Structural elements of educational activity. Structure of educational activity. Psychological components. relevant scientific sources

the giver with internal control of this process by the speaker himself. At the same time, the mechanism of auditory control is formed in the activity itself. It is also important that auditory control regulates the correct implementation of all links in the formation and formulation of thoughts through a foreign language. Thus, it is obvious that by teaching speaking in foreign language, the teacher cannot help but form this mechanism common to all speaking activities, purposefully moving from external teaching control over students' speech actions to their own internal auditory self-control.

Similarly to self-control, the formation of substantive self-assessment in the structure of activity takes place. A.V. Zakharova noted an important feature in this process - the transition of self-assessment into quality, a characteristic of the subject of activity - his self-assessment. This determines one more position of the importance of control (self-control), assessment (self-assessment) for the overall structure of educational activity. Accordingly, it is determined by the fact that it is in these components that the connection between the activity and the personal is focused, it is in them that the subject procedural action turns into a personal, subjective quality, property. This situation once again testifies to the internal continuity of the two components of the personal-activity approach to the educational process, its expediency and realism.

Educational activity, which is the main form of inclusion in the social life of people aged 6-7 to 22-23, is characterized by the specifics of the subject content and external structure, in which the educational task and educational actions to solve it occupy a special place.

Literature

Ball G.A. Theory of educational tasks: psychological and pedagogical aspect. M., 1990.

Davydov V.V., Lompsher I., Markova A.K. Formation of educational activity of the student. M., 1982.

Davydov V.V. Problems of developing education. M., 1986.

Ilyasov I.I. The structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1998.

Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. M., 1969.

Shadrikov V.D. Psychology of activity and human abilities. M., 1996.

Yakunin V.A. Psychology of educational activity of students. M., 1994.

What is the structure of educational activity? The structure of academic activity includes:

learning task This is what the student must master.

Learning action are changes educational material necessary for its development by the student, this is what the student must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.

Control action- this is an indication of whether the student correctly performs the action corresponding to the model.

Evaluation action - determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not.

What form does the learning activity take? Educational activity is not given to the child from the very beginning, it needs to be built. At the initial stages, it is carried out in the form of a joint activity of a teacher and a student. By analogy with the development of objective actions, I early age, we can say that at first everything is in the hands of the teacher and the teacher "acts with the hands of the student." However, in school age activity is carried out with ideal objects (number, sounds), and "the teacher's hands" are his intellect. Learning activity is the same objective activity, but its subject is theoretical, ideal, so joint activity is difficult. For its implementation, objects must be materialized; without materialization, it is impossible to act with them (V. V. Davydov, N. G. Salmina). The process of development of educational activity is the process of transferring its individual links from teacher to student.

An activity originally divided among participants. acts first as a basis for the formation of intellectual activity, and then becomes a form of existence of a new mental function. Higher mental functions, according to L. S. Vygotsky, come from joint activity, from the form of collective relationships and interactions. “The psychological nature of a person is a set of human relations that have been transferred inside and become functions of the personality and forms of its structure,” wrote L. S. Vygotsky. Thus, joint activity is a necessary stage and an internal mechanism of individual activity. Mutual relations in the distribution of activities and the mutual exchange of methods of action constitute the psychological basis and are the driving force behind the development of the individual's own activity. But how is this joint activity built where the relationship "child-teacher" and "child-child" are differentiated? What is the importance of cooperation and interaction of children in the development of educational activities?

G. A. Tsukerman investigated the role of cooperation with peers in the mental development of younger schoolchildren. The material for the study was the experimental teaching of the Russian language to first-graders. The experimental and control classes were compared. In the experimental class, the teacher worked with a group of children working together, his main task was to organize business communication between students about the material being studied. In the control class, the children were engaged in the traditional frontal method, in which the influence of the teacher was addressed separately to each child. Experimental data were obtained that children working in the form of joint work in the classroom assess their abilities and level of knowledge twice as better, i.e. they are more successful in forming reflexive actions, compared with students engaged in the traditional way.

Conclusion that children learn educational material better in joint work with peers than with a teacher, is consistent with the opinion of Piaget, who, in the communication of an individual, singled out relationships with peers and contrasted them with the relationship "child - adult". In the group of peers, relations are equal and symmetrical, and between a child and an adult (no matter how democratic they are) - hierarchical and asymmetrical. Piaget argued that such qualities as criticality, tolerance, the ability to take the point of view of another, develop only when children communicate with each other. Only through the sharing of points of view of persons equal to the child - first of other children, and later, as the child grows older, and adults, genuine logic and morality can replace egocentrism, logical and moral realism.

G. A. Tsukerman put forward a hypothesis according to which cooperation with peers is qualitatively different from cooperation with adults and, like cooperation with an adult, is a necessary condition for the mental development of a child. In the relationship between a child and an adult, the division of functions is inevitable: the adult sets goals, controls and evaluates the actions of the child. Thus, the child performs any action first with an adult, gradually the measure of the adult's help decreases and comes to naught, then the action is internalized, and the child begins to perform it independently. A vicious circle arises: without an adult, the child cannot master a new action, but with the participation of an adult, he cannot fully master the action, since some components of the action (control and evaluation) remain with the adult. Therefore, the help of an adult is not sufficient for the internalization of all aspects of objective actions. It has been noticed that children often make mistakes in actions that seem to be formed (they do not need meaningful help from the teacher), they can easily find and correct these mistakes, but only when prompted by an adult. G. A. Tsukerman explains this by the fact that the teacher conveys the entire operational composition of the action, but remains the holder of meanings and goals. As long as the teacher is the center of the learning situation, he remains in control and " the last word", that is, learning activities are not fully internalized by students.

Cooperation with peers affects the process of internalization differently than cooperation with adults. G. A. Tsukerman considers cooperation with peers as a mediating link between the beginning of the formation of a new action when working with an adult and a completely independent intrapsychic end of formation.

In cooperation with peers, the situation of equal communication gives the child the experience of control-evaluative actions and statements. G. A. Tsukerman compared the results of learning in the experimental class (collective learning) and in the control (frontal). The task was to come up with words for a certain

spelling rule.

In the experimental class, they worked in pairs: two people came up with words for their two neighbors, then exchanged tasks. Each student performed both his own and the teacher's part of the work (composed a spelling task, checked, evaluated the work of other students, explained, listened to explanations, etc.), visited both the teacher's and student's positions. In this way, children mastered not only the operational composition of actions, but also their meanings and goals, mastered learning relationships. The control class worked with a problematic method - the teacher organized a discussion, that is, created conditions for the children themselves to set, solve and check the solution of specific spelling problems, encouraged independence, tried to create an atmosphere of intellectual equality. However, the experimental class showed better results when tested than the control class. The so-called "average" disciples have especially advanced. Zuckerman explains this by the fact that this group of children mastered operational actions earlier, and as a result of collective learning, they mastered control.

L.F.Obukhov. Child (age) psychology. M., 1996.

INTRODUCTION………...……………………………………………………...3
1. general characteristics educational activities………..……………………...5
2. Structure of educational activity ……………………………..………… …...6
2.1 Motivation - the first component of the structure of educational activities ... ... .7
2.2. Learning task in the structure of learning activities……………….…..…...9
2.3. Actions in the structure of educational activities. ………………………….fourteen
2.4. Control (self-control), assessment (self-assessment) in the structure of educational activities…………….………………………….. …………………………...17
CONCLUSION…….……………………………………………………..20
REFERENCES ………….…………………………………….22

INTRODUCTION

The psychology of learning studies a wide range of issues covering the process of acquiring and consolidating the ways of an individual's activity, as a result of which an individual experience of a person is formed - his knowledge, skills and abilities. Teaching accompanies a person's whole life, as he receives knowledge from life itself, learning something new in any interaction with the world and improving ways to meet his needs. In other words, teaching is present in any activity and is a process of formation of its subject. In this way, teaching differs from changes in the human body caused by its physiological maturation, functional state, etc. Thus, teaching is a fairly broad concept, including not only its organized forms (schools, courses, universities), but also spontaneous processes acquisition of knowledge and experience in Everyday life.
In the general theory of teaching, the foundations of which were laid by Ya.A. Comenius, I.G. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterweg, I. Herbart, and in our country - K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Kapterev, S.T. Shatsky, A.P. Nechaev, M.Ya. Basov, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Makarenko, as well as the largest representatives of domestic and foreign educational psychology of the middle of the 20th century - D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, I. Lingart, J. Lompscher and others, formed the actual psychological theory of learning activity, which is a scientific priority in Russia. Its developers posed a new problem in the theory of learning - a change in the subject of activity itself in the process of actions that reproduce the objective properties of a cognized object when solving learning problems with generalized methods of action.
The timeliness and relevance of the problems posed by the theory of learning activities extend not only to the school, in which, in relation to the conditions of learning, this theory was formulated, but also, which is no less important, to university education, the activities of students (for various reasons, insufficiently formed and studied). The relevance and timeliness of the spread of the theory of learning activities to higher education in general is determined by the fact that certain positive trends have already developed in high school, allowing to reorganize both university teaching and the student's educational activity itself.
The purpose of this work is to study the psychology of educational activity.
Tasks:
1) give a general description of educational activities;
2) determine the structure of educational activities;
3) consider the components of learning activities.

1. General characteristics of educational activities

The concept of "learning activity" is rather ambiguous. In the broad sense of the word, it is sometimes incorrectly considered as a synonym for learning, teaching and even learning. In a narrow sense, according to D.B. Elkonin, is the leading type of activity in primary school age. In the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydova, A.K. Markova, the concept of “learning activity” is filled with the actual activity content and meaning, correlating with a special “responsible attitude”, according to S.L. Rubinstein, the subject to the subject of learning throughout its entire length.
It should be noted that in this interpretation, “learning activity” is understood more broadly than the leading type (kind) of activity, since it applies to all ages, in particular to students. Educational activity in this sense is the activity of the subject in mastering generalized methods of educational actions and self-development in the process of solving educational problems specially set by the teacher, on the basis of external control and evaluation, turning into self-control and self-esteem. According to D.B. Elkonin, “learning activity is an activity that has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts, such activity should be prompted by adequate motives. They may be motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for one's own growth, one's own improvement. If it is possible to form such motives among students, then this will support, filling with new content, those general motives, activities that are associated with the position of the student, with the implementation of socially significant and socially valued activities.
Learning activity can accordingly be considered as a specific type of activity. It is aimed at the student himself - improvement, development, formation of him as a person through the conscious, purposeful appropriation of sociocultural experience in various types and forms of socially useful, cognitive, theoretical and practical activities. The activity of the student is aimed at mastering deep systemic knowledge, working out generalized methods of action and their adequate and creative application in various situations.
There are three main characteristics of educational activity that distinguish it from other forms of learning: 1) it is specifically aimed at mastering educational material and solving learning problems; 2) general methods of action and scientific concepts are mastered in it (in comparison with everyday ones learned before school); 3) general methods of action precede the solution of problems (I.I. Ilyasov). Let us add two more essential characteristics of educational activity to these three. First, in response to a cognitive, insatiable need, learning activity leads to changes in the student himself, which, according to D.B. Elkonin, is its main characteristic. Secondly, the Czech theorist of the process and structure of learning I. Lingart considers another feature of learning activity as an active form of learning, namely, changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student "depending on the results of their own actions."
Like any other, learning activity has a certain structure and content.

2. The structure of learning activities

Learning activity has an external structure, consisting of such basic components as motivation; learning tasks in certain situations in various forms of assignments; learning activities; control turning into self-control; appraisal that turns into self-assessment. Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics. At the same time, being an intellectual activity by nature, learning activity is characterized by the same structure as any other intellectual act, namely: the presence of a motive, a plan (design, program), execution (implementation) and control.
Describing the structural organization of educational activities in the general context of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova, I.I. Ilyasov notes that “... educational situations and tasks are characterized by the fact that here the student receives a task to master the general mode of action and the goal of mastering it, as well as samples and instructions for finding common ways to solve problems of a certain class. Learning activities are the actions of students in obtaining and finding scientific concepts and general methods of action, as well as in reproducing and applying them to solving specific problems. Control actions are aimed at summarizing the results of their learning actions with given samples. Evaluation activities fix the final quality of assimilation of given scientific knowledge and general ways of solving problems.
Let us consider in more detail each of the components of the external structure of educational activity.

2.1. Motivation is the first component of the structure of learning activities

The motives of learning activity are the driving force that directs the student to the active acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities. Such motives can be motivated by different sources: external (learning situations), internal (social needs, the need for activity, in obtaining information), personal (success, pleasure, self-affirmation).
The sources of motives will create a positive attitude towards learning activity if they are “included” in it, that is, if they are its goal and result. Among the motives of learning, one can distinguish, for example, the prediction of the results of learning (I will receive a test, pass an exam, master a foreign language, etc.), foreseeable experiences that are associated with the results of educational activities. In the structure of motives, it is important to find the dominant, acting really, and highlight it. The greatest force among the motives of educational activity has a cognitive interest, i.e., an interest in cognition. The motivation of cognitive interest is connected with the unity of its three sides: cognitive, emotional and volitional, which make up its structure. The unity of interest, feeling and will is a powerful stimulus for teaching. With age, cognitive interest turns from unstable to dominant. The development of the motivational basis consists in increasing the share of the cognitive motive in it. Poorly successful students show a lack or delay in cognitive interest, instability of educational motives, and the predominance of coercive motives over motivational motives.
The motivational basis of learning activity is a sequence of motives that support its continuity and stability. The motivational basis of the student's activity organizes (unites) learning activity into a single whole.
The system of the motivational basis of the student's learning activity consists of the following elements: focusing on the learning situation (realization of the meaning of the upcoming activity), conscious choice of motive (goal setting), striving for the goal (implementation of learning activities), striving to achieve success (realization of confidence in the correctness of one's actions ), self-assessment of the process and results of activities (emotional attitude to activities). Motivation is the most important component of the structure of educational activity, and for the personality, developed intrinsic motivation is the main criterion for its formation.

2.2. Learning task in the structure of learning activities

The second in a row, but the main, in fact, component of the structure of learning activity is the learning task. It is offered to the student as a specific educational task in a specific educational situation, the totality of which represents the educational process itself as a whole. The concept of "task" has a long history of development in science. In psychological terms, in domestic science, one of the first researchers who considered the category of a task was M.Ya. bass. Analyzing the activity of the child, he noted that for a wide variety of educational and life situations, the moment of the task as such is common. This general moment is connected with the need for a person to discover what he does not yet know and what cannot simply be seen in an object; to do this, he will need a certain action with this item. In his writings, he substantiated the expediency of using the concept of a task in psychology simultaneously with the terms "action", "goal" and "task".
Later in the works of S.L. Rubinshtein, the concept of a task received a broader interpretation in relation to the concept of action and in the general context of goal setting. According to S.L. Rubinshtein, “the so-called voluntary action of a person is the realization of a goal. Before acting, one must realize the goal for which the action is being taken. However, no matter how essential the goal is, the awareness of the goal alone is not enough. In order to carry it out, it is necessary to take into account the conditions under which the action must be performed. The relationship between goal and conditions defines the problem to be solved by the action. A conscious human action is a more or less conscious solution to a problem. But for the performance of an action, it is not enough for the task to be understood by the subject; it must be accepted by them." Note that, according to A.N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions.
Based on the definition of learning activity as a specific activity of mastering generalized methods of action aimed at its self-development, on the basis of solving learning tasks specially set by the teacher and solved by the student through educational actions, we note that the learning task is the main unit of learning activity. The main difference between the learning task and any other tasks, according to D.B. Elkonin lies in the fact that its goal and result is to change the student himself, and not the objects with which he acts.
The composition of the learning tasks, i.e. questions and answers that a student is working on in a given period of study time should be known to the teacher, teacher, as well as to the student, student. They are given in certain learning situations and involve certain learning activities.
The educational task, like any other, is currently considered as a systemic education (G.A. Ball), in which two components are required: the subject of the task in the initial state and the model of the required state of the subject of the task.
The task is considered as a complex system of information about some phenomenon, object, process, in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown. It can be found only on the basis of a solution to a problem or information formulated in such a way that there is inconsistency, contradiction between individual concepts, provisions, requiring the search for new knowledge, proof, transformation, agreement, etc.
The composition of the learning task is considered in detail in the works of L.M. Fridman, E.I. Mashbitsa. In any task, including the educational one, the goal (requirement), objects that are part of the task condition, and their functions are distinguished. In some tasks, methods and means of solving are indicated (they are given in an explicit or, more often, in a hidden form).
In the interpretation of L.M. Fridman, any task includes the same parts:
- subject area - a class of fixed designated objects in question;
– relationships that connect these objects;
- task requirement - an indication of the purpose of solving the problem, i.e. what needs to be established in the course of the decision;
- task operator - a set of those actions (operations) that must be performed on the condition of the task in order to complete its solution. In this view, the concepts of "solution method" and "operator" are very close, but in the activity interpretation of educational activity, it is more convenient for us to use the term "solution method".
Solving the problem in various ways provides great opportunities for improving educational activities and the development of the student himself. When solving a problem in one way, the goal of the student is to find the correct answer; solving the problem in several ways, he faces the choice of the most concise, economical solution, which requires the actualization of many theoretical knowledge, known methods, techniques and the creation of new ones for this situation. At the same time, the student accumulates a certain experience in applying knowledge, which contributes to the development of logical search techniques and, in turn, develops his research abilities. In the concept of a method for solving a problem, G.A. The score includes the solution process itself, noting that its description takes into account not only the solver's operations themselves, but also the time and energy costs for their implementation.
The model for solving a learning problem, along with the actual indicative one, also includes other parts of the method of action, primarily control and executive. At the same time, it is noted (E.I. Mashbits) that the full functioning of educational activity presupposes the formation of all parts of the mode of action. To solve the problem, the solver must have a certain set of tools that are not included in the problem and are attracted from outside. Solving tools can be material (tools, machines), materialized (texts, diagrams, formulas) and ideal (knowledge that is involved by the solver). In the learning task, all means can be used, but the ideal means, verbal in form, are the leading ones.
E.I. Mashbits highlights the essential features of the learning task from the standpoint of managing learning activities. Following D. B. Elkonin, he considers its first and most significant feature to be the focus on the student, because its solution involves changes not in the “task structure” itself, but in the subject that solves it. The learning task is a means of achieving learning goals. From this point of view, it is not they themselves that are essential, but the assimilation by the trainee of a certain mode of action.
The second feature of the learning task is that it is ambiguous or indefinite. Students can invest in the task a slightly different meaning than the teaching one. This phenomenon occurs due to various reasons: due to the inability to understand the requirements of the task, mixing different relationships. Often it depends on the motivation of the student.
The third feature of the learning task is that in order to achieve any goal, the solution of not one, but several tasks is required, and the solution of one task can contribute to the achievement of various learning goals. Therefore, to achieve any educational goal, a certain set of tasks is required, where each takes its place. Let us dwell in more detail on the consideration of psychological requirements for educational tasks.
The main requirements for a learning task as a learning effect are due to the peculiarity of its place in learning activities and the correlation of learning tasks and learning goals (E.I. Mashbits). It is proposed to consider the relationship between the task and the goal in the system “a set of tasks - a set of goals”, since in educational activity the same goal requires the solution of a number of tasks, and the same task serves to achieve several goals. Hence, according to E.I. Mashbitsu, a number of requirements follow.
1. "Not one separate task should be designed, but a set of tasks." Note that a task considered as a system exists as such in a more complex system of tasks, and it is worth talking about its usefulness in relation to its position in this system. Depending on this, the same task can be both useful and useless.
2. “When designing a system of tasks, one must strive to ensure that it ensures the achievement of not only immediate educational goals, but also distant ones.” It is noted that, unfortunately, in school practice, the focus is on achieving immediate goals. When designing learning objectives, the student must clearly represent the hierarchy of all learning goals, both immediate and distant. The ascent to the latter goes consistently, purposefully, by generalizing the already mastered means of the training system.
3. "Learning tasks should ensure the assimilation of the system of means necessary and sufficient for the successful implementation of educational activities." In practice, as a rule, some elements of the system of tools are used, which ensures the solution of problems of only one class, which is not enough to solve another class of problems.
4. "A learning task should be designed so that the appropriate means of activity, the assimilation of which is provided for in the process of solving problems, act as a direct product of learning". As established by many researchers, what is included in the direct product of the actions of students is better absorbed by them. In most educational tasks, according to the author, the executive part acts as a direct product, while the orientation and control part are secondary. The implementation of the fourth requirement also involves the use of tasks for students to understand their actions, i.e. reflection.
Such tasks help students to generalize their actions for further solving educational problems. And here one cannot but agree with E.I. Mashbitz that although scientists pay great attention to the issues of reflection, in practice the teacher does not have the means to regulate students' reflection on solving problems. The following is also noted: in order for students, when solving educational problems, to consciously perform and control their actions, they must have clear ideas about the structure and means of solving the problem. They should receive such information from the teacher in the form of a coherent system of orientation.

2.3. Actions in the structure of learning activities

One of the important structural components of activity is action - the morphological unit of any activity. Essential for the analysis of training actions is the moment of their transition to the level of operations. According to A.N. Leontiev, operations are methods of action that meet certain conditions in which its goal is given. A conscious purposeful action in learning, repeating many times, being included in other more complex actions, gradually ceases to be the object of the student's conscious control, becoming a way to perform this more complex action. These are the so-called conscious operations, former conscious actions turned into operations.
Along with "conscious" operations in activity, there are operations that were not previously recognized as purposeful actions. They arose as a result of "adapting" to certain conditions of life.
From the position of the student, first of all, the actions of goal-setting, programming, planning, performing actions, actions of control (self-control), evaluation (self-assessment) are distinguished. Each of them corresponds to a certain stage of educational activity and implements it. So, any activity, for example, solving the problem of writing a text, calculating, begins with the realization of the goal as an answer to the question “why”, “for what purpose am I doing this”. But asking such questions, finding answers, and subordinating one's behavior to this decision is a complex set of actions. At the same time, constant evaluation and control of its process and result is carried out in the form of actions of comparison, correction, etc.
In correlation with the mental activity of the student, mental, perceptual, mnemonic actions are distinguished, that is, intellectual actions that make up internal mental activity. Each of them breaks up into smaller actions (under certain conditions - operations). So, mental actions (or logical) include, first of all, such operations as comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, classification.
Along with mental actions, perceptual and mnemonic actions and operations are realized in educational actions. Perceptual actions include recognition, identification, and so on, mnemonic - imprinting, as well as filtering information, structuring it, saving, updating, etc.
In educational activities, reproductive and productive actions are also distinguished (D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, A.K. Markova, L.L. Gurova, O.K. Tikhomirov, E.D. Telegina, V.V. Gagay and others .). Reproductive include, first of all, performing, reproducing actions. If analytical, synthetic, control-evaluative and other actions are carried out according to specified criteria, in a template way, they are also reproductive. The actions of transformation, transformation, reconstruction, as well as control, evaluation, analysis and synthesis, carried out according to independently formed criteria, are considered productive. In other words, three groups of actions can be distinguished in educational activities according to the criterion of productivity and reproduction. Actions that, according to their functional purpose, are performed according to given parameters, in a given way, are always reproductive, for example, performing; actions aimed at creating a new one, for example, goal setting, are productive. The intermediate group consists of actions that, depending on the conditions, can be either one or the other (for example, control actions).
An analysis of the actions and operations included in the educational activity allows us to present it as a multi-object space for managing their development, where each of the objects acts as an independent subject of mastery and control for the student.

2.4. Control (self-control), assessment (self-assessment) in the structure of educational activities

The structure of learning activities gives a very significant place to the actions of assessment and control, as well as the self-control and self-assessment arising from them. This is due to the fact that any educational action becomes regulated and arbitrary only if there is control and evaluation.
The structure of educational activity assigns three links to control:
- the image of the desired result;
- comparison of the image and the real action;
– the decision to correct or continue the action.
The concept and structure of learning activities also outline four stages during which self-control is manifested, if applied to the assimilation of educational material. The first stage is the most impartial - the absence of any self-control at all. Students have not yet mastered any educational material, which means they cannot control it. The second stage, the concept and structure of educational activity, is defined as complete self-control. Here the student is already able to show the correctness and completeness of his own reproduction of the learned material. The third stage is already characterized as the stage of self-control, which the student chooses for himself. That is, the student already controls himself, checks himself on the main issues on his own. The fourth stage no longer involves third-party control, and self-control becomes less visible - this is due to the fact that it is already carried out automatically, as if on the basis of the student's previous experience. Control over the performance of an action is carried out by a feedback mechanism or feedback afferentation in the overall structure of activity as a complex functional system (P.K. Anokhin). Two forms of feedback were identified - guiding and resulting. In any case, any information about the process or result of an action is a feedback that controls, regulates and manages.
In the general scheme of the functional system, the main link where the “model of the required future” (according to N.A. Bernshtein) or “the image of the result of the action” (P.K. Anokhin) and information about its actual implementation is compared is defined as the “action acceptor” (P.K. Anokhin). The result of comparing what was supposed to be obtained and what is obtained is the basis for continuing the action (in case of their coincidence) or correction (in case of mismatch).
The significance of the role of control (self-control) and assessment (self-assessment) in the structure of activity is due to the fact that it reveals the internal mechanism for the transition of the external into the internal, i.e. the actions of control and evaluation of the teacher into the actions of self-control and self-esteem of the student. This transition is prepared by the questions of the teacher, fixing the most important, the main. The teacher, as it were, creates a general program of such control, which serves as the basis for self-control.
Similarly to self-control, the formation of substantive self-assessment in the structure of activity takes place. This determines one more position of the importance of control (self-control), assessment (self-assessment) for the overall structure of educational activity. Accordingly, it is determined by the fact that it is in these components that the connection between the activity and the personal is focused, it is in them that the subject procedural action turns into a personal, quality, property. This situation once again testifies to the internal continuity of the two components of the personal-activity approach to the educational process, its expediency and realism.
Learning activities, like games, unlike practical activities, do not have an external product. Its result is a change in the cognizing subject itself. From not knowing, not knowing how, he turns into knowing and able. Therefore, control and evaluation in educational activities are special, different from control and evaluation in practical activities. These actions in educational activities are self-control and self-esteem, that is, they belong to the sphere of self-consciousness of the individual. Evaluation action - those actions with the help of which we evaluate the success of mastering the learning task.
Inadequate self-esteem of the student negatively affects the overall learning outcomes, the formation of personal qualities and life position. Adequate self-assessment reflects the student's real idea of ​​what has been achieved and what he is striving for.

CONCLUSION

In the process of learning activities, students adopt the experience of the older generation. Each new generation receives knowledge about the world only through direct contact with the surrounding reality, but young people do not discover this knowledge themselves, but receive it from the older generation. It is the activity and precisely the students themselves, but organized by teachers and teachers with whom the students collaborate in the process of its implementation.
An important component of learning activity is the learning task. In the process of solving it, like any practical task, there are certain changes in the objects studied by the student or in ideas about them, but as a result, the acting subject itself changes. A learning task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes in the subject have occurred.
The implementation of educational activities is a consistently performed by the student educational actions or operations to solve an educational problem, driven by a certain motive. The purpose of this activity is the assimilation of theoretical knowledge.
The very process of solving problems by students is the learning activities, which include the following elements: setting a learning task by the teacher in front of the student or the student himself in front of himself; acceptance of the task by students for solution; the student's transformation of the learning task in order to discover in it some general relationship of the subject being studied (recognition of the general in this particular task); building a system of particular tasks on a given problem, solved in a general way (such tasks can be made by both the teacher and offer them to students, and the student himself, taking them from life); control over the execution of the previous action in order to correctly proceed to the next action; and, finally, assessment (self-assessment) of the success of all actions as a result of mastering the general way of solving a learning problem (in psychology, such a result can be a confident mastery of the method of reasoning when solving creative problems). Consistent implementation of all the indicated elements of each educational action constitutes the whole educational activity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amonashvili Sh.A. Establishment of humane relations in the learning process. / In the book. Reader in psychology. - M., Education, 1987.
Berlyand I.E. On the Problems of Pedagogical Psychology of Primary Education in the School of Dialogue of Cultures. / School of Dialogue of Cultures: Ideas. Experience. Problems. Kemerovo, 1993. .
Bibler V.S. Thinking as creativity. M. 1975. - 499 p.
Bozhovich E.D. Psychological problems education in a secondary school. / school zdo
etc.................

Educational activity has a certain structure. Let us briefly consider the components of educational activity, in accordance with the ideas of D.B. Elkonin.

The first component is motivation. The educational and cognitive motives are based on the cognitive need and the need for self-development. This is an interest in the content side of educational activity, in what is being studied, and an interest in the process of educational activity - how, in what ways, educational tasks are solved.

It is also a motive for one's own growth, self-improvement, development of one's abilities.

The second component is the learning task, i.e. a system of tasks in which the child masters the most common methods of action. The learning task must be distinguished from individual tasks. Usually, children, solving many specific problems, spontaneously discover for themselves a general way of solving them.

The third component is training operations, they are part of the method of action. Operations and the learning task are considered to be the main link in the structure of learning activity. The operator content will be those specific actions that the child performs when solving particular problems.

The fourth component is control. Initially, the teacher supervises the educational work of children. But gradually they begin to control it themselves, learning this partly spontaneously, partly under the guidance of a teacher. Without self-control, a full-fledged deployment of educational activities is impossible, therefore, teaching control is an important and complex pedagogical task.

The fifth component of the structure of learning activity is assessment. The child, controlling his work, must learn and adequately evaluate it. At the same time, it is not enough overall assessment- how correctly and efficiently the task was completed; you need an assessment of your actions - whether a method for solving problems has been mastered or not, what operations have not yet been worked out.

The teacher, evaluating the work of students, is not limited to putting a mark. For the development of children's self-regulation, it is not the mark as such that is important, but a meaningful assessment - an explanation of why this mark is set, what are the pros and cons of the answer or written work.

The teacher sets certain guidelines - evaluation criteria that must be learned by the children. But children have their own criteria for evaluation. Younger students highly appreciate their work if they spent a lot of time on it, invested a lot of effort, effort, regardless of what they got as a result. They are usually more critical of other children's work than their own. In this regard, students are taught to evaluate not only their own work, but also the work of classmates according to criteria common to all.

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EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

MGU IM. A.A. KULESHOVA

FACULTY: PEDAGOGICAL FACULTY

Test

in Pedagogy

Topic: "Learning activity, its structure"

1st year students of OZO

Starovoitova Maria Vladimirovna

Mogilev 2013

INTRODUCTION

Learning activity has an external structure, consisting of such basic components as motivation; learning tasks in certain situations in various forms of assignments; learning activities; control turning into self-control; appraisal that turns into self-assessment. Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics.

Describing the structural organization of educational activities in the general context of D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova, I.I. Ilyasov notes that “... educational situations and tasks are characterized by the fact that here the student receives a task to master the general mode of action and the goal of mastering it, as well as samples and instructions for finding common ways to solve problems of a certain class. Learning actions are the actions of students in obtaining and finding scientific concepts and general methods of action, as well as in reproducing and applying them to solving specific problems. Control actions are aimed at summarizing the results of their learning actions with given samples. Evaluation activities capture the final quality of assimilation of given scientific knowledge and general ways of solving problems. The concept of "task" has a long history of development in science. In psychological terms, in domestic science, one of the first researchers who considered the category of a task was M.Ya. Basov (1892-1931). Analyzing the activity of the child, he noted that for a wide variety of educational and life situations, the moment of the task as such is common. This general moment is connected with the need for a person to discover what he does not yet know and what cannot simply be seen in an object; to do this, he will need a certain action with this item. In his writings, he substantiated the expediency of using the concept of a task in psychology simultaneously with the terms "action", "goal" and "task". training educational activity motive task

After analyzing the theoretical material on the topic, I put forward the purpose of the work: the study of educational activity, its structure.

Based on the definition of learning activity as a specific activity of the subject in mastering generalized methods of action, aimed at his self-development on the basis of solving learning tasks specially set by the teacher and solved by the student through educational actions, we note that the learning task is the main unit of learning activity. The main difference between the learning task and any other tasks, according to D.B. Elkonin lies in the fact that its goal and result is to change the subject himself, and not the objects with which the subject acts.

Let's take a closer look at this topic.

CHAPTER 1. THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING ACTIVITY, ITS STRUCTURE

1. Characteristics of the learning process

Education is a specific type of pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), the socially conditioned tasks of educating a person in close relationship with her upbringing and development.

A correct understanding of the learning process itself includes the necessary characteristics:

1) learning is a specific human form of transferring social experience: through tools and objects of labor, language and speech, specially organized educational activities, the experience of previous generations is transmitted and assimilated;

2) learning is impossible without the presence of interaction between the student and the teacher, without the presence of the "counter" activity of the student, without his corresponding work, called learning. “Teaching is work full of activity and thought,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky. Knowledge cannot be transferred mechanically from one head to another. The result of communication is determined not only by the activity of the teacher, but also to the same extent by the activity of the student, by their very relationship;

3) learning is not a mechanical addition to existing psychological processes, but a qualitative change in everything inner world, the entire psyche and personality of the student. During assimilation (as the highest stage of learning), there is a kind of transfer of knowledge from the outside to the inside (internalization), which is why the studied material becomes, as it were, the personal property of the individual, her own and open to her. A specific feature of educational activity is the activity of self-change. Its goal and result is a change in the subject himself, which consists in mastering certain modes of action, and not in changing the objects with which the subject acts.

General goals learning:

1) the formation of knowledge (a system of concepts) and methods of activity (methods of cognitive activity, skills and abilities);

2) increasing the overall level mental development, changing the very type of thinking and the formation of needs and abilities for self-learning, the ability to learn.

During the learning process, you need to solve the following tasks:

Stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;

Organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;

Development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;

Improvement of educational skills and abilities;

Development of a scientific outlook and moral and aesthetic culture.

Thus, education- this is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and knowledge are assimilated.

Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates for the activity of the student the necessary conditions, directs it, controls it, provides it with the necessary means and information.

2. Teaching as an activity

Under the activity in psychology, it is customary to understand the active interaction of a person with the environment in which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the appearance of a certain need, motive. The types of activities that ensure the existence of a person and the formation of him as a person are communication, play, teaching, work.

Teaching takes place where a person's actions are controlled by the conscious goal of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, behaviors and activities. Teaching - specific human activity, and it is possible only at that stage of development of the human psyche, when he is able to regulate his actions with a conscious goal. Teaching demands cognitive processes(memory, intelligence, imagination, mental flexibility) and volitional qualities (attention control, regulation of feelings, etc.).

Learning activity combines not only the cognitive functions of activity (perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination), but also needs, motives, emotions, and will.

Any activity is a set of some physical actions, practical or verbal. If teaching is an activity, then can it be carried out without external and visible forms? Studies by scientists have shown that in addition to practical activities, a person is also able to carry out a special gnostic(cognitive) activity. Its purpose is the knowledge of the surrounding world.

Gnostic activity, like practical activity, can be objective and external. It can also be a perceptual activity or a symbolic activity. Unlike practical activity, gnostic activity can also be internal, or at least not observable. Thus, perception is often carried out with the help of externally unobservable perceptual actions that ensure the formation of the image of the object. Memory processes are implemented by special mnemonic actions (highlighting semantic connections, mental schematization and repetition). Special studies have found that the most extensive forms of thinking are carried out through special mental actions performed by a person "to himself" (for example, the actions of analysis and synthesis, identification and distinction, abstraction and generalization). In the learning process, these activities are usually closely intertwined. Thus, studying the classification of plants, the student examines them (perceptual activity), separates the main parts of the flower (objective activity), describes what he sees (symbolic or speech activity), sketches (objective perceptual activity), etc. In different cases, the ratio of these types of activity is different, but in all cases the teaching is expressed in active gnostic activity, which often has internal forms.

The works of many psychologists (Vygotsky, Leontiev, Halperin, Piaget, and others) have shown that internal activity arises from external activity in the process of internalization, due to which the objective action is reflected in the consciousness and thinking of a person. For example, the objective action of separating, disassembling a thing into parts, when solving the corresponding problems, is replaced by an action in the mind (dismemberment of a thing on the basis of its image or concept of it). The objective action turns into a process of internalization, into the action of mental analysis. Systems of such mental (mental) actions, unfolding in an ideal plan, are internal activities.

It has been established that the main means of interiorization is the word. It allows a person, as it were, to “tear off” the action from the object itself and turn it into an action with images and a concept of the object.

External gnostic activity is obligatory for teaching, when images, concepts about the subject and the actions corresponding to them have not yet been formed in the human mind. If the child already has the images, concepts and actions necessary for mastering new knowledge and skills, then internal gnostic activity is sufficient for learning.

When deciding on the nature of educational activity, it is necessary first of all to analyze what kind of knowledge and skills the assimilation of new material requires. If the student does not yet possess certain images, concepts and actions, then the teaching must begin with objective gnostic activity. The student must carry out the appropriate actions with his own hands. Then, highlighting and reinforcing them with the help of words, he should gradually translate their implementation into an ideal one. inner plan. If the student already owns the arsenal of the necessary initial concepts and actions, then he can begin teaching directly from the internal gnostic activity. In this case, the student can be presented with the appropriate words, since he already knows what they mean and what actions are necessary with them. This is the basis of traditional communication and demonstration teaching. It corresponds to such learning methods as listening, reading, observing.

Educational activity is the leading activity at school age. Under the leading activity is understood such activity, in the process of which the formation of the main mental processes and personality traits, neoplasms appear that correspond to age (arbitrariness, reflection, self-control, internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child's education in school. Educational activity is especially intensively formed during the period of primary school age.

In the course of educational activities, changes occur:

In the level of knowledge, skills and abilities;

In the level of formation of individual aspects of educational activity;

In mental operations, personality traits, i.e. in the level of general and mental development.

Educational activity is, first of all, an individual activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like work, educational activity is characterized by goals and objectives, motives. Like the adult doing the work, the student must know what make, why, as, see your mistakes, control and evaluate yourself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own; he does not have teaching skills. In the process of learning activities, the student not only masters knowledge, skills and abilities, but also learns to set educational tasks (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, control and evaluate their actions.

3. Structure of educational activity. Psychological components

Educational activity has an external structure, consisting of the following elements (according to B.A. Sosnovsky):

1) educational situations and tasks - as the presence of a motive, a problem, its acceptance by students;

2) learning activities aimed at solving relevant problems;

3) control - as the ratio of the action and its result with the given samples;

4) assessment - as a fixation of the quality (but not quantity) of the learning outcome, as a motivation for subsequent learning activities, work.

Each of the components of the structure of this activity has its own characteristics. At the same time, being by nature intellectual activity, learning activity is characterized by the same structure as any other intellectual act, namely: the presence of a motive, a plan (design, program), execution (implementation) and control

The learning task acts as a specific learning task that has a clear goal, but in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to take into account the conditions under which the action must be carried out. According to A.N. Leontiev, a task is a goal given under certain conditions. As the learning tasks are completed, the student himself changes. Learning activity can be represented as a system of learning tasks that are given in certain learning situations and involve certain learning activities.

The learning task acts as a complex system of information about some object, a process in which only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown, which needs to be found using existing knowledge and solution algorithms, combined with independent guesses and the search for optimal solutions.

In the general structure of educational activity, a significant place is given to the actions of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-assessment). This is due to the fact that any other educational action becomes arbitrary, regulated only in the presence of monitoring and evaluation in the structure of activity.

Control involves three links: 1) a model, an image of the required, desired result of an action; 2) the process of comparing this image and the real action; and 3) making a decision to continue or correct the action. These three links represent the structure of the subject's internal control over its implementation.

P.P. Blonsky outlined four stages of the manifestation of self-control in relation to the assimilation of material. The first stage is characterized by the absence of any self-control. The student at this stage has not mastered the material and, accordingly, cannot control anything. The second stage is complete self-control. At this stage, the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material. The third stage is characterized as the stage of selective self-control, in which the student controls, checks only the main points on the questions. At the fourth stage, there is no visible self-control, it is carried out, as it were, on the basis of past experience, on the basis of some minor details, signs.

In learning activities there are many psychological components:

Motive (external or internal), corresponding desire, interest, positive attitude towards learning;

Meaningfulness of activity, attention, consciousness, emotionality, manifestation of volitional qualities;

Orientation and activity of activity, a variety of types and forms of activity: perception and observation as work with sensually presented material; thinking as an active processing of the material, its understanding and assimilation (various elements of the imagination are also present here); the work of memory as a systemic process, consisting of memorization, preservation and reproduction of material, as a process inseparable from thinking;

Practical use of the acquired knowledge and skills in subsequent activities, their clarification and adjustment.

Learning motivation is defined as a particular type of motivation included in the activities of learning, learning activities. Like any other type, learning motivation is determined by a number of factors specific to this activity:

1) the educational system itself, educational institution where educational activities are carried out;

2) organization of the educational process;

3) the subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, abilities, level of claims, self-esteem, his interaction with other students, etc.);

4) the subjective characteristics of the teacher and, above all, the system of his relations to the student, to the case;

5) the specifics of the subject.

A necessary condition for creating students' interest in the content of education and in the learning activity itself is the opportunity to show mental independence and initiative in learning. The more active the teaching methods, the easier it is to interest students in them. The main means of fostering a sustainable interest in learning is the use of such questions and tasks, the solution of which requires active search activity from students.

An important role in the formation of interest in learning is played by the creation of a problem situation, the collision of students with a difficulty that they cannot resolve with the help of their stock of knowledge; faced with difficulty, they are convinced of the need to acquire new knowledge or apply old knowledge in a new situation.

All the constituent elements of the structure of educational activity and all its components require a special organization, special formation. All these tasks are complex, requiring for their solution appropriate knowledge and considerable experience and constant everyday creativity.

4. Characteristics of educational activities

The concept of educational activity is considered from the standpoint of the concept of educational activity, developed since the beginning of the 60s (D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, V.V. Repkin, etc.). Learning activity is understood as special shape activity of the student, aimed at changing himself as the subject of teaching, after which it begins to act as the direct basis of its development.

By the time the child enters school, he is the subject of various types of activities, and he develops a need to expand the sphere of self-realization as a subject. However, he does not have the need for self-change, much less the ability to do so. Both can arise, take shape and develop only in the process of schooling. The transformation of the child into a subject interested in self-change and capable of it is the main content of the development of the student. Whether this opportunity is realized or not is another matter: a child can participate in the educational process as a subject only if he acquires the ability to independently find ways to solve the problems that arise before him. And such opportunities are determined by the conditions that will be created in the learning process.

Due to the assimilation of methods for solving various particular problems, it is impossible to develop the ability to independently find ways to solve it - you need to master the general principles for solving problems of certain classes. To do this, the student must discover the internal properties and relationships of the objects of action, i.e., their properties that determine the patterns of their functioning and transformation. The latter, however, constitutes the content of a scientific (theoretical) concept, and mastery of a system of such concepts is a prerequisite and basis for independently determining methods for solving problems of a certain class. In order for the general principle of construction of actions to be created by the student precisely in this capacity, the student must act with the object, revealing the properties of this object in the course of the changes that occur, analyzing and generalizing the conditions of the problem, fixing them in the form of a concept. In fact, this is a completely special activity, fundamentally different from ordinary actions when assimilating a ready-made system of concepts offered by traditional education - that is why it was called “quasi-research” (V.V. Davydov). Such an activity certainly requires a critical comparison of its process and result with the methods and results of other students, therefore, such a form of communication between students and the teacher as a collective educational dialogue becomes extremely important. It creates conditions for the so-called "exchange of activities" between its participants, which is a kind of activity form, called collectively distributed activity.

If all these features are provided in the educational process, then the task of finding the principles for constructing a certain action becomes profound for the student. personal meaning, acts as a task for self-change, and thus becomes a proper learning task. Then, finally, there are opportunities to form all the components of educational activity and the mechanisms of its regulation. There is an interest of the student not only in the successful solution of individual educational problems, but also in their systems, and as a result, there is a need for self-change. Growing interest increasingly combines individual learning activities and their complexes into a complex system, and this process leads to the emergence and subsequent development of monitoring and evaluation activities as independent components of learning activities. Their appearance means that the structure of the teaching is filled with all the components, and then there is a specific generalization of the ways of implementing individual systems of educational actions into a holistic education that provides what is usually called the ability to learn.

Thus, the picture of the formation of educational activity unfolded in time is a multifaceted, complex process, and its course can go in many different ways. The central dependencies are determined by how the formation of the leading components of this process will be ensured: the motives of educational activity, goal-setting features, educational actions, control and evaluation.

5. Characteristics of the components of educational activity

1. Characteristics of motives

The motive is a source of activity and performs the function of motivation and meaning formation. To characterize the motive means to answer the question for the sake of which the activity is performed. Thanks to the motive, activity is not closed in on itself, it leads it out, orients it to something wider, lying beyond its limits. It is this orientation that acts as a source of activity, giving it meaning and motivation. This is something broader, outside of activity, should be exceptionally significant, important for the individual. The strength of the motive is determined by the degree of this significance. Activity without a motive or with a weak motive is either not carried out at all, or it turns out to be extremely unstable.

The specific motives of a student's educational activity can be the desire for encouragement, the fear of punishment for failure, etc. Such motives for educational activity, not related to the educational process, but brought into it from the outside, are called external motivation. If the motive of educational activity is interest in the educational activity itself, in its content, then such motivation is called internal or educational-cognitive interest. It is he, unlike other possible motives, that can only ensure the flow of full-fledged educational activity, since he directs the student directly to the process of solving meaningful educational problems.

Educational and cognitive interest different students may have varying degrees of intensity, take various forms manifestations, be updated with greater or lesser ease, mainly in one or another educational situation, etc. All these features of the manifestation of educational and cognitive interest are the subject of its diagnosis.

2. Characteristics of the goal and goal setting

The motive is usually realized by setting and achieving some goal. A goal is a representation of a specific result to be achieved. It performs the function of a direction of activity. To characterize the goal means to answer the questions: what exactly should be achieved as a result, what exactly should the activity be directed to?

The emergence of goals, their selection, definition, awareness is called goal setting. Goal setting has two forms: 1) self-determination of the goal in the course of the activity as one of the stages of its implementation, 2) determination of the goal based on the requirements put forward by someone, tasks. In the educational process, the second case is almost the leading one, and special attention is paid to it. The fact is that the external demand made to the student by the teacher (what exactly and how exactly should be done) does not always turn into the goal that the student sets himself. This requirement must be fully accepted, but this is not always the case: external goals are often distorted, changed, which actually leads to a redefinition of the goal. Purpose is most often redefined by students in the direction of “fitting” well-formed, automated ways of doing things.

There are two main types of goal setting. Goal-setting of one type provides the possibility of accepting only particular tasks for mastering the patterns of actions set by someone, “ready-made” knowledge, when the main intermediate tasks are to understand, remember, reproduce. Goal-setting of another type ensures the adoption and then independent setting of new educational tasks, in which the analysis of the condition becomes the main one, the choice of the appropriate method of action, control and evaluation of its application, etc.

3. Characteristics of learning activities

The implementation of the motives and goals of educational activity is carried out in the process of the student fulfilling the system of educational actions. To characterize learning actions means to describe what exactly and how exactly the student does in the direction of achieving the goal. Learning activities include specific ways of transforming educational material in the process of completing learning tasks. The content and “depth” of such a transformation of the material can be different, it is determined by the composition of the methods of learning actions that the student has, and the degree of their formation, mastery.

Specific learning activities are extremely diverse and their composition is closely related to the content of the learning tasks to be solved. These are, for example, actions but the analysis of the conditions of the problem, to highlight the essential in the phenomenon, but the application of specific grammatical or arithmetic rules when performing a new task, etc. In this case, it may turn out that some actions in the child are well formed, while others are insufficiently formed, and it is extremely difficult to take into account all this variety of actions.

Therefore, when assessing the formation of educational actions, one should, if possible, abstract from their specific composition when the student solves a particular educational task, and take into account mainly only their generalized characteristics, such as the degree of independence in the process of solving the problem, awareness of the methods of the action performed, the possibility of its implementation in modified conditions, etc. These and other generalized characteristics of educational actions constitute the subject of their diagnosis.

4. Characteristics of the control action

The condition for the normal course of educational activities is the presence of control over their implementation. The function of control is to constantly monitor the progress of the implementation of educational activities, the correctness of the sequence of stages of the action, the correctness of the performance of actions at each stage. This is manifested in the timely detection of various large and small errors in their implementation, as well as making the necessary adjustments to them.

The features of the action of control for different students can be different, and these differences can manifest themselves in the degree of automation of its course (whether it is a detailed independent action or is included in the process of performing educational actions), in its direction (the process of performing actions is controlled or only their results) , in the criteria on the basis of which control is built (materialized or ideally represented scheme-sample), in the time of its implementation (after the action, in the course of the action and before its beginning), etc. These and other characteristics of control are the subject of its diagnostics.

5. Characteristics of the evaluation action

Evaluation performs the function of summing up the results of the completed system of actions, which is manifested primarily in the achievability of the goals set. The degree of achievability (or unattainability) of the set goal, the correctness of the selected (designed) action, the possibility (or impossibility) of solving it are assessed. The final assessment, as it were, authorizes the fact of completion of actions (if it is positive) or encourages the student to an in-depth analysis of the conditions of the task, the possibilities of solving it (if it is negative). The assessment made by the student before solving the problem allows him to adequately determine his capabilities in solving it and plan his activities in accordance with this.

Different students have different characteristics of the assessment action. The differences are whether the student feels or does not feel the need to evaluate his actions, relies on his own assessment or on the marks of the teacher, takes into account the content of the actions performed by him or only accompanying random signs, may or may not be able to assess in advance his capabilities regarding solving the upcoming task, etc. All these characteristics of the evaluation action constitute the subject of its diagnosis.

CHAPTER 2. LEARNING TASK - THE BASIC UNIT OF LEARNING ACTIVITY

So, a little higher we said that the minimum "unit", "cell" of the educational process is the educational task. What does she represent? If you ask yourself the question - what is the “cell” of the learning content to be mastered, then, obviously, the following set of them suggests itself:

Concept (including categories). Further, by means of concepts, the following are formulated: facts (first of all, scientific facts); statements (provisions) - axioms, theorems, provisions of state laws, etc.; on the basis of concepts, facts and statements, their relations (interrelations) are built: theories, laws, ideas, etc.;

image, including literary image e.g. a poem artistic image, for example, a picture, etc.; and, accordingly, relations (interrelations) of images;

Operation - perceptual, mental, technological, etc. Actions are made up of actions.

Obviously, this is the complete set of elementary components of the content of education. Perhaps, here (at an early age) letters can be attributed as structural units of words that carry concepts, numbers. Including at a later age - some numbers like p, e (the base of the natural logarithm), physical and other constants, symbols (for example, pictograms, road signs, etc.). It is from these "atoms" that, obviously, all the content of education consists.

Let us now consider how the organization (self-organization) of the process of solving educational problems by students is interpreted.

In traditional (explanatory and illustrative) training, the following learning activities of students are distinguished:

“-- accepting the learning objectives and action plan proposed by the teacher;

Implementation of training activities and operations to solve the tasks;

Regulation of educational activities under the influence of teacher control and self-control;

Analysis of the results of educational activities carried out under the guidance of a teacher.

In problem learning:

“-- detection of contradictions, inconsistencies, unknown moments in the material to be studied, the emergence of a desire to overcome them (creation of a problem situation);

Analysis of the condition of the problem, establishing dependencies between data, between the condition and the question;

Dividing the main problem into sub-problems and drawing up a plan, a solution program;

Actualization of knowledge and methods of activity and their correlation with the condition of the problem being solved;

Proposing a hypothesis (or hypotheses);

Selection and implementation of a system of actions and operations to detect what is being sought (the solution itself);

Verification of the solution;

Concretization of the obtained results.»

In developmental education:

“- acceptance from the teacher or independent setting of the educational task;

Transformation of the conditions of the problem in order to discover the general relationship of the object under study;

Modeling of the selected relation in subject, graphic and letter forms;

Transformation of the relationship model to study its properties in a "pure form";

Construction of a system of particular problems solved in a general way;

Monitoring the implementation of previous actions;

Evaluation of the assimilation of the general method as a result of solving this educational problem.

Similarly, the stages of solving educational problems are constructed in the literature on educational psychology.

As you can see, despite some differences in interpretations, there is much in common in the logic of organizing the process of solving educational problems. What is this? Yes, it’s just that the logic of the process of solving a learning problem in all of the above options corresponds to the logic of organizing a project in its modern sense as a completed mini-cycle productive activity with all its phases, stages and stages. So, in the design phase there is both problem identification, and modeling (building hypotheses), and dividing the main problem into subproblems (decomposition), and studying conditions, etc. Therefore, it seems appropriate to take the general temporal structure of the project, adopted in system analysis, in project management, and generally everywhere, as a general model for organizing the process of solving educational problems. And in order to solve a particular educational problem in a particular methodological system of education, certain stages and stages will be omitted from this general model.

But let us draw the reader's attention to the fact that in all known didactic and psychological sources there are no at least two obligatory for any project, including for the educational task of the stage-component. This is, firstly, the definition of criteria. As a student, by what criteria can he independently determine whether he has solved the learning task or not? Has he mastered the given concept, theory, etc.? In the best case, for example-exercises in mathematics, physics, chemistry, answers are given in the problem books. And in all other cases? What answer of the memorized lesson can be considered complete, and what is not - here the student must rely entirely on the personal taste and mood of the teacher, the teacher - how he will evaluate the answer. Or a schoolboy wrote an essay - but in the end he received back his notebook with a resolution: "the topic is not disclosed -" 3 ". And what are the student's criteria for "discovering the topic"? What essay can be considered "exemplary"? Many textbooks in recent times at the end of each section, topic, etc. the so-called " test questions”, “Questions for self-control”. But these are very weak "props" for the student. In general, the methodological criteria apparatus for self-organization of students' learning activities has been developed extremely insufficiently - if not more strongly - not developed at all!

Indeed, for example, the vast majority professional activities people are built according to clearly defined criteria: the worker is given classes of accuracy and cleanliness of working out parts, production standards; the accountant has a set of instructions, and so on. And the student is left alone with his educational tasks - and the teacher keeps the criteria in his head.

Secondly, there is no such important stage-component of any project, including the educational task, as the definition of alternatives in all publications.

In history, in modern practice of education, there are cases when students could choose learning tasks themselves. For example, in the M. Montessori system. Or in modern education -- free choice younger students learning tasks. But these are rather exceptions. The usual option is a student, the student must perform it without an alternative.

Today, in the education system, we have many alternative textbooks, problem books, etc. But the right to choose this or that textbook remains with the teacher, the professor, but not with the student. Why? It's easier? More familiar? But is it right? It may be possible to change positions, as we talked about above - to the teacher, instead of retelling the contents of the textbook, to ask students in advance this material at home for independent study using various sources they want, and then compare and discuss in class based on students' answers , students - what approaches to the description of the same material can be, how the same truths can be described in different ways, proved. Then it will become clear to students that all scientific truths are relative, scientific theories-- are model, and many facts, events (for example, in history) can be evaluated differently. In this regard, a very interesting and instructive example is given by the remarkable philosopher E.V. Ilyenkov in the article “Schools Should Teach Thinking,” written more than 40 years ago, which cites the arguments of a well-known mathematician about the reasons for the lack of a culture of mathematical (and not only mathematical) thinking among school graduates: there are too many “finally established” in the programs, too many "absolute truths"; students who are accustomed to "swallowing the fried grouse of absolute science" do not find the way to the thing itself. “I remember myself,” the scientist explained, “my school years. We were taught literature by a follower of Belinsky. And we are accustomed to look at Pushkin through his eyes, that is, through the eyes of Belinsky. Taking as undoubted everything that the teacher said about Pushkin, we saw in Pushkin himself only what the teacher said about him - and nothing more than that ... This was until Pisarev's article accidentally fell into my hands. She confused me. What? All - on the contrary, but convincingly. How to be? And only then did I take up Pushkin himself, only then did I "see" him myself, only then did I truly, and not in a school way, understand both Belinsky and Pisarev. This applies, of course, not only to Pushkin. How many people left school for life, having memorized the “undoubted” provisions of textbooks, and calmed down on that?

The naked result without a path leading to it is a corpse, dead bones, a skeleton of truth incapable of independent movement, said the great dialectician G. Hegel. The finished scientific truth, separated from the path in which it was found, turns into a verbal husk, while retaining all external signs truth. The dead truth becomes the enemy of the living, developing truth. On ready-made truths, a dogmatically ossified intellect is formed, sometimes assessed at final exams as a five, and in life it is assessed as a deuce.

But back to "our sheep". Above, we found out that the learning task is the minimum "cell" of the educational process - the minimum educational project for the student.

Now let us draw the reader's attention to the fact that without exception, all didactic and psychological sources interpret the educational process as a consistent solution of educational tasks (often they are even called not educational, but "cognitive tasks" - again the same knowledge paradigm!). " internal source its (learning process) self-movement is a constant and gradual (according to certain standards) change of educational and cognitive tasks, as they are solved, new goals and tasks are set for students. The logic of setting and solving these problems embodies the self-propulsion of learning ... "

Let's ask ourselves a question - is it right? The learning process is completely decomposed into minimal "cells" - learning tasks. And what about aggregation, composition?! Drawing, again, an analogy with a car, we have a lot of disparate parts - but where, when, by whom, how will they be assembled? Can a holistic worldview of a person, his beliefs, etc., be formed from the entire set of educational tasks, can the entire basic content of human culture be mastered in a holistic way? Obviously not. The organization of the learning process as a sequential series of learning tasks is mainly aimed at mastering scientific knowledge. For these purposes, it is quite convenient (we emphasize that it is more convenient for teachers than for students). But the modern goals of training and education are much broader.

Indeed, for the student, practically the only way to more or less form a holistic view of the course, discipline, or a separate section is preparation for a test, an exam. But with the modern formulation of the educational process, the main position that guides students, students is "surrender and forget."

Further, the process of assimilation in didactics is traditionally described by a chain: perception, understanding, comprehension, generalization, consolidation, application. All this is so. But the last link in this chain is fully called "application of acquired knowledge in practice." But what practice are we talking about? By this "application" it is lascivious to mean the performance of exercises, the solution of "problems" (in the sense of examples, exercises - see above) in the same curriculum - if the Russian language is being studied - this is an exercise in the Russian language, if mathematics - this is the solution of examples in mathematics, etc. - "without leaving" the course. This "practice" is so academic that real life, to the actual practice, the practical activity of people is no more relevant than, for example, the language of the ancient Aztecs.

In theoretical works on didactics and pedagogical psychology, the problem of applying knowledge was considered mainly in such a way that in the process of solving problems, including “practical” ones, the student must analyze the conditions that are given in it openly, explicitly, and highlight (perceive) those hidden conditions, reliance on which leads to the solution of the problem.

Meanwhile, the problem of applying knowledge in practice is much more complicated. Human activity in a new situation, when the use of available knowledge is required, consists in active knowledge of the object of activity itself, in orientation, “turning” the object from different sides, in “working out” ideas about it, isolating the subject, goals and means of one’s own activity, reformulating previous knowledge , correlating them with the current situation in different planes, in various structures relationships at different levels of communication.

In most real practical situations, the student is required to analyze and apply in interconnection many heterogeneous concepts, principles, laws from different sections of different fields of knowledge. So, for the competent choice and use of a turning tool, it is necessary to know not only the property of the wedge, which is used in all cutting tools, but also the conditions of thermal conductivity that ensure the removal of heat from the cutting surfaces, the concept of a lever, the laws of statics, the properties of the hardness of the material being processed and the cutter, static and impact strength and much more.

In order to adjust this or that electronic circuit, one must know practically all the laws of electricity and magnetism, as well as the conditions for the mechanical strength of the circuit, the conditions for heat removal, etc. Therefore, the application of theoretical knowledge in practice includes a complex process of students' search for what conditions should be taken into account, knowledge of which concepts, principles, laws should be used. In addition, the operation of the laws of physics, chemistry, etc. in practice, including in engineering, technology, is not presented in its pure form. They are "dissolved" in all specific situations. And the student can often become aware of their action only through a special cognitive activity, which must be controlled. Those. take place as part of targeted training.

Therefore, the problem of applying the theoretical knowledge of students in practical activities (real!) is still waiting for serious research. To date, the theoretical knowledge of students, unclaimed by practice, is forgotten immediately after the end of the educational program.

What about the interdisciplinary level of generalization? A graduate develops fragmentary ideas: this is from literature, this is from biology, and so on. But there is no complete picture.

Unfortunately, education has developed a tradition of creating “clean” textbooks: only professional mathematicians write mathematics textbooks, only professional physicists write physics textbooks, and so on. Moreover, they write as if other training courses do not exist at all. But, perhaps, a great reserve for overcoming the formalism of students' knowledge would be the creation of textbooks on an interdisciplinary basis - for example, mathematicians, physicists, biologists, etc. would join the creation of a textbook on chemistry. Then the student could see and feel chemistry in the general picture of the world, would see its connections with other sciences and training courses. But so far this is not happening. In my entire life, the author has only once met such an interdisciplinary textbook: "Arc and gas welding" for vocational schools by the author V.M. Rybakova (80s). In it, the presentation of each chapter was based on the broad use of students' knowledge of chemistry, physics, mathematics, electrical engineering, materials science and other disciplines. However, the fate of this textbook turned out to be sad - teachers of vocational schools themselves had long forgotten mathematics, chemistry, etc. - this textbook turned out to be “too complicated” for them and it was practically not used, but the students were taught on the traditional “naked empiricism”. So the problem of interdisciplinary aggregation, composition rests not only on textbooks, but also on the extreme professional narrowness of the outlook of the pedagogical corps.

Thus, three parallel, largely independent lines arise in the organization of the educational process:

1. The first is the solution of traditional educational tasks as mini-projects of educational activity - it still remains a necessary link in the educational process, corresponding to situational activity.

2. The second is the solution of educational tasks of the second level, corresponding to extra-situational activity - larger educational projects where students could already set goals for their activities, where they could actively apply their knowledge in various disciplines in practice, where they could communicate with each other, etc. Educational process in this case, it will be strengthened by value-oriented, transformative, communicative, aesthetic components by including the preparation of oral and written reports and messages from students; introduction of laboratory research workshops instead of sets of primitive laboratory work on ready samples; the use of business games, game modeling and other game forms of training sessions, the implementation of interdisciplinary research work etc.

3. The third is the solution of educational problems of the third, creative level, corresponding to the creative activity of the individual - large educational projects.

Such projects can most likely be implemented in practical training and educational design (which, in principle, should be something whole - after all, it is pointless to design something without implementing what is being designed) - by an organization own experience students in the implementation of integrative labor (for schoolchildren) and professional (for students) activities. To do this, students must be included in projects that they choose on their own (better) or offered by teachers, teachers who meet the following requirements:

Have a socially useful significance, market value and have certain consumers;

Feasible for a student, but they are distinguished by a high level of difficulty, the resulting product (material or spiritual) must be of high quality, degree of perfection;

formulated in the general view- require students to actively apply theoretical knowledge, as well as additional involvement of scientific, reference and other literature; economic calculations, independent development of a product project, technology for its production, an action plan for its implementation, taking into account available opportunities;

Provide opportunities for collective production activities of students, as well as their inclusion in production or research teams.

Moreover, the essence is that the student independently completes the full production cycle: from the search for the appropriate "niche" in the market of goods and services, the concept to the manufacture of the product and its implementation (sales).

Educational projects of the second and third levels, obviously, should be included in learning programs as an essential component of the educational process.

CONCLUSION

"Learning activity" is a rather ambiguous concept. There are three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and pedagogy: as a synonym for learning, teaching, learning; as the leading type of activity in primary school age; as one of the activities of students.

The concept of learning activity in psychology is one of the approaches to the learning process that implements the position on the socio-historical conditionality of mental development. It was formed on the basis of the fundamental dialectical-materialistic principle of psychology - the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity in the context of psychological activity (A.N. Leontiev) and in close connection with the theory of the gradual formation of mental activity and types of learning (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. .Talyzina).

The concept of learning activity (unlike didactic concepts) contains the prerequisites for understanding the student as a subject of cognition. The educational process itself is interpreted not as the transmission of scientific knowledge, their assimilation, reproduction, but as the development of cognitive abilities, basic mental neoplasms.

The organization of training, built on a theoretical type, according to. V.V. Davydov and his followers, is the most favorable for the mental development of the child, so the authors call such training developing.

According to D.B. Elkonin, who was one of the first to develop the theory of learning activity, learning activity is: social in its content; public in its meaning; public in the form of its implementation.

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