What is the leading method in psychology. Methods of labor psychology. Research Methods of Psychology

If we want to apply the knowledge of psychology in our lives, it is important for us to know a whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can provide reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon under study. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, to characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that every reader can use them in everyday life.

Methods of psychology return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent form of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on only one method, several methods can be created. It is also an indisputable fact that psychological science there is no unambiguous set of research methods.

In this lesson, we divided the methods of psychology into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology and methods of practical psychology:

Fundamental (general) psychology doing psychological research general patterns the human psyche, his beliefs, ways of behavior, character traits, as well as what affects all this. In ordinary life, the methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for researching, analyzing and predicting people's behavior.

Practical (or Applied) Psychology is aimed at working with specific people, and its methods allow for psychological procedures designed to change mental condition and behavior of the subject.

Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology

Methods of theoretical psychology are the means and techniques by which researchers are able to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and making practical recommendations. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, influence environment and education, etc.

Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, there are methods of scientific research and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.

EXAMPLE: If an employee of the organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then in order to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.

It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used in a complex way and are "sharpened" for each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the problem and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. there must be a specific goal. And only after that you need to choose a method.

So, the methods of theoretical psychology.

Observation

In psychology under observation refers to purposeful perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that was widely used only at the end of the 19th century. At first it was applied in developmental psychology, as well as pedagogical, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in labor psychology. Observation is usually used in cases where it is not recommended or impossible to interfere with the natural process of the course of events.

There are several types of observation:

• Field - in ordinary life;
• Laboratory - in special conditions;
• Indirect;
• Immediate;
• Included;
• Not included;
• Direct;
• indirect;
• solid;
• Selective;
• systematic;
• Unsystematic.

As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher can disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and to fully capture the behavior of a person / people. The important features of observation are:

• Impossibility or difficulty of re-observation;
• Emotional coloring of observation;
• Communication of the observed object and the observer.

  Observation is carried out to identify various features of behavior - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:

• Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
• Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eye expression, body position, movement expression, etc.
• Movement of people: distance, manner, features, etc.

  That is, the object of observation is something that can be fixed visually. The researcher in this case observes not mental properties, but registers the obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about the manifestation of what mental characteristics they are, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about the mental properties of the individual.

  How is the observation carried out?

  The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. The most objective conclusions can be drawn if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize different results. It should also be observed when observing certain requirements:

  • Observations should not affect the natural course of events;
  • It is better to conduct observation on different people, because there is an opportunity to compare;
  • Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained during past observations should be taken into account.

  Observation consists of several stages:

  1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
  2. Determination of the method of observation;
  3. Choice of data registration method;
  4. Create a plan;
  5. The choice of the method of processing the results;
  6. Observation;
  7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

  It is also necessary to decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance maps). Observation is often confused with experiment. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

  • The observer does not affect the process;
  • The observer registers exactly what he observes.

  There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies that observations are made according to certain rules and precautions. The following are examples:

  • If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
  • Researchers must not allow participants to be harmed in any way during the course of the research.
  • Researchers should minimize their intrusion into participants' privacy.
  • Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

  Every person, even without being a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the method of observation in order to obtain data regarding any issue, if necessary.

  EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or circle. To make the right choice, you need to identify its predispositions, i.e. to which it gravitates by itself without external influence. To do this, you need to make an observation. Look at the child from the outside what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural inclination for drawing and you can try to send him to art school. If he likes to disassemble / assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. The constant craving for the ball suggests that it is worth giving it to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or teachers at school to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son constantly bullies and fights with the boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll in the section of some martial art. If your daughter loves to braid her girlfriends, then she might be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

  There are many options for monitoring. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to define and think about the best ways to observe.

  Psychological experiment

  Under experiment in psychology, they understand an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life of the subject. In the process of research, the scientist changes a certain factor / factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

  There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

  • Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
  • Natural - held in normal conditions and the person may not even know about the experiment;
  • Psychological and pedagogical - when a person / group of people learn something and form certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
  • Pilot - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

  There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

  • Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
  • Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
  • Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

  Organization of the experiment process

  The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being carried out, with whom and under what conditions. Further, certain relations must be established between the subject and the scientist, and instructions are given to the subject (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained are processed and interpreted.

  Experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

  • Objectivity of the received data;
  • Reliability of received data;
  • Validity of the received data.

  But, despite the fact that the experiment is one of the most respected methods of research, it has both pros and cons.

  • Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
  • Possibility of repeating;
  • The ability to change certain factors, thereby affecting the result.

  Cons (according to some experts):

  • The psyche is difficult to study;
  • The psyche is fickle and unique;
  • The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

  For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on the data of this method alone in their results and must resort to combining with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, the APA Code of Ethics must also be adhered to.

  It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of graduates and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained in the course of independent experiments will be purely subjective. But some information can still be obtained.

  EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about the behavior of people in certain circumstances, to see how they will react to something, and perhaps even to understand the course of their thoughts. Model some situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be cited: a person was interested in how people around him react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in transport. To do this, he took his friend, who filmed what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned on his neighbor. The reaction of people was different: someone moved away, someone woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, someone sat peacefully, putting his shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, it was concluded that people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is only the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

  When conducting your personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

  Introspection

  Introspection It is observation of oneself and the peculiarities of one's behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in the psychology and life of a person. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgotten something, but it is not known why). That is why self-observation, although it is an important research method, cannot be the main and independent in the process of understanding the essence of the manifestations of the psyche.

  The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on the self-esteem of a person. For example, people with low self-esteem are more prone to introspection. And the result of hypertrophied self-observation can be self-digging, obsession with wrong actions, guilt, self-justification, etc.

  Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

  • Keeping personal records (diary);
  • Comparison of self-observation with the observations of others;
  • Increased self-esteem;
  • Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

  The use of self-observation in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (in communication with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of awareness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking about now) and your actions (what you are doing at the moment). Try to analyze what causes you certain reactions (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). For what "hooks" people and circumstances pull you. Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just watch what is happening inside you and what is contributing to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion on the topic of what you should cultivate in yourself, and what you should start getting rid of.

  The regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on the inner world of a person and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

  Psychological testing

  Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and is engaged in the study psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers in hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn more about a person’s personality, which cannot be done using a conversation or a survey.

  The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

  • Validity - the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
  • Reliability - conformity of the received results at repeated testing;
  • Reliability - the property of the test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
  • Representativeness - compliance with the norms.

  A truly effective test is created through trials and modifications (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to evaluate the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

  There are different types of tests:

  • Career guidance tests - to determine a person's predisposition to any type of activity or compliance with the position;
  • Personality tests - to study the character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
  • Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
  • Verbal tests - to study the ability of a person to describe in words the actions performed;
  • Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

  There are other options for tests aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometry, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

  Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to get to know yourself or the people you care about better.

  EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But here's what you don't know. Find some career orientation tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you did not even know about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you have a penchant for. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something to your liking. In addition, it is also good that a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, in addition, begins to earn more.

  Psychological testing contributes to a deeper understanding of oneself, one's needs and abilities, and also often indicates the direction for further personal development.

  biographical method

  Biographical method in psychology- this is a method by which a person's life path is investigated, diagnosed, corrected and projected. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, the personality is studied in the context of the history and prospects of its individual development. Here it is supposed to obtain data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

  This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers who study the life of some people, and simply in communication between little-known people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compose it psychological portrait.

  EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person this is, what are the characteristics of his personality, what is his life experience, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to a person, let him tell you the facts from his biography and some significant moments on his life path. Ask about what he can tell about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills and training. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant to both interlocutors.

  Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and to see their strengths and weaknesses, as well as to imagine a possible perspective of interacting with them.

  Poll

  Poll- a verbal-communicative method, during which there is an interaction between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the researcher (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained in the course of the study. Typically, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, not just one person.

  Polls are divided into:

  • Standardized - strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
  • Non-standardized - less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

  In the process of creating surveys, first of all, programmatic questions are formulated that are understandable only to specialists. After that, they are translated into questionnaire questions that are more understandable to the average layman.

  Types of surveys:

  • Written allows you to get superficial knowledge about the problem;
  • Oral - allows you to penetrate into the psychology of a person more deeply than written;
  • Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
  • Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
  • Interview - a personal conversation (also applies to the method of conversation).

  When writing questions, you need to follow some rules:

  • Separateness and conciseness;
  • Exclusion of specific terms;
  • brevity;
  • specificity;
  • Without hints;
  • Questions provide non-template responses;
  • Questions should not be repulsive;
  • Questions should not suggest anything.

  Depending on the tasks, the questions are divided into several types:

  • Open - offering answers in free form;
  • Closed - offering prepared answers;
  • Subjective - about a person's attitude to something / someone;
  • Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

  A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to establish the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a particular issue.

  EXAMPLE: You are the director of a service firm and you need to know what your employees think about improving working conditions and attracting more customers. In order to do this as quickly and efficiently as possible, you can create (for example, together with an in-house analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve the tasks. Namely: to make the process of work of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (perhaps very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. First, you will know exactly what changes your employees need to make the atmosphere in the team better and the work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all kinds of methods to improve your business. And, thirdly, you will probably be able to single out a promising and promising person from the general mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving the overall performance of the enterprise.

  Polls and questionnaires are a great way to get important and up-to-date information on topical topics from a large number of people.

  Conversation

  Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its purpose is to identify a special range of issues that are not available in the process of direct observation. The conversation is widely used in psychological research and is of great practical importance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

  The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of study. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

  • It is necessary to think over the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
  • Establish contact with the researched person;
  • Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
  • All questions asked during the conversation should be clear;
  • Leading questions should not lead to answers;
  • During the conversation, you need to observe the reaction of a person and compare his behavior with his answers;
  • The content of the conversation should be memorized so that later it can be recorded and analyzed;
  • Do not take notes during the conversation, because this can cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
  • Pay attention to the "subtext": omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

  Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the "original source" and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know the interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives”.

  EXAMPLE: Zhiteisky. You notice that your close friend has been walking around with a drooping and dejected look for days. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual society. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on this. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How can I find out what's going on and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to guess the moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to drink a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: "What happened?" or “Come on, tell me what you got!”. Even if you have good friendships, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise something. "Turn" the person to yourself. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him anyway. Most likely, under your good pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what the matter is. Almost every person needs other people to take part in his life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and not indifferent. Especially to your friends.

  A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to talk face-to-face, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about what, for some reason, you can’t talk about in the bustle of ordinary affairs.

  The methods of theoretical psychology are far from being exhausted on this. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

  Part two. Methods of practical psychology

  The methods of practical psychology include the methods of the fields that form the general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of counseling and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.

  Suggestion

  suggestion is the process of insertion into the examined person certain formulas, attitudes, attitudes or views beyond his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion does not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

  From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect each person, but to varying degrees.

  There are several types of offerings:

  • Direct - impact with the help of words (orders, commands, instructions);
  • Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, irritants);
  • Intentional;
  • Unintentional;
  • positive;
  • Negative.

  There are also different methods of suggestion:

  • Methods of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
  • Methods of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
  • Techniques of hidden suggestion - the provision of all options, the illusion of choice, truism.

  Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a trance state. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because are used in the process of education, in advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

  EXAMPLE: A well-known example of suggestion, called the "placebo" effect, is the phenomenon of an improvement in the patient's condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties when in fact it's empty. You can put this method into practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a remedy for a headache - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. That's what it is .

  Reinforcement

  reinforcements is the instantaneous reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the researcher. The reaction must actually be instantaneous so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that one should continue to act or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

  Reinforcement can be of the following types:

  • Positive - the correct behavior / action is fixed;
  • Negative - incorrect behavior/action is prevented;
  • Conscious;
  • Unconscious;
  • Spontaneous - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
  • Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
  • One-time;
  • systematic;
  • Direct;
  • indirect;
  • Basic;
  • secondary;
  • Complete;
  • Partial.

  Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, is present in her from childhood in the process of education and gaining life experience.

  EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are all around us at every turn: if you dip your hand into boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is a negative elemental reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - a positive intentional reinforcement. A child who received a deuce at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to bring more deuces, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time / systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give the result - systematic positive reinforcement.

  Psychological consultation

  Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start of work, because. the client does not need any special preparation and the specialist together with him can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

  The main problems for which people seek the advice of a psychologist are:

  • Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, parenting;
  • Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
  • Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

  Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

  • Contact;
  • Request;
  • Plan;
  • Setting up for work;
  • Implementation;
  • Hometasks;
  • Completion.

  The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution for many life problems and getting out of difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological counseling can be absolutely any situation in life, with the solution of which a person cannot cope on his own. This is the occurrence of problems at work, and troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or states for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with this alone, and there is no one nearby who could support, then without a shadow of a doubt and hesitation, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and centers of psychological assistance, where experienced highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

  This concludes the consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and training, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space, and many others.

  Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it is in reality. And this involves studying close relationship with the environment and external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality surrounding us is in constant motion and change, so its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of the inner world of a person, and the essence of things in general, one should also come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

  Now in the public domain there is an incalculable amount of materials for the study of psychological science and its features. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinshtein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananiev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychology methods:

  Test your knowledge

  If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.

The success of labor psychology research is largely determined by the development of the methodological apparatus.

Methodological approaches of labor psychology. Labor psychology as a branch of psychological science uses the entire arsenal of general psychological methods, filling them with specific content, due to the characteristics of the object and the goals of the study. In addition to general psychological methods, such as observation, experiment, test, questionnaire method, labor psychology uses a number of specific methods for studying human behavior in working conditions: the method of expert assessments; labor method; method of analysis of technical documentation; "photo" of the working day; operational algorithmic and operational-structural description of labor activity; method of collective discussion; method of compiling an individual characteristic; method of analysis of errors and records in labor; method of critical incidents; method of analysis of biographies and autobiographies; psychosemantic methods.

There are several classifications of labor psychology methods. The generalized classification includes two large categories of methods: a group of non-experimental methods, which is a targeted study professional activity in natural conditions, and a group of experimental methods, including a purposeful study of activity in specially organized conditions for its implementation. The first group consists of two main methods - the method of observation and the survey method - and a number of additional methods and auxiliary tools. The second group includes the experiment in its two varieties: laboratory and natural (industrial) experiment, as well as the test method.

observation. Among non-experimental methods, observation occupies a special place and is an integral part of any type of activity of a labor psychologist. In the process of observation, the psychologist receives information about the most diverse manifestations of working behavior: about the channels for obtaining information, about the load of analyzers, about the conditions external environment, about communicative processes in labor, etc. Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer.

There are the following types of observation.

1. Depending on the position of the observer, differentiate open and hidden observation. Open observation takes place in conditions of the fact of the presence of unauthorized persons consciously observed by the observed. At the same time, the behavior of a person who knows that he is being watched can change. Behavior changes significantly if a person knows for what purpose he is being observed. Covert surveillance is carried out through a glass wall that allows light to pass in one direction, as well as using a hidden camera. The use of this type of observation is associated with a certain ethical problem.

2. Depending on the activity of the observer, there may be included and unincluded observation. In the first case, the observer is included in a certain social situation and analyzes the event "from the inside", he acts as a member of the observed group. In non-participant observation, the researcher conducts observation from the outside.

3. Depending on the number and completeness of the observed facts, there are continuous and selective observation. Regular observation during a certain period, during which all manifestations are recorded mental activity person is called continuous. During selective observation, any one mental phenomenon is recorded.

4. Depending on the duration and chronological organization, there are long-term(longitudinal) and short-term observation. Long-term observation is carried out in the study of a mental phenomenon for several hours, days, and sometimes several years. Long-term observation of the employee during the working day shows a change in working behavior under the influence of fatigue. Short-term observation can be periodic or single and limited to a few hours, days, weeks.

5. By the location of the object of perception, they distinguish external and internal observation. External observation is a way of collecting data about another person by observing him from the side, it allows you to describe the actions, techniques and movements of the employee, their compliance with normative goals. Methods of operating with tools and materials, emotional reactions and communication processes are also subjected to external observation. With internal observation, or self-observation, the researcher observes himself, his sensations, experiences, changes occurring in his mental activity.

6. By the time of the interpretation of the observed phenomena, the observation is differentiated delayed interpretation and operational observation. In the first case, the explanation of the observed psychological facts is carried out after the process of their perception. In the second, interpretation is carried out during the perception of psychological facts that affect the operational decision-making (for example, during psychological counseling).

The above classification of observations is conditional and reflects only their most significant features. Due to the specifics of each type of observation, it should be applied where it can give the most useful results. Usually, observation is carried out according to a certain plan, since it is rather difficult to organize the perception of all elements of the labor process. It is supposed to single out individual elements from real activity, which are then subjected to observation, draw up a clear program and plan for observation, and record its results. An important principle of observation is a comparative approach, which involves the study of the behavior of people with varying degrees of success and with different work experience, identifying a sequence of techniques different people while performing the same operations. This allows you to find out the reasons for success in work and mastery of a profession, to clearly identify psychological structure activities.

The disadvantages of the observation method include the inaccessibility of some very important elements of professional activity to direct perception or their disguise. For example, it is quite difficult to identify during direct observation the process of decision-making by a surgeon during an operation or by a psychologist in the process of providing prompt psychological assistance to a person in an extreme situation. This increases the proportion of subjectivity in the observer's interpretation of external manifestations of professional behavior.

The shortcomings of the method of observation should also include a large amount of time due to the passivity of the observer (waiting position). In the process of observation, it is impossible to control the situation, to intervene in the course of events without distorting them, and it is also difficult to foresee when something important from the point of view of the problem under study will appear. In addition, the impossibility of re-observation of identical facts, as well as the confluence of the observed factors with incidental phenomena, and a multitude of unaccounted for conditions significantly complicate the generalization and identification of patterns in the functioning of the psyche of the subject of labor. The results obtained and their explanation depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, efficiency of the observer, which may affect the objectivity of the interpretation and conclusions.

To increase the objectivity and accuracy of observation, a number of additional techniques and methods are used, which primarily relate to the registration of the results of professional activity. The most common among them are photography of the working day, timing, analysis of products of labor activity.

Work day photo represents a registration of the time and sequence of actions, a change in work and rest modes, forced pauses in work, etc. Methods for registering parameters when organizing this method can be different - from the direct accompaniment of an employee by a psychologist and monitoring his behavior to the use of telemetry equipment. The use of photo and video recording allows you to record the actions and movements of an employee during the performance of the main activity, facial expressions, movement routes during work.

The results of the photograph of the working day are recorded in the form of graphs, which gives a clear idea of ​​the alternation of work and rest during the working day, the ratio of main and auxiliary functions and the specific weight of each of them in the structure of activity. With the help of this technique, one can also obtain data on the intensity of work at various labor posts, on the real forms of professional behavior of people.

Timing- this is a measurement of the time of labor operations, it allows you to determine their duration, the frequency of repetition at certain intervals, the intensity of the labor process. Psychological timing is carried out within the framework of psychological analysis activities in order to optimize it, the proper organization of industrial training.

Analysis of products of labor activity can be an essential addition to the method of direct observation. As such, they can be both material, documented products of activity (products of industrial and construction production, agriculture, tools and devices, documents, results of visual and graphic work, texts, etc.), and functional (procedural) products of activity (verbal products of employees in the form of speeches, reports; as well as behavioral manifestations of the activity of employees). A variant of this method is analysis of erroneous actions, failures in work, accidents and accidents, which makes it possible to reveal the psychological characteristics of professions that place increased demands on the psychological characteristics of an employee, and the specifics of the so-called dangerous professions.

labor method. Self-observation in labor psychology comes in two forms: professional self-report and participant observation. In the first case, the psychologist suggests that the specialist think aloud during his activity, pronouncing each operation, each observation of the labor process. This method allows the workers themselves to pay attention to those elements of the activity that they did not pay attention to before, which positive influence on the success of its implementation. In the second case, the psychologist himself becomes a student and, starting to study the profession, improves in it more and more. Such knowledge of the profession from the inside allows the psychologist to trace the process of mastering professional activity and the difficulties that are encountered along the way. This method is called the labor method in psychology. .

AT domestic psychology labor, this method began to be developed in the 1920s. famous domestic psychotechnician I.N. Spielrein. The essence of the labor method lies in the connection in the person of a psychologist of a researcher who is able and willing to describe professional work, and a worker who knows this work. After each day of training, the researcher writes a protocol of the working day according to a standardized scheme, which includes the following elements.

1. Description of the working day. It is a diary of all the experiences and accidents of the working day, an impartial presentation of events.

2. Indications of what exactly in professional work seems to be the most difficult, least amenable to study.

3. Recording the phenomena of the exercise. In particular, phenomena automation, those. such a change in the labor process, in which labor movements that previously required conscious effort of attention now pass automatically. This point of the protocols is especially valuable in order to take into account the comparative exercise of various psychological qualities, as well as the symptoms of exercise (IN Shpilrein).

4. Along with the exercise, which is expressed objectively in an increase in the amount of work and in its improvement, fatigue is fixed. The subjective manifestation of fatigue, which is called fatigue, consists in pain sensations of individual organs (working muscles, head, eyes, etc.), in a drop in interest, increasing apathy, insecurity, or in the loss of already achieved automation. As phenomena characteristic of a state of fatigue, one can point to erroneous movements in production professions or to the fact that processes that take place completely automatically in a normal state require intense attention or conscious repeated control in a tired state to eliminate a feeling of uncertainty (I.N. Spielrein ).

5. Finally, the last paragraph of the protocols is an indication of those defects in the organization of labor and in instruction that are noticed by workers. This includes, first of all, the details of the working regime - the unsuitability of the working premises, incorrect lighting, improper seating of workers, defects in the distribution of labor itself (excessive workload of workers with extraneous work, lack of proper distribution of labor, irrational arrangement of machines), as well as comments regarding "irregularities" in the learning process itself - the incompetence of the instructor, the communication of incorrect working methods to students, etc. (I.N. Shpilrein).

According to I.N. Spielrein, the labor method has advantages, the main of which is the ability to combine in one person a worker who knows professional work, and a psychologist who is able and willing to describe it. This leads to other advantages of this method, such as:

a) understanding by the experimenters who make up the tests and select people to participate in the experiments, the individual phases of the labor process;
b) the possibility, through work experience, as well as self-observation, to obtain those basic information about the features of labor processes that cannot be hoped to be obtained from a worker by questioning;
c) the ability to make self-observation objective, so that when repeating the study of the profession by different observers at different enterprises, one and the same results can be obtained;
d) the opportunity to study the profession not only in a transverse section (that is, what is required from experienced workers), but also in a longitudinal one (that is, in the process of mastering professional skills);
e) the possibility of comparative professiology based on the comparison of the studied profession with a number of already studied professions, etc.

However, the labor method also has a number of disadvantages. First, it applies only to professions that are easy to learn and do not require a lot of time to learn. When studying other professions, one can only speak of mastering certain elements of activity in the form of labor trials. Secondly, the registration of the results of the method is associated with certain difficulties. If the results are recorded at the end of the working day from memory, when the researcher is in a state of fatigue, this may adversely affect its quality. Recording data during the execution of an activity disrupts the natural process of its flow.

Despite these shortcomings, the labor method can provide very valuable material, which was confirmed by domestic research.

Conversation. Survey methods in labor psychology are traditionally presented in two forms: oral (conversation, interview) and written survey (questionnaire). The conversation is one of the methods widely used in labor psychology and is used to cover the widest range of problems. It is absolutely necessary when studying the individual structure of labor, identifying professional important qualities of an employee, finding out the peculiarities of work motivation in a given specialty and functional states, personal professional plans of students when choosing a profession or changing it in adults, evaluating jobs.

The conversation could be standardized and non-standardized. In a standardized conversation, precisely formulated questions are asked to all respondents; in a non-standardized conversation, questions are posed in a free form.

As a scientific method, conversation must meet a number of requirements. First of all, it is necessary to formulate the purpose of the conversation, draw up its plan in the form of targeted questions, prepare “supporting” questions, determine the methods for registering answers (tape recorder, recording forms, coding answers, symbols). When conducting a conversation, preference is given to the so-called projective questions, as well as questions formulated in indirect and definitive forms, as clear as possible to the interlocutor. In projective matters we are talking not about the interlocutor himself, but about some other imaginary person, therefore such questions do not cause tension and resistance in the interlocutor. At the same time, when answering them, the interlocutor projects his personality onto the situation and expresses his point of view.

The success of the conversation depends on the degree of its preparedness and on the sincerity of the answers given. A well-prepared conversation has a clear goal and plan, which are formulated and compiled taking into account age and individual features interlocutors. When preparing a conversation, you should also consider where and under what conditions it will take place. The conditions of the conversation should have the interlocutor to communicate, ensure confidentiality and be comfortable. The sincerity of the interlocutor's answers increases with his emotionally positive attitude towards the conversation, as well as in the absence of psychological barriers in the process of conducting it.

You can make contact at the beginning of the conversation with questions that are interesting to the interlocutor, which have a positive emotional character for him. Do not start a conversation with questions that cause negative feelings in the interlocutor. If the interlocutor is active and sincere when answering questions, then the psychologist (or other specialist) conducting the conversation should from time to time reinforce this with words, gestures, facial expressions, pantomime and other available extra- and paralinguistic means, express agreement with what the interlocutor says, approve , support it. You can not rush the interlocutor, you must give him the opportunity to speak fully.

During the conversation, it is necessary to monitor the characteristics of the interlocutor's speech behavior (the accuracy of formulated thoughts, the presence of reservations, the desire to avoid answering, pauses) and emotional reactions expressed by facial expressions, gestures and other non-verbal means of communication in order to confirm or refute the information received from interlocutor. The psychologist should not express his confirmations and doubts aloud.

A mandatory requirement during the interview is the guarantee by the psychologist of all the ethical principles of the study (confidentiality of the situation, professional secrecy, respect for the client).

Recording data of a conversation can be performed both during its process and after it ends. The first method of registration can be used in the analysis of people's interests, the influence of environmental conditions and other issues that do not deeply affect the problems of the individual. In the case of individual counseling, this method is not recommended, so as not to cause the client to have a negative attitude towards the conversation and unwillingness to give sincere answers. And although it is associated with the loss of a certain amount of information, it is more justified from an ethical point of view. The use of audio and video technology, of course, significantly increases the accuracy of obtaining and storing information, but it raises a number of ethical problems.

Questionnaire- Another type of survey methods in labor psychology. Questioning involves obtaining answers from respondents in writing to pre-formulated questions, while the psychologist may not come into direct contact with the workers. Questioning is carried out in cases where it is necessary to obtain data from a large number of people in a short time. Questionnaires are used to find out the value orientations of employees and their attitude to the profession and individual elements of work; motives and factors influencing the choice of profession; significant aspects of professional activity; professionally important qualities. Questioning can be conducted both in the presence of a psychologist and in absentia (when the questionnaire is filled out at home). The latter method is convenient, because it does not distract the employee from the performance of his job duties and allows a more thoughtful approach to answering questions.

To obtain reliable information using the questionnaire method, the correct organization of the study is necessary. She suggests:

1. the presence of an introductory article outlining the goals and objectives of the study and instructions for filling out the questionnaire;
2. the correct wording of the questions; they must be unambiguously understood, relate to specific aspects of the behavior and activities of the employee, do not contain little-used foreign words and highly specialized terms, not be of an inspiring nature, assume that all the proposed answers are equally likely to be selected;
3. preparation of such a questionnaire, which is easy to read, printed without blots and corrections, conveniently graphically designed with the highlighting of the relevant sections.

The selection of subjects for the survey should correspond to the goals and objectives of the study. It can be random, in which case a questionnaire is issued to every worker in the enterprise, or carried out according to certain criteria, when a certain contingent is selected (for example, young workers under 25).

Compared with a conversation, which is characterized by lengthy, slow accumulation of data during mass surveys, questioning is more economical in time, which ensures its widespread use in practice.

Method of expert assessments. This is one of the specific methods of labor psychology used to study human behavior in working conditions, which involves a survey of specialists about certain elements of the work situation or the personality of a professional in order to build a responsible conclusion. For example, the examiner must make a judgment about psychological reasons accidents or about the personal characteristics of a student choosing a profession. It should be noted that the situation of examination often goes beyond the scope of any one method and involves the use of their complex.

Method of generalization of independent characteristics. Expert assessment can be individual, when its subject is one person, and group. One of the varieties of group assessment is the method of generalization of independent characteristics. It is used to describe the professionally important qualities of a particular professional. Its essence lies in obtaining information about a person from various sources, which may be the heads of an organization or department, colleagues, subordinates, who, due to certain circumstances, know the specialist being studied well.

Experts in the amount of 5 - 7 people are invited to evaluate a particular personality trait according to the proposed scale. At the same time, the assessment of each individual personality trait should be based on the system of vital indicators proposed by him, which is a description of typical situations from life and work. this person in which this feature appears. The development of such a detailed list does not require special knowledge from experts; a psychologist gives a psychological interpretation of their judgments. The scores received from each expert are averaged by calculating the arithmetic mean score.

Method of critical incidents. Its essence lies in the fact that psychologists conduct a survey of employees of the studied profession, inviting them to describe a critical situation in their work and its outcome. An incident can be any human activity that can be observed and analyzed, allowing, according to the specifics of its implementation, to draw certain conclusions about the employee. An incident becomes critical if the purpose of the activity is clearly presented to the observer and the consequences of labor behavior (successful, unsuccessful) are determined.

Each description must contain the following elements:

1. display of the professional situation and prerequisites for the employee's behavior, specified in time and space;
2. exact reproduction of the actions of the employee, which are considered effective or ineffective for a given situation; the consequences of the employee's behavior;
3. assessment of the dependence of the results on the actions of the employee or on external causes.

Researchers accumulate a bank of such descriptions. The criterion for sufficiency is the appearance of no more than two or three essentially new plots for every 100 different situations. Further, cards with descriptions of situations are offered to experts for grouping according to the criterion of the causes of problems and subjective factors of success in resolving them. The method has been recognized in works on professional selection, vocational training, in the preparation of professional training programs, in work on personnel certification and in other areas.

history method. It involves the collection of data on the history of the development of a particular individual as a subject of labor activity and is usually used in professional counseling to determine the degree of stability of motives, to identify certain abilities and personality traits that are not amenable to direct observation, to build forecasts of a person's professional career. A psychologist studies a person's biography, features of his mental and physical development, living conditions, features of the professional path. The information basis of this method is the statements of the subject himself (subjective anamnesis), statements about him by other people and documents characterizing him (objective anamnesis). The documentary sources of anamnesis are a personal file, attestation documents (diplomas of education, certificates of advanced training, certificates and certificates), insignia and awards for professional success, photographs, medical records, personal correspondence and diaries, results of professional activity, etc. This method is applicable to the problem of retrospective analysis of situations of choosing a profession, professional reorientation, typology of professional career.

Method of analysis of biographies and autobiographies. If the subject of a psychologist's research is professional values, motives, professional career options, the dynamics of a person's professional identity as professionalization progresses, then published biographies and autobiographies of representatives of the studied professions can serve as a useful tool. In addition, a series of conversations can be held with current working professionals or older people who have already left their professional activities. In order for the collected material to make representative generalizations that would reflect not only the unique professional destiny of the respondent, but also something typical of the professional community, it is important to think over the way the sample was formed, the program of the conversation, the way the material was recorded, the ways it was processed and interpreted.

Experimental methods. These include experiments and tests. An experiment is a method of collecting facts in specially created conditions that ensure the active manifestation of the studied mental phenomena. The experiment is characterized by the following features:

a) the active position of the researcher himself: the experimenter can cause a mental phenomenon as many times as necessary to test the hypothesis;
b) the creation of a pre-thought-out artificial situation in which the studied property manifests itself best and can be more accurately and easily assessed.

The essence of the experiment is that the experimenter:

a) varies certain factors, the influence of which on the phenomena of interest to him he wants to establish;
b) registers changes in phenomena of interest to him;
c) controls external (side) variables.

The factor that is changed by the experimenter is called the independent variable. A factor that changes under the influence of another factor is called the dependent variable. The experimental hypothesis consists of the independent and dependent variables and the proposed relationship between them. The dependent variable is usually the subject of the study. To obtain more objective research data, it is necessary to ensure the full equality of all other conditions under which the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is studied. Only the independent variable should change. The reliability of the tested hypothesis is achieved either by repeated repetition of experiments, or by a sufficient number of subjects with subsequent mathematical processing of the data.

The results of each experiment are recorded in the protocol, where they are recorded general information about the subjects, the nature of the experimental task, the time of the experiment, the quantitative and qualitative results of the experiment, the characteristics of the subjects, their actions, speech, expressive movements, etc. are indicated.

The experiment can be laboratory and natural.

Laboratory experiment is a simulation of situations of professional activity in a laboratory. Such a model allows you to establish precise control over variables, adjust the dosage, create the necessary conditions for the experiment, and repeatedly reproduce it under the same conditions.

Modeling of holistic activity in a laboratory experiment is typical for complex types of labor (transport, energy systems) and involves the use of a variety of simulators.

Conducting a laboratory experiment at an enterprise requires a psychologist to carefully study the real situation, highlight its main key points, general and specific features. The experimenter must have accurate information about the variables and the studied factors, their grouping, know the method of conducting the experiment, study all possible mistakes arising in the course of its implementation, and the reasons for their occurrence.

The advantages of a laboratory experiment include the ability to create conditions that cause the necessary mental process and ensure strict consideration of the measurement of stimuli and responses, the possibility of repeating experiments and mathematical processing results.

Among the shortcomings of the laboratory experiment, the following can be distinguished:

a) the conditions of the activity of the subjects do not correspond to reality;
b) the subjects know that they are the objects of the study.

Natural laboratory experiment. For removal negative influence an experiment was developed on the subject of the laboratory conditions, which is carried out in the natural conditions of the group, training workshop, etc. In other words, the worker is offered to perform his usual actions, manipulate familiar objects, tools, and other things, in connection with which the research conducted by the experimenter does not cause alertness. An example pilot study is the study of the behavior of an employee in situations of artificial deautomatization in order to clarify the structure of labor activity and the difficulties that arise in mastering it. The use of this technique is associated with the performance by the employee of his functions in new conditions (for example, a new type of task is given) in order to remove automatism and expand the process of activity.

The main advantage of a natural experiment lies in the fact that the conditions of the experimental environment are close to life, the natural conditions of activity. The disadvantage of a natural experiment is the need to obtain information in a short time in order to avoid disrupting the production process.

Laboratory and natural experiments can be ascertaining, i.e. aimed at establishing the actual state and level of certain features of mental development at the time of the study, and formative aimed at studying a mental phenomenon directly in the process of active formation of certain mental characteristics. If any new knowledge, skills, abilities are taught, then the formative experiment becomes teaching. If there is a formation of certain personality traits, then the formative experiment is educating. The formative experiment requires the researcher to develop theoretical ideas about the parameters of the mental phenomena being formed, to clearly plan the course of the experiment, to fully take into account the various factors of reality that affect the occurrence of the mental phenomena being studied.

test method. This method is used in the study of the subject of labor. In domestic psychodiagnostics, three main approaches to the study of the psychological characteristics of the subject (and, accordingly, three groups of tests) are proposed: objective, subjective and projective.

Objective Approach involves diagnosing personality traits based on the results of performing certain tasks and the way they are performed. Tests that implement this approach are called objective. These include intelligence tests and tests of aptitude, achievement, some personality tests.

In labor psychology, specially designed intelligence tests are used for the purposes of career guidance (the “Test of mental abilities” technique, which is the Russian-language version of R. Amthauer’s intelligence structure test) and batteries of professional abilities, among which OAWT and BAT are the most famous. Batteries of professional abilities are aimed at diagnosing the complex of abilities necessary for mastering many professions. Unlike intelligence tests, the validation of these tests is based on professional criteria, and not on learning success.

Objective personality tests include action tests and situational tests. In labor psychology, situational tests are used to a greater extent for the purposes of professional selection. In particular, a type of such tests is the situation of a group without a leader, designed to assess organizational skills and leadership traits. In such tests, a task is given that requires a joint effort, where no leader is appointed and no one is held accountable.

Subjective approach involves diagnostics of properties based on self-assessment and self-description by a person of his behavior and personal characteristics. This group of tests includes a wide variety of personality tests - questionnaires, which are divided into tests that evaluate personality traits, and tests that diagnose people's interests and attitudes. In professional psychodiagnostics, both general psychological tests of personality research are used (R. Kettel's 16-factor questionnaire, G. Eysenck's questionnaire), as well as specially designed tests for professional sphere. As an example of questionnaires for interests, one can name the differential diagnostic questionnaire of E.A. Klimov.

specificity projective approach is to conduct diagnostics based on the analysis of the features of the interaction of the subject with externally neutral, impersonal material, on which the subject projects his attitudes, desires and personal qualities.

One of the main methods in labor psychology is professiography- is a comprehensive method for studying and describing the content and structural characteristics of professions in order to establish the features of the relationship of the subject of labor with the components of the activity (its content, means, conditions, organization) and its functional support. Description of professional activity is the first and most important stage of any research in labor psychology. It is based on a comprehensive study of activities and a certain systematization of data. Thus, professiography is both the first (descriptive) stage of the psychological analysis of activity, and a comprehensive method for studying it, including the use of all known methods.

The main result of professiography as a method is the compilation of a professiogram - a documentary description of the socio-economic, industrial, technical, sanitary, psychological and other features of the profession. Complex analysis The job description includes the following elements:

1. production characteristics of the profession and its specialties;
2. assessment of the economic value of the profession;
3. social psychological characteristics professions (prestige in society, features of interpersonal interaction);
4. determination of the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for successful professional work, especially those that determine professional skills, terms of training and prospects for advancement;
5. sanitary and hygienic characteristics of working conditions with a focus on "occupational hazards";
6. drawing up a list of requirements for the state of health of the employee, and medical contraindications for this profession;
7. formulation of the requirements for the psychological characteristics of a person, and the allocation of professionally important qualities.

The main component of the professiogram - the psychogram - is a description of the requirements imposed by the profession on the human psyche. The content and volume of the psychogram depend on the purpose of studying the profession. As such, they can be professional selection, professional training, rationalization of work and rest, vocational guidance

Methods- these are the ways and means of knowing the subject of science. In relation to psychology, the method is understood as methods for obtaining an interpretation of the facts about the psyche. Psychology uses a whole system of methods. The main empirical methods for obtaining facts in psychology are observation and experiment, auxiliary methods are tests, self-observation, conversation, analysis of activity products, sociometry, twin method, etc. (Fig. 1.2).

Observation- the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his own daily practice.

The following types of observation are distinguished: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years), selective, continuous and special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study). Scientific observation in psychology includes: the presence of a plan and objectives of observation, fixing the results of observation and their analysis, the formation of hypotheses and their verification in subsequent observations.

Observation is integral part and two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation as a psychological method, it provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. The types of conversation include: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires. Anamnesis (from lat. anamnesis - information about the past of the student, obtained from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In the case when questions and answers are submitted in writing, there is a questioning.

Indirect observation using technical means(video recordings, tape recorder, hidden cameras, mobile phones, Gesell mirrors that transmit light in one direction, as a result of which the researcher can see everything that happens, while remaining unnoticed) is widely used for scientific and applied purposes.

One of the types of observation is self-observation (or introspection), direct or delayed (in memories, diaries, memoirs, a person analyzes what he thought, felt, experienced).

However, the main method of psychological research is the experiment - the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed. An experiment as a method of scientific knowledge differs from observation in that an experimental situation is specially created for research: the object under study is exposed to the influence of certain variables that change according to a given program. The experimenter fixes and registers both changes in variables and indicators of reactions to them of a given object. Then, in the course of the analysis, the relationship between the impact and the response is established, and, if possible, a mathematical relationship is determined that expresses the law of the relationship between the impact (stimulus) and the response to it.

There are the following types of experiment: laboratory, in which artificial test conditions are created, special equipment is used, the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions, the subject knows that the experiment is being carried out, although he may not know the true meaning of the experiment until the end. The experiment is repeatedly carried out with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general mathematical and statistical reliable patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

A full-scale experiment in which real conditions and situations are simulated in order to obtain true data about the psyche and its qualities in the subject; a natural experiment is fundamentally different from all others in that the subject does not know about his participation in the experiment, he acts in natural conditions. Forming and managing experiments stand out in particular.

Test method- a method of testing, establishing certain mental qualities of a person. The test is a short-term, identical task for all subjects, the results of which determine the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person. Tests can be predictive and diagnostic. They must be scientifically substantiated, reliable, valid and reveal stable psychological characteristics. The test should provide each subject with the same opportunity.

There are various types of testing: personal characteristics of a person, his temperament and intelligence, abilities, success of an activity, readiness for a certain activity, etc. Projective testing is also used, in which the unconscious by the person himself is projected onto the results of the task of assessing or identifying emotionally charged situations.

Rice. 1.2.

The next group includes methods for studying the products of human activity (the study of drawings, essays, the results of educational or labor activity). Based on the final product, the process of its creation, the personality traits of the person who created it, the properties of his psyche are reconstructed.

Document analysis methods include the processes of understanding the text and interpreting the information contained in it by the researcher, divided into qualitative and quantitative methods text analysis. Content analysis is a way of translating interpreted textual information into quantitative indicators, followed by mathematical and statistical processing.

In psychology, methods of theoretical analysis are also common, in which a systematic approach is fruitfully used: the phenomenon under study is considered in a certain system. In essence, a scheme of the system is theoretically developed in which the studied finds its place in relations and connections with other elements of the system. Another aspect of system analysis is the systematization of the laws that characterize the object under study on the basis of their interrelations. Theoretical analysis is also carried out in the form of modeling, when formal models of the object under study are built.

The methodology of psychological research is based on the principles of determinism, development, objectivity, the connection between consciousness and activity, the principle of the unity of theory and practice, and a probabilistic approach.

The principle of determinism characterizes causality, the dependence of mental phenomena on objective factors:

• - the psyche reflects and depends on objective reality;
• - mental phenomena are caused by the activity of the brain - when studying mental phenomena, it is imperative to establish the causes that caused them;
• - human psyche is formed and depends on society, is determined by the way of life.

The principle of development (the genetic principle) fixes that the psyche is constantly developing and changing quantitatively and qualitatively, it is necessary to consider all mental phenomena in development (phylogenetic, ontogenetic, socio-historical and individual). The principle of objectivity emphasizes the need for strict objectivity in the study of the psyche, the study of mental phenomena in the process of human activity, and then checking the studied patterns in practice. The principle of connection between consciousness and activity is as follows:

• - activity - a form of activity of consciousness;
• - consciousness is the result of behavior and activity, it forms an internal plan of human activity, a change in the content of activity contributes to the formation of a qualitatively new level of consciousness. Fundamental propositions about the unity of consciousness and activity, about the psychological structure of activity itself and the objectification of consciousness with it, allow psychologists to penetrate through the analysis of activity into inner world man and his consciousness.

Organizational methods that are applied throughout the study include:

comparative method(comparison of data on normal and pathological development, different stages of evolution or different levels according to certain parameters as a method of cross-sectional age sections, for example, comparison of memory parameters in preschoolers, schoolchildren, adults, old people);

• - longitudinal method(continuous tracking of the course of the psychological development of a group of subjects over many years);
• - complex method(an interdisciplinary study of the relationship between phenomena of various kinds - between the physical and mental development, between social status and characterological characteristics of the individual, between labor productivity and individual style of work).

Methods of psychology

The main methods of obtaining facts in psychology are observation, conversation and experiment. Each of these general methods has a number of modifications that refine but do not change their essence.

Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice.

The following types of observation are distinguished: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years), selective and continuous, and a special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study).

The general monitoring procedure consists of the following processes:

definition of the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);

choosing the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and provides the most necessary information (how to observe?);

choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?);

processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).

Observation is also an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation as a psychological method, it provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires. Anamnesis (Latin from memory) - information about the past of the student, received from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

There are a number of requirements for conversation as a method. The first is ease. You can't turn a conversation into a question. The conversation brings the greatest result in the case of establishing personal contact between the researcher and the person being examined. It is important at the same time to carefully think over the conversation, to present it in the form of a specific plan, tasks, problems to be clarified. The method of conversation involves, along with the answers and the formulation of questions by the subjects. Such a two-way conversation provides more information on the problem under study than just the answers of the subjects to the questions posed.

One type of observation introspection, immediate or delayed (in memoirs, diaries, memoirs, a person analyzes what he thought, felt, experienced). However, the main method of psychological research is the experiment - the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed. There is a laboratory experiment, it takes place in special conditions, special equipment is used, the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions, the subject knows that an experiment is being carried out, although he may not know the true meaning of the experiment until the end. The experiment is repeatedly carried out with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general mathematical and statistically reliable patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Test method- a method of testing, establishing certain mental qualities of a person. The test is a short-term task, the same for all subjects, the results of which determine the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person. Tests can be predictive and diagnostic. Tests must be scientifically sound, reliable, valid, and show consistent psychological characteristics.

From the point of view of B. G. Ananiev, the methods of psychological research are systems of operations with psychological objects and, at the same time, epistemological objects of psychological science.

Considering the problem of applying empirical methods in psychology (if you follow the requirements systems approach), you need to start by determining their place in the system of psychological methods. There are at least five levels:

1. Level of methodology.

2. Level of methodical reception.

3. Method level (experiment, observation, etc.).

4. Level of research organization.

5. Level of methodological approach.

True, the term "method" can be applied to any of the levels. For example, in psychophysics there is a method of average error, a method of boundaries; in psychodiagnostics - projective method(level 2); in psychosemantics they talk about the method of semantic differential and the method of repertory grids (level 1); in developmental psychology, the psychogenetic method and its varieties are discussed - the twin method (level 4).

The given level division of the methods used in psychological research is close to that proposed by G. D. Piryov, dividing the “methods” into 1) the methods themselves (observation, experiment, modeling, etc.), 2) methodological techniques and 3) methodological approaches(genetic, psychophysiological, etc.).

S. L. Rubinshtein in “Fundamentals of General Psychology” [Rubinshtein S. L., 1946] singled out observation and experiment as the main psychological methods. Observation was subdivided into “external” and “internal” (self-observation), experiment - into laboratory, natural and psychological-pedagogical plus an auxiliary method - a physiological experiment in its main modification (method of conditioned reflexes). In addition, he singled out methods for studying the products of activity, conversation (in particular, clinical conversation in Piaget's genetic psychology) and a questionnaire. Naturally, time has determined the peculiarities of this classification. Thus, the “kindred-ideological” connections of psychology with philosophy deprived it of theoretical methods, a similar closeness with pedagogy and physiology was rewarded by the inclusion of the methods of these sciences in the psychological list.

The second detailed classification of methods of psychological research, which has become widespread in Russian psychology thanks to B. G. Ananiev, is the classification of the Bulgarian psychologist G. D. Piryov [Pirov G. D., 1985]. He singled out as independent methods: observation (objective - direct and indirect, subjective - direct and indirect), experiment (laboratory, natural and psychological-pedagogical), modeling, psychological characteristics, auxiliary methods (mathematical, graphic, biochemical, etc.), specific methodological approaches (genetic, comparative, etc.). Each of these methods is subdivided into a number of others. So, for example, observation (indirect) is divided into questionnaires, questionnaires, the study of products of activity, etc.

B. G. Ananiev [Ananiev B. G., 1977] criticized Pir'ov's classification, proposing another one. He divided all the methods into: 1) organizational (the 4th and 5th levels, identified by us above); 2) empirical; 3) methods of data processing and 4) interpretation.

Ananiev classified organizational methods as comparative, longitudinal and complex. The second group included observational methods (observation and self-observation), experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.), psychodiagnostic method, analysis of processes and products of activity (praxiometric methods), modeling and biographical method.

The third group included methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis and qualitative description. Finally, the fourth group consisted of genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) and structural methods (classification, typology, etc.). Ananiev described each of the methods in detail, but for all the thoroughness of his argumentation, many unresolved problems remain: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How are practical methods different from field experiment or instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretative methods separated from organizational ones? Doesn't genetic interpretation presuppose a special way of organizing research (“twin method”, etc.)?

It is important to note that here the theoretical methods of psychological research are not indicated, but at the same time, a class of methods is distinguished, “intermediate” in status between empirical and theoretical, namely, methods of presenting, processing, and (let us add) interpreting empirical research data.

The works of M. S. Rogovin and G. V. Zalevsky [Rogovin M. S., Zalevsky G. V., 1988] consider the above classifications and propose their own. According to the point of view of these authors, a method is an expression of certain relations between an object and a subject in the process of cognition. They reduce the number of basic psychological methods to six: 1) hermeneutic - corresponding to the undifferentiated state of science (subject and object are not opposed, the mental operation and the method of science are identical); 2) biographical - the allocation of a holistic object of knowledge in the science of the psyche; 3) observation - differentiation of the object and subject of knowledge; 4) self-observation - the transformation of the subject into an object on the basis of previous differentiation; 5) clinical - the task of transition from externally observed to internal mechanisms; 6) experiment as an active opposition of the subject of cognition to the object, in which the role of the subject in the process of cognition is taken into account.

The above classification has an advantage - the epistemological basis (subject-object interaction), although it is debatable: it is not clear what caused the selection of the biographical method (the criterion is integrity, then it is possible to isolate something according to the criterion of analyticity?) And the clinical method (is it specifics?).

However, the authors deliberately or unintentionally stopped only at the classification of empirical psychological methods, for which they were forced to include modeling among the hermeneutical methods. But isn't the subject and object of cognition opposed when using this method? After all, a model is a rational opposition by the subject of one object to another (image and prototype), which is impossible without a reflexive attitude of the subject to the object and to himself.

There are other approaches to the description and classification of methods of psychological research, but almost always a sign of identity is put between the empirical methods of psychological research and psychological methods in general, which makes it difficult to determine the specifics of both.

It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to distinguish three classes of methods in psychology:

1. Empirical, in which external real interaction is carried out

1. subject and object of research.

2. Theoretical, when the subject interacts with the mental model of the object (more precisely, the subject of study).

3. Interpretation and description, in which the subject “externally” interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).

4. The result of applying the first group of methods is data that fixes the state of the object with instrument readings, states of the subject, computer memory, products of activity, etc.

The result of the application of theoretical methods is represented by knowledge about the subject in the form of natural language, sign-symbolic or spatial-schematic.

Finally, interpretative-descriptive methods are the “meeting place” of the results of applying theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. The data of an empirical study, on the one hand, are subjected to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements for the results of the theory, model, and inductive hypothesis that organize the study.

On the other hand, there is an interpretation of these data in terms of competing concepts for the correspondence of hypotheses to the results. The product of interpretation is a fact, an empirical dependence, and, ultimately, a justification or refutation of the hypothesis.

We will consider the following theoretical methods of psychological research: 1) deductive (axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive), in other words, the ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc.; 2) inductive - generalization of facts, ascent from the particular to the general. The result is an inductive hypothesis, regularity, classification, systematization; 3) modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, “transduction”, inferences from the particular to the particular, when a simpler and / or more accessible object is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.

From the theoretical methods of psychology, methods of speculative psychology, which originate in the so-called philosophical psychology, should be distinguished. Speculation is not based on scientific facts and empirical laws, but has justification only in the personal knowledge (subjective reality, intuition) of the author of the concept.

A speculative psychologist, like a philosopher, generates acceptable, from his point of view, models of mental reality or models of its individual components (theories of personality, communication, thinking, creativity, perception, etc.). The product of speculation is a doctrine, i.e., some integral mental product that combines the features of rational and irrational knowledge, claims to be complete and unique in explaining some reality and does not provide for its falsification (refutation) in empirical research.

There are two main types of modeling: structural-functional and functional-structural.

In the first case, the researcher wants to reveal the structure of a separate system by its external behavior and for this he chooses or constructs an analogue (this is what modeling is all about) - another system with similar behavior. This behavior allows you to infer (based on the rule of inference by analogy) about the similarity of structures. This type of modeling is the main method of psychological research and the only one in the natural sciences of psychological research. In the second case, by the similarity of the structures of the model and the image, the researcher judges the functions that have something in common, external manifestations, etc. This method is common in many sciences, in particular in comparative anatomy, paleontology, cultural studies, etc.

Naturally, we are not given to understand the structure of the psychic reality of another person. But each subject has its own reality, therefore there is a similarity between functional-structural modeling and the hermeneutic method, which prompted M. S. Rogovin and G. V. Zalevsky to include the modeling method among hermeneutic methods. It is necessary, probably, to separate the theoretical model of psychic reality as such (for example, the psyche is a “telephone station”) from the subjective model of the psychic reality of a particular other person, which is “pure experience”. The similarity of mental processes is not the similarity of scientific methods.

Interpretive-descriptive methods play an important, although not obvious, role in holistic psychological research. Often, it is the researcher's reflective mastery of these methods that predetermines the success of a scientific program. Features of descriptive methods in psychology are detailed in the monograph by V. A. Ganzen [Ganzen V. A., 1984], although it does not distinguish between description as a theory and description of empirical data.

Consider another classification of psychological empirical methods. In the previous chapter, a classification was given that divided the methods on two grounds related to the cognitive activity of the researcher: activity - passivity; availability of funds - immediacy. In psychological research, the object can also be active, whether we are talking about a person or an animal. A person as a subject is a subject of communication, cognition and activity, just like a researcher. Therefore, when classifying empirical psychological methods, this feature must also be taken into account.

In psychology, the interpretation and understanding of the behavior of the subject is of great importance. The process of understanding is, in a sense, the opposite of the process of measurement. When measuring, we strive to objectify the results of the study as much as possible, and using understanding, on the contrary, we subjectively interpret the behavior of the subject in our own semantic units.

It is convenient to locate all psychological empirical methods in a two-dimensional space, the axes of which denote two specific features of psychological research. The first is the presence or absence of interaction between the subject and the researcher, or the intensity of this interaction. It is maximal in a clinical experiment and minimal in self-observation (the researcher and the researched are the same person). The second is the objectivity and subjectivity of the procedure. The extreme options are testing (or measurement) and a “pure” understanding of the behavior of another person through “feeling”, empathy, empathy, personal interpretation of his actions. It cannot be said that in the second case the researcher does not use any means: they are, but “internal” (in the sense of L. S. Vygotsky) – personal experience researcher, individual meanings, interpretation techniques, etc. The means that the researcher uses in the measurement are external (devices, tests, etc.). These two specific features that separate psychological methods into types, you can call it differently. The first one forms the axis “two subjects – one subject”, or “external” dialogue – “internal” dialogue. The second one forms the axis "external" means - "internal" means, or "measurement - interpretation".

In the squares formed by these axes, you can arrange the main psychological empirical methods (Fig. 2.5).

From this point of view, a psychological experiment is a method in which interaction with the subject is combined with an objective recording of his behavior.

N.A. Bernstein (1896-1966)

In the works of N. A. Bernshtein, the problem of the mechanisms of organization of human movements and actions was brilliantly developed. Dealing with this problem, N. A. Bernshtein revealed himself as a very psychologically thinking physiologist (which is extremely rare), as a result, his theory and the mechanisms he identified turned out to be organically combined with the theory of activity; they will deepen our understanding of the operational and technical aspects of the activity.

N. A. Bernstein appeared in the scientific literature as a passionate defender of the principle of activity - one of those principles on which, as you already know, the psychological theory of activity is based. We will analyze his ideas expressed in order to defend and develop this principle. Finally, the theory of N. A. Bernstein will be extremely useful for us in discussing the so-called psychophysical problem (Lecture 13), where we will talk, in particular, about the possibilities and limitations of physiological explanation in psychology.

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernshtein (1896 - 1966) was a neuropathologist by education, and in this capacity he worked in hospitals during the Civil War and the Great Patriotic Wars. But the most fruitful was his work as an experimenter and theorist in a number of scientific fields - physiology, psychophysiology, biology, cybernetics.

He was a man of very versatile talents: he was fond of mathematics, music, linguistics, engineering. However, he concentrated all his knowledge and abilities on solving the main problem of his life - the study of the movements of animals and humans. Thus, mathematical knowledge allowed him to become the founder of modern biomechanics, in particular the biomechanics of sports. The practice of a neuropathologist provided him with a huge amount of factual material regarding movement disorders in various diseases and injuries of the central nervous system. Music lessons made it possible to subject the pianist and violinist to the most subtle analysis of the movement: he experimented, including on himself, observing the progress of his own piano technique. Engineering knowledge and skills helped N. A. Bernshtein to improve the methods of recording movements - he created a number of new techniques for recording complex movements. Finally, linguistic interests undoubtedly affected the style in which his scientific works: the texts of N. A. Bernstein are one of the most poetic examples of scientific literature. His language is distinguished by conciseness, clarity and at the same time extraordinary liveliness and imagery. Of course, all these qualities of the language reflected the qualities of his thinking.

In 1947, one of the main books of N. A. Bernshtein “On the Construction of the Movement” was published, which was awarded the State Prize. On the title of the book was a dedication: "To the bright, unfading memory of comrades who gave their lives in the struggle for the Soviet Motherland." This book reflected the results of almost thirty years of work by the author and his collaborators in the field of experimental, clinical and theoretical studies of movements and expressed a number of completely new ideas. One of them consisted in refuting the principle of the reflex arc as a mechanism for organizing movements and replacing it with the principle of the reflex ring, which I will discuss in more detail. This point of the concept of N. A. Bernstein contained, thus, criticism of the higher physiology that dominated at that time nervous activity point of view on the mechanism conditioned reflex as a universal principle of analysis of higher nervous activity.

Soon, difficult years came for N. A. Bernstein. Colleagues and even some former students of N. A. Bernshtein sometimes spoke incorrectly and incompetently at organized discussions and criticized the new ideas he expressed. During this difficult period for himself, Nikolai Aleksandrovich did not abandon any of his ideas, paying for it, as it turned out later, by losing forever the opportunity to conduct experimental research work.

The last period of the life of N. A. Bernshtein was busy with special activities. Scientists and scientists of various professions went to his house: doctors, physiologists, mathematicians, cybernetics, musicians, linguists - for scientific conversations. They sought his advice, assessments, consultations, new points of view. (You can read about this in detail in the article by V. L. Naidin "A miracle that is always with you".) The other half of the day, N. A. Bernstein was busy with his own scientific, theoretical work - he summed up and again comprehended the results obtained in previous periods of your life.

Already after his death, many learned that two years before his death, N.A. Bernstein himself diagnosed himself with liver cancer, after which he was deregistered from all clinics and strictly painted the remaining life span, which he also determined to within a month. He managed to finish and even look through the proofs of his latest book, Essays on the Physiology of Movement and the Physiology of Activity.

The famous Russian psychiatrist P. B. Gannushkin, describing one of the types of human personalities, wrote: “Here you can find people occupying positions at those peaks of the realm of ideas, in the rarefied air of which it is difficult for an ordinary person to breathe. These include: refined aesthete artists ... thoughtful metaphysicians, and finally, talented schematic scientists and brilliant revolutionaries in science, thanks to their ability to unexpected comparisons; with intrepid courage, transforming, sometimes beyond recognition, the face of the discipline in which they work. Reading these lines, you immediately remember N. A. Bernstein: it was precisely the talented revolutionary scientist who transformed discipline beyond recognition and precisely “with intrepid courage”!

Yu.B. Gippenreiter "Introduction to General Psychology"

Teaching methods - ways of interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving educational goals. Teaching methods depend on its goals and the nature of the interaction of subjects.

In pedagogy and psychology, two groups of collective learning methods are distinguished: traditional and active learning methods.

The division of teaching methods into two groups: traditional, or information-receptive (from lat. reception - "perception"), and active learning methods (from lat. Aktivus- "Active"), is conditional, since all methods in terms of achieving certain didactic goals must be active.

Traditional teaching methods - methods of information-receptive training that are reproductive in nature and aimed at transferring a certain amount of knowledge, developing skills and abilities for practical activities. These include methods of oral presentation of the material (lecture, story, etc.); discussion of educational material (seminar, conversation, etc.); independent work, demonstration, exercises, etc. In general, traditional methods involve providing students with ready-made solutions as a model. The task of the student when teaching by traditional methods is mainly to learn the given and reproduce it under control. This activity in its direction and content is of a reproductive nature. This is what determines the priority role of memory in teaching by traditional methods and insufficient attention to the controlled development of creative thinking, which is carried out only indirectly.

Active learning methods - teaching methods aimed at developing students' independent creative thinking and the ability to competently solve non-standard professional tasks. The purpose of training is not only to equip students with knowledge, skills and abilities to solve professional problems, but also to develop the ability to think, the culture of mental creative activity. These methods are characterized by active cognitive activity of students, a close connection between theory and practice, a focus on mastering the dialectical method of analysis and solving complex problems, developed reflection, an atmosphere of cooperation and co-creation, and assistance in mastering a productive style of thinking and activity.

Methods of active socio-psychological education - active learning methods that purposefully implement the socio-psychological patterns of active learning activities student in a training or other target group. Emelyanov Yu.N. active group learning means any method of planned activation of communicative processes in an educational or target group (regardless of the content of the educational, cognitive, creative or psycho-corrective tasks set). Active group methods Yu.N. Emelyanov proposes to combine conditionally into three main blocks: a) discussion methods (group discussion, analysis of cases from practice, analysis of situations moral choice and etc.); b) gaming methods: didactic and creative games, including business (management) games; role-playing games (behavioral learning, game psychotherapy, psychodramatic correction); counterplay (transactional method of understanding communicative behavior); c) sensitive training (training of interpersonal sensitivity and perception of oneself as a psychophysical unity). S.V. Petrushin proposes to subdivide the main methods of active socio-psychological education into the main areas of psychology and singles out training groups, meeting groups, psychodrama, Gestalt psychotherapy.

The application of active socio-psychological learning methods is specified in the following tasks :

1) mastery of psychological, pedagogical and special knowledge (knowledge of the subject being studied);

2) the formation of personal and professional skills and abilities, especially in the field of communication;

3) correction and development of attitudes necessary for successful activity and communication;

4) development of the ability to adequately and fully understand oneself and other people;

5) correction and development of the system of personality relations.