated with the development of AO.

8. For what purposes can analysis of errors in speech be undertaken?

9. What was the basis of the dynamics of interpretation of the error phenomenon?

10. What two types of disagreements between what is conceived and what is said is it customary to distinguish?

12. What shortcomings of the joint-stock company are pointed out when criticizing it?

13. How do you understand the differences between reservations and errors in terms of the structure of the speech-thinking process (see Chapter 7)?

14. In what sense does an error act as a manifestation of the individual's activity in the process of forming and testing his hypotheses regarding the R2 rules?

15. What is the reason for the importance of resorting to introspective methods in the study of the features of mastering L2?

16. What types of knowledge can be researched with the help of IM, under what conditions and for what reasons?

17. What are the differences between experiment, pre-experiment and quasi-experiment?

18. Which of the approaches discussed in this chapter seems to you the most promising?

19. Why did it become necessary to focus on the student's strategies?

20. How do you understand the essence of the phenomenon of "interlingual identification"? Try to give examples from your experience of mastering a foreign language.

21. How do the concepts of "process" and "product", on the one hand, and the objects of study in the various approaches discussed above, on the other hand, correlate?

TASK 1. Below are some key concepts related to different research approaches and their criticism; order them according to each of the considered approaches and give a general conclusion about the dynamics of scientific research in this area.

The activity of the trainees. Intralanguage errors. Interference. Interlingual identification. Interlingual errors. mentalist approach. Metalinguistic judgments. A holistic picture of mastering L2.

Appeal to the student. Reservations and errors. Intermediate language.

Reasoning aloud. Introspection. Learner strategy.

language systems.

observation.

Skill transfer.

Intuition.

working hypothesis.

Mechanism.

Experiment

TASK 2. E.M. Vereshchagin gives vivid examples of mistakes in the Russian speech of foreign students. Thus, in the statement of a Syrian student A big army has come to our land the syntactic links inherent in the system of the Russian language are violated. At the same time, a sentence that is correct from the point of view of the system I have a sister, brother normally replaced by the design I have...; the same cannot be said I willingly love Moscow because the combination willingly love not used in Russian. EAT. Vereshchagin explains that violations of the system are absolutely incorrect phrases (it is impossible to say so), and violations of the norm are only relatively wrong (it is possible to say so, but no one says that). Usus violations (from Latin usus - use, use, custom) occur when the correct phrase in itself does not correspond to the speech situation, i.e. the choice of means of expression turns out to be wrong in connection with the circumstances and conditions of speech (you can say so, but in a different situation). The example of violating the uzus, cited by E.M. Vereshchagin, is very indicative: it is easy to imagine the reaction of tram passengers who were addressed by a foreigner with the words: Let me see if you'll hand over the fee.

due for travel? Give your examples of violations of the system, norms, usage, drawn from your experience of mastering a foreign language, from communicating with foreigners, etc.

TASK 3. Familiarize yourself with the classifications of errors given in the appendix to this chapter and express your opinion on the extent to which word-formation speaking errors made by children in mastering their native language agree or differ, mistakes in understanding the word-building structure of a foreign word made by schoolchildren.

TASK 4. Consider the concept of "intermediate language" from the standpoint of the PL interpretation of the specifics of the functioning of the human language / speech mechanism (see Chapter 2), taking into account the interpretation of the human lexicon as a functional dynamic system (see Chapter 5) and the features of the systemic meanings of an individual (see chapter 6). Give examples from your experience of mastering a second/foreign language, confirming or questioning the importance of a comprehensive study of what and how a student knows at various stages of language learning.

TASK 5. Read some of the texts collected by Ann Landers (see p. 235 above); find instances of ambiguity and errors; suggest how and why these examples show the interaction of different languages.

a) Paris dress shop: Elegant dresses designed for street walking.

b) Rhodes, Greece, tailor shop: Order your summer suit. Because of the big rush we will execute customers in strict rotation.

c) Czech tourist agency: Take one of our horse-driven tours. We guarantee no miscarriages.

d) Tokyo car rental firm: When passenger with heavy foot is in sight, tootle the horn. Trumpet him melodiously at first, but if he still obstacles your passage, then tootle him with vigor.

TASK 6. Explain the features of the pronunciation of some words in the following dialogue during the radio bridge "Moscow - Tokyo" (it is useful to refer to the work of E.D. Polivanov [Polivanov 1968], where, in particular, the features of Japanese speech perception in Russian are considered):

- "Hello, hello! Tokyo! The hearing is bad! Can you hear me?"

- "I'm going to hear it, but I'm breaking it, I'm breaking it!"

TASK 7. Read the text below and translate it back into English to explain the reasons for the effect.

Mice

Microsoftthe company gets a lot of feedback after the release of Windows 95. We have found that many users have met the problem of the mouse. In this document, the Technical Support ServiceMicrosoftThe company brings together all the useful information about possible problems with mice and mouse drivers and care-shooting. If you just fixed yourself with Windows 95, you may see your mouse misbehaving. The cursor may not move, or mouse movement may show strange marks on the table surface, windows, and wallpaper. The mouse may respond inappropriately to a click on the kidneys. But don't rush! These may be physical problems, not the Windows 95 bug. Clean your mouse. Disconnect its wiring from the computer, pull it out and rinse the insides with alcohol. Re-sew the mouse. Check wiring for breaks. Connect your mouse to your computer. Take a closer look at your gasket (pillow) - it should not be a source of debris and dust. The surface of the pad must not restrict mouse movement...

Also, some helpful tips. If you're new to Windows 95, get used to the new mouse options. Click on the left kidney - highlight the item, hit the right kidney - context menu pops up, quickly hit the left kidney twice- run the subpoena.

SpecialistsMicrosoftcompanies after a large number of experiments revealed that the most effective command from under Windows 95 is "Send to...", which is available at any time and place by hitting the right kidney of the mouse. If you have just assigned Windows 95 to yourself, you will only be able to send to A(B) and to the special place "My Portfolio". But as you fix yourself new programs for Windows 95, you will begin to send to more and more complex and interesting places and objects. The "Send to ..." command will become especially effective when sending messages throughΕ -mail and chat with your colleagues and friends in the local network-work.

APPENDIX

Classifications of word-formation errors in native and foreign languages

The word-formation errors considered in the book [Zeitlin 1982] can be ordered using the following scheme:

WORD-FORMING ERRORS

collocation

formation of words according to a specific pattern

formation of words according to the model

direct reverse replacement multilayer foamy

random

modification of the words of the normative language

shape modification

modification of meaning

deviant meanings of words

(semantic

associated with the desire to endow the word with an internal form

change in the meaning of the words of the normative

the emergence of new meanings of words in the normative language

expanding or narrowing the scope of the meaning of a word

change in the meaning of a derived word due to inaccurate or incorrect understanding of its morphological structure

semantic errors due to various associations

The book [Bankevich 1981] presents the results of a detailed analysis of the mistakes made by students when learning English and caused by the graphic and phonetic image of the word, incorrect understanding of the word-formation and/or semantic structure of the word, etc. In the diagram in fig. 10.2 summarizes selected L.V. Bankevich, types of errors in understanding the word-formation structure of a foreign word. The reader is given the opportunity to compare this circuit with Fig. 10.1, i.e. with word-formation errors in speaking in their native language. It would also be interesting to check whether the errors in understanding the word-formation structure of a word in the native language fall under the same categories that L.V. Bankevich, and word-formation errors in speaking in English (or another foreign) language - under the classification given by S.N. Zeitlin.

ERRORS IN UNDERSTANDING

DERIVATIVE STRUCTURE

FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORD

attribution	Semantization	Dominant	attribution	Meaning Synthesis
false affix-	simple layer		simple layer	compound word
nogo word-	wa how difficult-		wu values	by components
educational-			compound word	its elements
value
Confusing word- Semantization Perception Confusing pro-
educational derivative words like water words inside
and inflections - words as pros - abbreviations of one nest
body morphemes of that

for presentations at seminars and materials for referencing

1. Plurality of languages ​​and speech activity [Suprun 1996: 180-204].

2. Foreign language is a specific academic subject [Zimnyaya 1991: 25-37].

3. Mastering a second language as a psycholinguistic problem [Gorelov, Sedov 1997: 170-177].