This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of biology, necessary for passing the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples. test tasks, allowing you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks conform to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
Examples.
Embryology studies
1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth
2) the structure and functions of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the organism from birth to death
Selection as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) conservation of the biosphere
3) creation of agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers
Systematics is the science that deals with
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying relationships between organisms
4) classification of organisms.
G.I. lerner
Biology
A complete guide to preparing for the exam
Single State exam- This new form certification, which has become mandatory for graduates high school. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.
This complete reference book of biology lists all necessary materials for quality training to the exam.
1. The book includes verifiable examination papers theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels knowledge and skills.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. Sequence of presentation educational material begins with General Biology, as the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Special attention you need to pay attention to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
Proposed tutorial in biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as to teachers. However, the book will be useful to all students. secondary school, because will allow not only to study the subject within school curriculum but also systematically check its assimilation.
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.
concept the science defined as "a sphere human activity on obtaining, systematizing objective knowledge about reality. In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .
Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human genealogies, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with the help of which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)
Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes occurring in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. You can observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.
Experiment (Experience)- a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses . Examples of experiments are crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of any cell organelle, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of a set experience.
Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, the following: “How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?” or “How can I prepare for serious exams in the shortest possible time?”.
It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.
Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, “If plants emit oxygen in the light, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, because. oxygen must support combustion. The hypothesis is tested experimentally. (See Hypotheses for the Origin of Life on Earth.)
Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. Faithful scientific theories confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and the chromosome theory of T. Morgan were confirmed by many experimental studies in different countries peace. The modern evolutionary theory, although it has found many scientifically proven confirmations, still meets opponents, because. not all of its provisions can be present stage development of science to confirm the facts.
Private scientific methods in biology are:
genealogical method - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.
historical method - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). The evolutionary doctrine has developed largely due to this method.
paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in earth's crust, in different geological layers.
centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.
Answering this question, you need to think about what processes are violated due to constriction of the finger.
Elements of the correct answer
1. When the finger is constricted, the flow of arterial blood into its vessels and the outflow of venous blood are disrupted - the finger turns purple.
2. The amount of interstitial fluid increases - the finger brightens.
Answer yourself
What fluids make up the internal environment of the body and how do they move?
What is homeostasis and how is it regulated?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The causative agents of each disease are specific, i.e. contain their own antigens.
2. Antibodies that bind an antigen are strictly specific to it and are not capable of binding other antigens.
Example: Plague bacteria antigens will not be bound by antibodies produced against cholera pathogens.
Answer yourself
In order to prevent tetanus, a healthy person was injected with tetanus toxoid. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.
A person with diphtheria was given an anti-diphtheria vaccine. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Incomplete closure of the tricuspid valve can lead to backflow of blood into the systemic circulation.
2. There may be stagnation of blood in a large circle and swelling of the extremities.
Note: The named consequences follow easily from simple reasoning, it is only necessary to remember that the tricuspid valve is located between the right ventricle and the right atrium. There may be other, more serious consequences.
Answer yourself
Why does blood move in one direction?
Why does blood flow continuously through the vessels?
Where is the speed of blood movement higher: in the aorta or capillaries and why?
What factors ensure the movement of blood through the veins?
Describe the route of the drug from the forearm right hand to the vessels of the brain.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Sneezing is a protective respiratory reflex, the mechanism of breathing regulation is a reflex.
2. The mechanism of resumption of breathing after a delay is humoral, it is the reaction of the respiratory center of the brain to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Answer yourself
Why does a person involuntarily hold his breath when entering ice water?
When is it advisable to wear a gauze bandage or respirator and why?
Elements of the correct answer
1. In each section of the digestive system, there is a certain acidity and temperature of the environment in which the corresponding enzymes work most efficiently. Therefore, certain nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down in each department.
2. Enzymes function only in a certain pH range of the medium and break down strictly defined substances, i.e. enzymes
are fictitious.
Answer yourself
Why do proteins begin to break down only in the stomach?
What happens when food moves from the stomach into the duodenum?
Elements of the correct answer
1. With inflammation of the gastric mucosa, it becomes less protected from exposure of hydrochloric acid and enzymes.
2. Inflammation of the gastric mucosa leads to gastritis, and then to a stomach ulcer.
Answer yourself
What are the causes of gastritis and stomach ulcers?
What preventive measures can prevent diseases of gastritis and stomach ulcers?
Elements of the correct answer
1. A decrease in body temperature will lead to a decrease in the rate of biochemical reactions.
2. All human reflexes will slow down, the speed of his behavioral reactions will decrease. Such a transition can be disastrous for a person.
Answer yourself
What is the difference between cold-bloodedness and warm-bloodedness?
What is the opposite of metabolic reactions in the body?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Stones are formed due to excess salts in the urine.
2. Stones are formed due to a lack of substances in the urine that prevent their formation.
Answer yourself
What can cause kidney or bladder stones?
What is the prevention of kidney or bladder stones formation?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Prolonged exposure to the sun leads to skin burns and heat stroke.
2. Ultraviolet radiation in high doses can provoke the growth of malignant tumors.
Answer yourself
Why is it good for children to take short-term sunbathing?
What is the thermoregulatory function of the skin?
Elements of the correct answer
1. During takeoff and landing, there is a change in air pressure on the eardrum as from the side external environment as well as from the middle ear.
2. When taking off, the pressure from the side of the middle ear is higher, and during landing it decreases, but the pressure on the eardrum from the side of the external auditory meatus increases.
Answer yourself
Why are they offered to open their mouths or suck on lollipops in the cabin during takeoff and landing?
What is caisson sickness and why is it dangerous?
Why do pearl divers dive into the water quickly and emerge slowly?
Answers to these questions can be found on the Internet or in additional literature.
Elements of the correct answer
1. In mountainous areas, the water usually contains little iodine.
2. It is necessary to introduce foods containing iodine into the diet.
Answer yourself
What are the consequences of a lack of thyroid hormones?
What are the signs of diabetes mellitus?
What non-drug blood glucose lowering measures would you recommend for someone with mildly elevated blood glucose?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Nervous mechanism: excitation of uterine receptors leads to its contraction.
2. Humoral mechanism: the production of hormones stimulates the contraction of the muscles of the uterus.
Answer yourself
How are male sex cells different from female sex cells?
Why does only one sperm fertilize an egg?
C2 questions
Ability to work with text and graphics
Elements of the correct answer
(Only a hint is given to help you find the exact answer.)
Sentence 2 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the spinal column.
Sentence 4 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the cervical region.
In sentence 5, an error was made in indicating the variability of the composition of the spine.
2. 1. In 1908, I.P. Pavlov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis, which underlies cellular immunity. 2. Immunity is the body's immunity to infections and foreign substances - antigens. 3. Immunity can be specific and non-specific. 4. Specific immunity is the reaction of the body to the action of unknown foreign agents. 5. Nonspecific immunity provides protection against antigens familiar to the body. 6. Immunity can be carried out both by special cells - phagocytes, and by antibodies - protein molecules contained in blood lymphocytes. |
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 4, 5.
In sentence 1: remember to whom the merit of discovering the phenomenon of phagocytosis belongs.
In sentences 4 and 5: remember the meaning of the terms "specific" and "non-specific".
3. Find errors in the given text. Specify the numbers of proposals in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. In the first half of the XIX century. German scientists M. Schleiden and T. Schwann formulated the cell theory. 2. However, Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who described the microscopic structure of the cork tissue of a plant, is considered the founder of the cell theory. 3. The main position of the cell theory of Schleiden and Schwann is the following: "All organisms - viruses, bacteria, fungi, plants and animals - are made up of cells." 4. Subsequently, Rudolf Virchow argued that "each new cell is formed by budding of the mother cell." |
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 3, 4.
In sentence 2, the name of the scientist is incorrect.
In sentence 3, the list of organisms with a cellular structure is incorrectly compiled.
In Proposition 4, R. Virchow's assertion is reproduced with an error.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 4, 5, 6.
Sentence 4 incorrectly describes the structure of capillaries.
Sentence 5 incorrectly indicates the substances coming from the capillaries into the tissues.
In sentence 6, the substances that enter the capillaries from the tissues are incorrectly indicated.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 3, 5, 6.
In sentence 3, the endocrine glands are inaccurately named.
In sentence 5, the sign of the endocrine glands is incorrectly indicated.
In sentence 6, an error was made in comparing the rates of nervous and humoral regulation.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 4, 6.
Sentence 2 incorrectly indicated division nervous system into parts.
In sentence 4, pay attention to the muscles named in the sentence and their relationship to the autonomic nervous system.
In sentence 6, the mechanism of transmission of a nerve impulse is incorrectly indicated.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 3, 4, 5.
In sentence 3, pay attention to the indicated reason for the excitation of the respiratory center.
Sentence 4 erroneously indicates the number of groups of nerve cells in the respiratory center.
Proposition 5 gives an erroneous description of the operation of the breathing apparatus.
Tasks in drawings
Elements of the correct answer
1. The top layer of the skin is formed by the epidermis - the integumentary tissue.
2. Under the epidermis is the dermis, or the skin itself. It is made up of connective tissue.
3. Nerve cells are scattered in the dermis - receptors, as well as muscles that raise hair.
2. What process is shown in the picture? Describe this process. |
Elements of the correct answer
1. The figure shows the stages of developing a conditioned salivary reflex:
- salivation upon presentation of food - an unconditional reflex reaction, the centers of digestion and salivation are excited;
- excitation of the visual center by the light of a light bulb in the absence of food;
- a combination of feeding with lighting a light bulb, the formation of a temporary connection between the centers of vision, digestion and salivation;
after multiple repetitions of the step ( in) a conditioned salivary reflex is developed only to light.
2. Conclusion: after a repeated combination of the actions of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, a conditioned reflex to the action of the conditioned stimulus is developed.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The figure shows the process of formation of lymph from the blood and tissue fluid.
2. Number 1 indicates a capillary with blood cells and plasma.
3. The number 2 indicates the lymphatic capillary, into which tissue fluid is collected.
Elements of the correct answer
The figure shows blood vessels.
1. Arteries ( a) - elastic vessels that carry arterial blood from the heart. The muscular layer is well developed in the walls of the arteries.
2. Veins ( b) - elastic vessels, in the walls of which the muscle layer is less developed than in the walls of the arteries. Equipped with valves to prevent backflow of blood. They carry blood from the organs to the heart.
3. Capillaries ( in) - vessels, the walls of which are formed by a single layer of cells. They exchange gases between blood and tissues.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Scuba divers may develop decompression sickness, which is caused by the rapid release of nitrogen during a rapid decrease in pressure during ascent. Tissues may be partially destroyed, convulsions, paralysis, etc. may occur.
2. Climbers have difficulty breathing due to altitude sickness resulting from low oxygen pressure in the atmosphere.
Answering this question, one should generalize knowledge about the structure and main functions of organic substances and then explain why their stocks must be constantly replenished.
Elements of the correct answer
1. organic matter have a complex structure and are constantly broken down in the process of metabolism.
2. Organic substances are sources of the body's building material, as well as food and energy, which are necessary for the life of the body.
3. Since food and energy are constantly consumed, it is necessary to replenish their reserves, i.e. synthesize organic substances. In addition, from the amino acids that enter the cells, the human body's own proteins are synthesized.
Answer yourself
Why are proteins needed in the human body?
Where does the human body get energy for its life?
What is the role of organic substances in the human body?
Elements of the correct answer
1. These tissues have a common feature - a well-developed intercellular substance.
2. These fabrics have a common origin. They develop from the mesoderm.
3. These tissues are classified as connective tissues.
Answer yourself
Why are human organs, as a rule, formed by several types of tissues?
How can one explain that the nervous system of birds and humans develops from the same germ layers, while the systems themselves differ significantly from each other in the level of development?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Two systems are involved in the regulation of the activity of the human body: nervous and endocrine.
2. The nervous system provides the reflex activity of the body.
3. Humoral regulation is based on the action of hormones, the release of which into the blood is controlled by the nervous system.
Answer yourself
How are the nervous and endocrine systems functionally related?
How is a relatively constant level of hormones in human blood maintained?
What are the differences between nervous and humoral regulation of the body?
Present your answer in the form of a table.
Elements of the correct answer
Elements of the correct answer
1. The medulla oblongata is the most ancient part of the brain.
2. Breathing, nutrition, reproduction appeared together with the emergence of the animal world, i.e. These are the most ancient functions of the body.
3. The cerebral cortex is a relatively young part of the brain. In higher animals, it controls all body functions, including those listed in the task.
Answer yourself
What is the role medulla oblongata in the regulation of human life processes?
Where are the centers of unconditioned reflexes located?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Unconditioned reflexes- specific, conditional - individual.
2. Unconditioned reflexes - congenital, conditioned - acquired.
3. Unconditioned reflexes are permanent, conditioned reflexes are temporary.
4. Unconditioned reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord and brainstem, conditioned - by the cerebral cortex.
5. Unconditioned reflexes are caused by a certain stimulus, conditioned - by any.
Answer yourself
How are conditioned reflexes developed?
What are the main ideas of the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about conditioned reflexes?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Rays of light are reflected from an object.
2. The rays are focused by the lens and, having passed through the vitreous body, fall on the retina.
3. A real, reduced, inverted image of an object is formed on the retina.
4. Signals from the retina are transmitted along the optic nerve and reach the visual cortex.
5. The image of an object is analyzed in the visual zone of the cerebral cortex and is perceived by a person in its real, non-inverted form.
Answer yourself
What is the general principle of the analyzers?
Why does a person practically not distinguish the colors of objects with peripheral vision?
How does the vestibular apparatus work?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The second signaling system is associated with the appearance of speech in a person.
2. Speech allows you to communicate using symbols - words and other signs.
3. The word can be specific, denoting a certain object or phenomenon, and abstract, reflecting the meaning of concepts, phenomena.
Answer yourself
What does a person mean by words?
Than higher nervous activity human differs from the higher nervous activity of animals?
What types of memory do you know and what are their functions?
Elements of the correct answer
1. No need to slouch, you need to walk holding your head straight, straightening your shoulders.
2. You can not carry weights in only one hand.
3. When walking, do not lean back.
4. It is desirable to sit straight, without leaning on the back of a chair and without bending the spine.
Answer yourself
What anatomical and physiological consequences in the structure of the skeleton can a violation of posture lead to?
List the features of the skeleton associated with upright walking and labor activity.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Violation of blood glucose levels can lead to serious illness.
2. A persistent increase in glucose levels can lead to diabetes mellitus, a disease that causes other diseases.
3. A decrease in glucose levels can lead to disturbances in the functioning of the brain, the cells of which require glucose.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Jenner can be considered the discoverer of the phenomenon of immunity. He was the first to vaccinate against smallpox.
2. Pasteur created vaccines against several infectious diseases: rabies, anthrax. I. Mechnikov worked in his laboratory.
3. Mechnikov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis. This discovery became the basis for the creation of the theory of immunity.
Answer yourself
What works of L. Pasteur had a great influence on the development of science and what is it?
Why are I. Mechnikov and L. Pasteur considered the founders of immunology?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Pavlov thinks that your pockets either have food leftovers, or your hands or clothes smell like food familiar to the dog. Consequently, gastric juice is secreted conditioned reflex.
2. You can change clothes, wash your hands, brush your teeth again and see if the dog will have gastric juices in this case. If your results are confirmed, then you are right, if not, then Pavlov.
Answer yourself
Why do you think I.P. Pavlov for the study of the processes of digestion in animals was awarded Nobel Prize?
By what mechanisms and how is the activity of the human digestive system regulated?
Why sick infectious disease a person is injected with serum, and for preventive purposes, healthy people are vaccinated?
What kind biological problems stand in the way of researchers involved in organ and tissue transplantation.
When answering questions 13-15, you should think about why this or that process occurs, which is mentioned in the condition of the question. It is not necessary to describe the process in detail if it is not required. It is necessary, having understood the meaning of the question, to write about the factors influencing a particular process.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The blood type of the donor must be such that this blood can be transfused to the recipient.
2. The donor's blood must have the same Rh factor as the recipient's.
3. The donor must be healthy, his blood must not contain viruses (HIV, hepatitis viruses) and other pathogens of infectious diseases.
Answer yourself
The donor has a second Rh-positive blood type. Which recipients should not be transfused this blood?
How does HIV infection occur? Why is it impossible to get infected by airborne droplets, through a handshake or food
ducts?
Elements of the correct answer
The following factors influence the movement of blood and lymph through the vessels.
1. Frequency and strength of heart contractions.
2. Elasticity of vessel walls and their lumen.
3. The condition of the valves in the veins and lymphatic vessels.
4. Contractions of skeletal muscles.
Answer yourself
What are the functions of blood and lymph in the body and what ensures their implementation?
How does the structure of the heart contribute to the performance of its functions?
15. What happens during inhalation and exhalation? |
Elements of the correct answer
1. When inhaling, the diaphragm lowers, the intercostal muscles contract, and the pressure in the pleural cavity decreases.
2. When exhaling, the diaphragm rises, the intercostal muscles relax, and the pressure in the pleural cavity increases.
3. When you inhale, air from the atmosphere enters the lungs, when you exhale - from the lungs into the atmosphere.
Answer yourself
What are the features of the external, tissue and cellular respiration?
What features of the structure of the respiratory tract and the human circulatory system provide the processes of respiration?
Elements of the correct answer
The answer to this question does not require precise knowledge of the chemical composition of gastric juice. Knowing what processes occur in the stomach, you can draw a conclusion about the composition of gastric juice.
1. In the gastric juice there are enzymes that break down proteins.
2. The gastric juice contains protective mucus secreted by the glands of the stomach.
3. It contains hydrochloric acid.
Answer yourself
What juices and enzymes provide the process of digestion in the human body?
What is the difference between the processes of digestion in different parts of the human digestive system?
What is the link between smoking and stomach ulcers?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Proteins are strong enough organic molecules, whose structure is stabilized by several types of bonds.
2. Proteins are broken down in the body last, after fats and carbohydrates.
3. When eating only protein foods, the rate of energy supply necessary to maintain the vital activity of the human body will be insufficient.
4. For normal functioning, the human body needs a variety of substances. Not all of them can be synthesized in the human body from proteins.
5. Protein breakdown products are toxic to the body (for example, urea). With an excess of protein foods, the load on the excretory organs increases, which can lead to their disease.
Answer yourself
Why is protein starvation dangerous for a person?
What happens during dissimilation and assimilation? How are these processes related?
Remember which substances are filtered and which should not be filtered through the renal glomeruli and the capillaries of the convoluted tubules.
Elements of the correct answer
1. The presence of sugar in the urine.
2. The presence of proteins in the urine.
3. Increased content of erythrocytes and leukocytes.
Answer yourself
Is the formation of only primary urine sufficient for the normal functioning of the body? Justify your answer.
What happens in the human body if its kidneys do not cope with their functions?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The placenta connects the body of the mother and fetus.
2. Through the placenta, the fetus is supplied with all the nutrients and oxygen.
3. Waste products of the fetus are removed through the placenta.
4. The placenta prevents the immune incompatibility of mother and fetus.
Answer yourself
How is the metabolism of the fetus in the mother's womb?
Why do humans belong to the class of mammals?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Television and other media mass media contribute to the idealization of bad inclinations: action films, serials in which the characters drink and smoke are widespread.
2. Teenagers imitate their elders.
3. Ignorance, lack of hobbies, illiteracy contribute to the development of alcoholism and drug addiction.
Answer yourself
How is human health related to the level of culture in society? Support your answer with examples.
explain possible reasons human addiction to bad habits.
evolutionary doctrine
Level C1 questions
Elements of the correct answer
1. The evolutionary doctrine proclaimed the variability of the organic world, which seriously shook the idea of the creation of the world.
2. The creation of the evolutionary doctrine entailed new scientific research in the field of cytology, genetics and selection, molecular biology, the results of which had a significant impact on changing the worldview of people.
Answer yourself
Formulate the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin.
What were the differences in the views on the evolutionary process of J.B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin?
What is the advantage of Darwin's theory over Lamarck's?
In what direction did Darwin's evolutionary theory develop?
When answering the last question, it is necessary to indicate only the main ideas of the synthetic theory of evolution, using the following terms: mutations, forms of selection, isolation, directions of evolution.
Elements of the correct answer
1. All mutations take place at the molecular level, because affect DNA molecules and, consequently, proteins.
2. Gene mutations lead to nucleotide substitutions and the appearance of new proteins, and consequently, new features.
3. Meiosis and crossing over are also related to the behavior and distribution of chromosomes.
Answer yourself
What is the relationship between mutagenesis and natural selection?
The genetic code is universal, and the differences between organisms are very significant. What explains this?
Did humans and mice have a common ancestor? Can it be proven?
Elements of the correct answer
Arguments in favor of the theory of evolution:
- the very facts of the existence of changes in nature, the diversity of species and their changes over time, the adaptability of organisms to various environmental conditions indicate that evolution as a development process exists;
- the struggle for existence, as a result of which the most adapted organisms survive, is observed at different levels: in the world of bacteria, plants, animals;
– there are also experimental confirmations of evolution at different levels of life.
Arguments against the theory of evolution:
- there is no sufficiently reliable evidence of the transformation of one species into another;
- paleontologists often do not find transitional forms of animals and plants, which is used as an argument by opponents of evolutionary doctrine.
Answer yourself
Name the most important morphological evidence for evolution and explain their significance.
What is the value of paleontological evidence for evolution and what is its lack?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Several factors influence the population size: climate and others abiotic factors environment, availability of food, number of predators, epidemics.
2. Factors such as migration of individuals, the number of mature individuals in the population can influence the number.
Answer yourself
What are the factors that influence the maintenance of the population?
What causes reproductive isolation of populations?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Among carriers of diseases, natural selection operates.
2. The most resistant organisms due to adaptive mutations survive and adapt to various means of combating them.
Answer yourself
What are the similarities and differences between natural and artificial selection?
What are the similarities and differences between stabilizing and driving forms natural selection?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Religious communities most often exist in isolation and closely related marriages are common in them.
2. Related marriages lead to an increase in homozygosity in offspring.
3. Recessive mutations, usually in a heterozygous state, become homozygous, which leads to the manifestation of hereditary diseases.
Answer yourself
Why are consanguineous marriages harmful?
Why do breeders use inbreeding between plants and animals?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The first way is to conduct a cytological analysis of the karyotypes of these elephants, comparing the number and shape of chromosomes.
2. Genetic analysis can be done by comparing gene sequences.
3. Buy a pair of elephants and see if they will produce fertile offspring in captivity. But this is a long and expensive path.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Most likely, non-poisonous and slightly poisonous plants look similar to poisonous ones.
2. In this case, the animals eat all the plants evenly, and some of the animals die, the number of eaters is reduced, and the plants survive and multiply.
3. Another option is that the animals will develop a conditioned reflex, and they will not eat these plants at all (except for young ones). In this case, all plants are preserved.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Examples related to the intraspecific struggle for existence: not all individuals reach the spawning grounds; not all eggs are fertilized by males; when moving to the spawning ground, the fish "clog" each other; many fry die before reaching maturity.
2. Examples of interspecific struggle for existence: chum salmon - an object of fishing; people fish for caviar; caviar is eaten by other fish as food.
3. A large number of eggs is an adaptation to the survival of the species in the absence of care for offspring.
Answer yourself
Give examples of dealing with conditions environment in fish that lay millions of eggs, and out of this million less than a dozen individuals survive.
Which of the types of struggle for existence is the most fierce? Explain your answer.
What factors limit the reproduction of organisms in nature?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The fertility of cod is higher than that of stickleback or seahorse.
2. Male sticklebacks (and seahorses) guard their offspring.
3. Approximately the same number of individuals of both one and another species usually survive to maturity.
Answer yourself
Which plants produce more pollen: wind pollinated or insect pollinated, and why?
What is the relativity of adaptations to environmental conditions?
The hoverfly fly looks like a bee. What signs should have appeared in this fly so that it would not be touched by enemies?
Who should be more in nature - animals with mimicry, or those they imitate, and why?
Elements of the correct answer
It is necessary to use the most precise criterion of the species.
1. Calculate the number of chromosomes in somatic cells, and if it is the same, then with maximum probability it can be argued that this is one species.
2. You can try to get offspring from these individuals, which in turn should be fertile. This way is longer, but also quite reliable.
Answer yourself
Why is there no sufficiently reliable species criterion?
Which of the species criteria are relatively reliable and why?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Mutations.
2. Insulation.
3. Various destinations natural selection.
Answer yourself
Why are mutational variability, isolation and natural selection called the main factors of the evolutionary process?
Can previously isolated populations be encountered?
Name the main features of the population.
What factors prevent mixing of populations?
Elements of the correct answer
Answer yourself
Does degeneration always lead to biological regression? Explain the answer.
What happens more often and why: aromorphosis, idioadaptation or degeneration?
What is the result of aromorphoses, idioadaptation, degeneration?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The slate bones of a horse are the rudiments of the 2nd and 4th fingers.
2. A human tail is an atavism, a trait inherited from ancestors, usually absent.
Answer yourself
15. Why are theories untenable that claim that genetic differences between races of people confirm their inequality?
Elements of the correct answer
1. Genetic differences between races are negligible, much less than even between very close species.
2. Interracial marriages produce fertile offspring, which is the most reliable sign of belonging to the same species.
Answer yourself
C2 questions
1. Find errors in the given text. Specify the numbers of proposals in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. At present, the theory of evolution, created by C. Darwin and J. Lamarck independently of each other, has been developed. 2. All living beings are characterized by variability, which Darwin divided into hereditary and non-hereditary. 3. For evolution, non-hereditary variability matters, because it depends on environmental conditions and allows organisms to change quickly enough. 4. The emerging trait is retained or eliminated by natural selection. 5. At the heart of natural selection is the struggle for existence between the strongest individuals. 6. Thus, according to Darwin, the driving forces of evolution are non-hereditary variability and natural selection. |
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 3, 5, 6.
In sentence 1, one of the named scientists is not the author of the ideas that formed the basis of the modern evolutionary doctrine.
In sentence 3, the type of variability is incorrectly named.
Sentence 5 incorrectly defines the participants in the struggle for existence.
Sentence 6 misnames one of the driving forces of evolution.
2. Find errors in the given text. Specify the numbers of proposals in which they are allowed, explain them. 1. Academician I.I. Schmalhausen distinguished between two forms of natural selection: driving and stabilizing. 2. Driving selection is manifested in stable conditions for the existence of the species. 3. Stabilizing selection acts in changing environmental conditions. 4. An example of driving selection is the mass distribution of the dark-colored moth moth in the industrial regions of England. 5. An example of a stabilizing form of selection is the emergence of populations of insects resistant to poisons, bacteria resistant to antibiotics. 6. As a result of stabilizing selection, the so-called average values of the trait are selected. |
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 3, 5.
In sentence 2, the sign of the driving form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
In sentence 3, the sign of the stabilizing form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
Proposition 5 gives an unfortunate example of a stabilizing form of selection.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 4, 5.
In sentence 2, one of the signs of the morphological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In sentence 4, the sign of the ecological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In sentence 5, the sign of the ethological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
Elements of the correct answer
Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 3, 6.
In sentence 1, the definition of a population is incorrect.
Proposition 3 incorrectly defines the set of population genes.
In sentence 6, the population is erroneously called the largest evolutionary unit.
C3 level questions
Elements of the correct answer
Answer yourself
What is the evolutionary significance of such changes as the emergence of photosynthesis in plants or the notochord in animals?
Compare the evolutionary significance of such changes as the emergence of mimicry in insects and the disappearance of the digestive system in worms.
Give examples of idioadaptations showing that due to them, closely related species can live in different environmental conditions.
Elements of the correct answer
1. Intraspecific struggle (competition) is the most fierce kind of struggle for existence, because goes for the same resources.
2. Interspecific struggle intensifies in one ecological niche and can lead to the displacement of one species by another. This does not occur in different habitats of the two species.
3. The fight against adverse environmental conditions enhances both intraspecific and interspecific competition.
Answer yourself
Give examples of the intraspecific struggle for existence that would prove its fierceness.
Give examples of interspecific struggle for existence and explain its significance for the species and individual.
3. Compare the action of natural and artificial selection. |
Elements of the correct answer
1. Both forms of selection fix certain hereditary traits.
2. Natural selection reinforces features that are primarily useful to the species, while artificial selection fixes features that are useful to humans.
3. The material for both forms of selection are mutations that manifest themselves phenotypically.
4. The result of natural selection are organisms adapted to environmental conditions, and the result of artificial selection is
breeds and varieties with traits useful to humans, often not capable of surviving in natural conditions.
Answer yourself
What are the advantages and disadvantages of plant varieties bred by breeders?
What biological factors does a breeder use when breeding a new plant variety or animal breed?
Elements of the correct answer
1. The farmer who receives heterotic forms will win.
2. The first farmer gets new combinations, however, a quick increase in yield cannot be achieved with his breeding methods. Careful selection and subsequent selection is needed. It cannot repeat the cycle, because receives heterozygous forms, not pure lines.
3. The third farmer, like the first one, will also not get a quick result. In addition, he has fewer options for combinations of features for selection.
Answer yourself
Why did heterotic forms of corn provide economic success for American farmers?
What are the advantages of polyploid hybrids?
Bukhvalov V. Biological tasks and problems. – Riga, 1994.
Kamensky A.A., Sokolova N.A., Titov S.A. Biology. Textbook for those entering the universities. - M .: University Book House, 1999.
Preparing for the exam in biology / Ed. prof. A.S. Batuev. - M .: Iris press - Rolf, 1998.
Kalinova G.S., Myagkova A.N., Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Educational and training materials for preparing for the exam. 2004–2008
Levitin M.G., Levitina T.P. General biology. - St. Petersburg: Parity, 1999.
Lerner G.I. Biology. USE 2007–2008. Training tasks. – M.: EKSMO, 2008.
Lerner G.I. Biology. Workbooks 6-8th, 10-11th grade. – M.: EKSMO, 2007.
Mash R.D. Optional classes in human anatomy and physiology. – M.: Enlightenment, 1998.
Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Man and his health. Collection of tests for thematic control. – M.: Intellect-center, 2005.
M.: 2015. - 416 p.
This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school. The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.
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CONTENT
From author 12
Section 1. BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature. The role of biology in shaping the modern natural-science picture of the world 14
1.2. Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.
Biological systems. General features of biological systems: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution 20
Section 2. CELL AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
2.1. Modern cellular theory, its main provisions, the role in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world. Development of knowledge about the cell. Cell structure organisms - the basis of the unity of the organic world, evidence of the relationship of living nature 26
2.2. variety of cells. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Comparative characteristics of cells of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi 28
2.3. Chemical composition, cell organization. Macro- and microelements. The relationship of the structure - and functions of inorganic and organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, ATP) that make up the cell. Role chemical substances in the cell and the human body 33
2.3.1. Inorganic substances of the cell 33
2.3.2. Organic matter of the cell. Carbohydrates, lipids 36
2.3.3. Proteins, their structure and functions 40
2.3.4. Nucleic acids 45
2.4. Cell structure. The relationship of the structure and functions of parts and organelles of the cell is the basis of its integrity 49
2.4.1. Features of the structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Comparative data 50
2.5. Metabolism and energy conversion are properties of living organisms. Energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship. Stages of energy metabolism. Fermentation and respiration. Photosynthesis, its significance, cosmic role. Phases of photosynthesis.
Light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, their relationship. Chemosynthesis. The role of chemosynthetic bacteria on Earth 58
2.5.1. Energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship 58
2.5.2. energy exchange in a cage (dissimilation) 60
2.5.3. Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis 64
2.6. Genetic information in a cell. Genes, genetic code and its properties. Matrix nature of biosynthetic reactions. Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids 68
2.7. A cell is the genetic unit of a living thing. Chromosomes, their structure (shape and size) and functions. The number of chromosomes and their species constancy.
Somatic and sex cells. Cell life cycle: interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is the division of somatic cells. Meiosis. Phases of mitosis and meiosis.
The development of germ cells in plants and animals. Cell division is the basis for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. The role of meiosis and mitosis 75
Section 3. ORGANISM AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
3.1. Diversity of organisms: unicellular and multicellular; autotrophs, heterotrophs. Viruses - non-cellular forms life 85
3.2. Reproduction of organisms, its significance. Reproduction methods similarities and differences between sexual and asexual reproduction. Fertilization in flowering plants and vertebrates. External and internal and fertilization 85
3.3. Ontogeny and its inherent regularities. Embryonic and postembryonic development of organisms. Causes of impaired development of organisms 90
3.4. Genetics, its tasks. Heredity and variability are properties of organisms. Main genetic concepts and symbolism. Chromosomal theory of heredity.
Modern ideas about the gene and genome 95
3.5. Patterns of heredity, their cytological basis. Patterns of inheritance established by G. Mendel, their cytological foundations (mono- and dihybrid crossing).
Laws of T. Morgan: linked inheritance of traits, violations of gene linkage. Sex genetics. Inheritance of sex-linked traits.
Interaction of genes. The genotype as an integral system. Human genetics. Methods for studying human genetics. Solution of genetic problems. Drawing up crossbreeding schemes 97
3.6. Regularities of variability. Non-hereditary variability (modification).
reaction rate. Hereditary variability: mutational, combinative. Types of mutations and their causes. The significance of variability in the life of organisms and in evolution 107
3.6.1. Variability, its types and biological significance 108
3.7. The value of genetics for medicine. Human hereditary diseases, their causes, prevention. The harmful effects of mutagens, alcohol, drugs, nicotine on the genetic apparatus of the cell. Protection of the environment from pollution by mutagens.
Identification of sources of mutagens in the environment (indirectly) and assessment of the possible consequences of their influence on one's own body 113
3.7.1. Mutagens, mutagenesis, 113
3.8. Breeding, its tasks and practical significance. Contribution of N.I. Vavilov in the development of breeding: the doctrine of the centers of diversity and the origin of cultivated plants. The law of homologous series in hereditary variability.
Methods for breeding new varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms.
The value of genetics for selection. Biological bases of cultivation of cultivated plants and domestic animals 116
3.8.1. Genetics and selection 116
3.8.2. Methods of work I.V. Michurina 118
3.8.3. Centers of origin of cultivated plants 118
3.9. Biotechnology, its directions. Cellular and genetic engineering, cloning. The role of cell theory in the formation and development of biotechnology. The importance of biotechnology for the development of breeding, agriculture, the microbiological industry, and the preservation of the planet's gene pool. Ethical aspects of the development of some research in biotechnology (human cloning, directed changes in the genome) 122
3.9.1. Cellular and genetic engineering. Biotechnology 122
Section 4. SYSTEM AND DIVERSITY OF THE ORGANIC WORLD
4.1. Diversity of organisms. The significance of the works of C. Linnaeus and J.-B. Lamarck. The main systematic (taxonomic) categories: species, genus, family, order (order), class, type (department), kingdom; their subordination 126
4.2. The kingdom of bacteria, structure, vital activity, reproduction, role in nature. Bacteria - causative agents of diseases of plants, animals, humans. Prevention of diseases caused by bacteria. Viruses 130
4.3. Kingdom of fungi, structure, life, reproduction. The use of mushrooms for food and medicine. Recognition of edible and poisonous mushrooms. Lichens, their diversity, features of structure and life activity.
The role of fungi and lichens in nature 135
4.4. Plant kingdom. Structure (tissues, cells, organs), vital activity and reproduction of a plant organism (on the example of angiosperms). Recognition (in drawings) of plant organs 140
4.4.1. general characteristics plant kingdoms 140
4.4.2. Tissues of higher plants 141
4.4.3. Vegetative organs of flowering plants. Root 142
4.4.4. Escape 144
4.4.5. Flower and its functions. Inflorescences and their biological significance 148
4.5. Variety of plants. The main divisions of plants. Classes of angiosperms, the role of plants in nature and human life 153
4.5.1. Life cycles plants 153
4.5.2. Monocots and dicots 158
4.5.3. The role of plants in nature and human life
4.6. Animal Kingdom. Unicellular and multicellular animals. Characteristics of the main types of invertebrates, classes of arthropods. Features of the structure, life, reproduction, role in nature and human life 164
4.6.1. General characteristics of the kingdom Animals 164
4.6.2. Subkingdom Unicellular, or Protozoa. General characteristics 165
4.6.3. Type Intestinal. General characteristics. Variety of coelenterates 171
4.6.4. Comparative characteristics of representatives of the type flatworms
176
4.6.5. Type Primary cavity, or roundworms 182
4.6.6. Type Annelids. General characteristics 186
4.6.7. Type Clams 191
4.6.8. Type Arthropoda 197
4.7. chordate animals. Characteristics of the main classes. Role in nature and human life. Recognition (in drawings) of organs and organ systems in animals 207
4.7.1. General characteristics of the chordate type 207
4.7.2. Superclass Pisces 210
4.7.3. Class Amphibians. General characteristics 215
4.7.4. Class Reptiles. General characteristics 220
4.7.5. Bird class 226
4.7.6. Class Mammals. General characteristics 234
Section 5. HUMAN ORGANISM AND ITS HEALTH
5.1. Fabrics. The structure and vital functions of organs and organ systems: digestion, respiration, excretion. Recognition (in drawings) of tissues, organs, organ systems 243
5.1.1. Anatomy and physiology of man. Fabrics 243
5.1.2. Structure and functions of the digestive system. 247
5.1.3. Structure and functions respiratory system 252
5.1.4. The structure and functions of the excretory system. 257
5.2. The structure and vital activity of organs and organ systems: musculoskeletal, integumentary, blood circulation, lymph circulation. Human reproduction and development 261
5.2.1. The structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system 261
5.2.2. Skin, its structure and functions 267
5.2.3. Structure and functions of the circulatory and lymphatic system 270
5.2.4. Reproduction and development of the human body 278
5.3. The internal environment of the human body. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity. Metabolism and energy conversion in the human body. Vitamins 279
5.3.1. The internal environment of the body. Composition and functions of blood. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Immunity 279
5.3.2. Metabolism in the human body 287
5.4. Nervous and endocrine systems. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes of the body as the basis of its integrity, connection with the environment 293
5.4.1. Nervous system. General plan of the building. Functions 293
5.4.2. Structure and functions of the central nervous system 298
5.4.3. Structure and functions of the autonomic nervous system 305
5.4.4. Endocrine system. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes 309
5.5. Analyzers. Sense organs, their role in the body. Structure and functions. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 314
5.5.1. Sense organs (analyzers). The structure and functions of the organs of vision and hearing 314
5.5.2. Higher nervous activity. Sleep, its meaning. Consciousness, memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche 320
5.6. Personal and public hygiene, healthy lifestyle. Prevention of infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal, caused by animals). injury prevention,
first aid practices. Mental and physical health of a person. Health factors (auto-training, hardening, physical activity).
Risk factors (stress, physical inactivity, overwork, hypothermia). Bad and good habits.
The dependence of human health on the state of the environment. Compliance with sanitary and hygienic norms and rules healthy lifestyle life.
Reproductive health of the person. The consequences of the influence of alcohol, nicotine, narcotic substances on the development of the human embryo 327
Section 6. EVOLUTION OF LIVING NATURE
6.1. View, its criteria. A population is a structural unit of a species and an elementary unit of evolution. Formation of new species. Speciation methods 335
6.2. Development of evolutionary ideas. Meaning evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution.
Forms of natural selection, types of struggle for existence. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution.
Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. Elementary factors of evolution. The role of evolutionary theory in shaping
modern natural science picture of the world 342
6.2.1. Development of evolutionary ideas. The value of the works of K. Linnaeus, the teachings of J.-B. Lamarck, the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution. Elementary Factors of Evolution 342
6.2.2. Synthetic theory of evolution. Research by S.S. Chetverikov. The role of evolutionary theory
in the formation of a modern natural-science picture of the world 347
6.3. Evidence for the evolution of wildlife. Results of evolution: fitness of organisms
habitat, species diversity 351
6.4. Macroevolution. Directions and paths of evolution (A.N. Severtsov, I.I. Shmalgauzen). Biological
progress and regression, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration. Causes of biological progress
and regression. Hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth.
Evolution of the organic world. The main aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals. Complication of living organisms in the process of evolution 358
6.5. Human Origins. Man as a species, his place in the system of the organic world.
Hypotheses of the origin of man. Driving forces and stages of human evolution. human races,
their genetic relationship. biosocial nature of man. social and natural environment,
human adaptation to it 365
6.5.1. Anthropogenesis. Driving forces. Role of laws public life in the social behavior of a person 365
Section 7. ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR REGULARITIES
7.1. habitats of organisms. Environmental factors environments: abiotic, biotic, their significance. Anthropogenic factor 370
7.2. Ecosystem (biogeocenosis), its components: producers, consumers, decomposers, their role. Species and spatial structure of the ecosystem. trophic levels. Chains and power networks, their links. Drawing up schemes for the transfer of substances and energy (chains and power networks).
Ecological pyramid rule 374
7.3. Diversity of ecosystems (biogeocenoses). Self-development and change of ecosystems. Stability and dynamics of ecosystems. Biodiversity, self-regulation and cycling - the basis
sustainable development of ecosystems. Causes of stability and change of ecosystems. Changes in ecosystems under the influence of human activities.
Agroecosystems, main differences from natural ecosystems 379
7.4. The biosphere is a global ecosystem. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere. Living matter, its functions. Features of the distribution of biomass on Earth. The biological cycle of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere, the role of organisms of different kingdoms in it. Evolution of the biosphere 384
7.5. Global changes in the biosphere caused by human activities (ozone screen disruption, acid rain, greenhouse effect, etc.). Problems of sustainable development of the biosphere. Conservation of species diversity as a basis for the sustainability of the biosphere. Rules of conduct in the natural environment 385
Answers 390
G.I. lerner
Biology
A complete guide to preparing for the exam
The Unified State Examination is a new form of attestation that has become mandatory for high school graduates. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.
This complete guide to biology provides all the materials you need to prepare well for the exam.
1. The book includes the theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.
3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.
4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.
5. The sequence of presentation of educational material begins with "General Biology", because. the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.
At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.
Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Particular attention should be paid to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.
In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.
The proposed textbook on biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren of a comprehensive school, because will allow not only to study the subject within the school curriculum, but also to systematically check its assimilation.
Biology is the science of life
1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man
Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.
Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.
concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .
Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human genealogies, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.
Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.
Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.
The main methods of science include the following:
Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with the help of which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)