Creation of the "Chosen Rada"
In the late 1540s, under the young Tsar Ivan IV, a circle of figures was formed who were allowed to manage the affairs of states. The very name "Chosen Rada" was later given by Andrey Kurbsky. The rest of the members of the "Chosen Rada" were Alexei Fedorovich Adashev, confessor Sylvester, the head of the Ambassadorial Department Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty, as well as several other princes.
Initially, meetings of nobles and governors were held, at which significant issues were discussed. Subsequently, in 1549, the February meeting was held, which became the first Zemsky Sobor.
The main political strategy of the "Chosen Rada" was centralization Russian state in accordance with the civilizational model of the West. Of course, the implementation of this strategy required reforming most areas.
The transformations of all spheres of society's life were carried out by the "Chosen Rada" in the period of 1549-1560 in the field of administrative, military, church, legal, financial and other systems.
Reforms of the "Chosen Rada" in the legal and administrative systems
By the decision of the "Council of Reconciliation", held in 1549, a new set of state laws was prepared.
In 1550, the corrected Sudebnik was written. Of course, relations between peasants and feudal lords did not change, laws and norms were preserved, however, the power of feeders in the field was somewhat limited and the process of forming orders was accelerated.
Definition 1
Orders are the first functional governing bodies that were in charge of certain areas of public affairs.
The most famous of them were the Posolsky, Streletsky, Petition and other orders.
At the same time, there was a centralization of local self-government, expressed in the strengthening of the positions of the nobles in society. For example, viceroyal administrations were replaced by elective administration.
Army reform
In the mid-50s of the 16th century, the Code of Service was adopted, establishing a strict procedure for its performance. All landowners, regardless of the size of their holdings, became servants.
The government of Alexei Adashev organized a streltsy army and formed a detachment of archers to protect the tsar.
Remark 2
As a result of military reform tens of thousands of soldiers had weapons, equipment and food.
Church reforms of the Chosen One
As for the church reforms of the Chosen One, it is worth noting the adoption in 1551 of Stoglav, containing one hundred chapters-articles of Ivan the Terrible's answers on the structure of the church. Stoglav was aimed at strengthening church discipline and regulating life.
One of the intentions of Ivan the Terrible was the confiscation of land from the church, but the Chosen Council was against it. The Church tried as much as possible to strengthen its authority, which fell in the eyes of the population.
Reforms of the Chosen One in the financial system
Of course, none of the administrative reforms could be fully implemented without changing the tax system. For this purpose, a census was conducted in 1550.
Remark 3
Household taxation was replaced by land taxation. In the central territory, a separate tax unit called the “big plow” was introduced, the value of which varied depending on the position of the landowners. In general, the payment of taxes became more and more centralized.
In general, we can say that the reforms of the Chosen One were ambiguous and compromise. They were aimed at strengthening power and improving the position of the nobility, but their implementation was interrupted due to the resignation of the Chosen Council in 1560.
"The Chosen Rada" is a term introduced by Prince A. M. Kurbsky to refer to the circle of people who made up the informal government under Ivan the Terrible in 1549-1560. The term itself is found only in the work of Kurbsky, while Russian sources of that time do not give this circle of people any official name.
Creation
The formation of a select circle of people around the tsar takes place after the events in Moscow in the summer of 1547: fire, and then the uprising of Muscovites. According to Kurbsky's version, during these events, Archpriest Sylvester, and “threatened the king with a terrible spell from the Holy Scriptures,<...>to<...>stop his rampages and temper his violent temper.
Compound
The composition of the Chosen Rada is the subject of discussion. Definitely, the priest of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral, the tsar's confessor Sylvester and a young figure from a not very noble family A.F. Adashev participated in the "Rada".
On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Chosen Rada as an institution led exclusively by the three above-mentioned persons.
Activity
The elected Council lasted until 1560. She carried out transformations that received the names of the reforms of the middle of the 16th century.
Reforms of the Chosen One are glad:
First Zemsky Sobor 1549 - an organ of class representation, providing a link between the center and places, Ivan IV's speech from the frontal place: condemnation of the wrong boyar rule, announcement of the need for reforms.
Sudebnik 1550 - development of the provisions of the Sudebnik Ivan III, limiting the power of governors and volosts, strengthening the control of the tsarist administration, a single amount of court fees, preserving the right of peasants to go to St. George's Day.
Stoglavy Cathedral 1551 - the unification of church rites, the recognition of all locally revered saints as all-Russian, the establishment of a rigid icon-painting canon, requirements for improving the morals of the clergy, the prohibition of usury among priests.
Military reform 1556 - the Code of Service was adopted: restriction of parochialism for a period hostilities, in addition to the equestrian local militia, the organization of a permanent army - archers, gunners, a single order of military service.
Formation of the command system.
In 1556, a reform of local government was carried out.
The reforms of the Elected Rada outlined the path to strengthening, centralization of the state, contributed to the formation of a class-representative state.
Fall of the Chosen Rada
Some historians see the reason for the royal disfavor in the fact that Ivan IV was dissatisfied with the disagreements between some members of the Rada and the late Anastasia Zakharyina-Yuryeva, the first wife of the tsar. This is also confirmed by the fact that after the death of his second wife, Maria Temryukovna, Ivan the Terrible also arranged the executions of those who were objectionable to the tsarina and accused the boyars of having "exterminated" (poisoned) Maria.
In 1553 Ivan the Terrible fell ill. The disease was so severe that the Boyar Duma raised the question of the transfer of power. Ivan forced the boyars to swear allegiance to their infant son, Tsarevich Dmitry. But among the members of the Rada, an idea arose to transfer the Moscow throne to the tsar's cousin, Vladimir, Prince Staritsky. In particular, Sylvester noted that Vladimir's quality is that he loves advisers. However, Ivan recovered from his illness, and the conflict, at first glance, was settled. But the king did not forget this story and later used it against Sylvester and Adashev.
The main contradiction was the radical difference between the views of the tsar and the Rada on the issue of centralization of power in the state (the process of centralization is the process of concentrating state power). Ivan IV wanted to force this process. The elected Rada chose the path of gradual and painless reform.
The reign of Ivan the Terrible was of great importance for Russian history, for the further strengthening of the Russian state and autocratic power. The policy of Ivan IV went through two stages, as it were: the reforms of the 50s strengthened
autocratic power, limited by class-representative institutions in the center and in the regions; then the oprichnina became an attempt to establish an absolute monarchy.
Under the tsar, a "Chosen Rada" was formed (Prince Kurbsky, Alexei Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, confessor of Ivan IV Sylvester), with the help of which Ivan IV tried to implement the ideas of European absolutism in Russia, to present his power as an expression of public interests.
Elected Rada (1549) These sentiments were reflected in the formation at the court of Ivan IV in 1549 of a new government, called the Elected Rada. It included: princes
The elected council was not official government agency, but for 13 years she ruled on behalf of the king, striving for fundamental structural reforms aimed at the formation of a class-representative monarchy.
Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. Zemsky Sobor (1549) The beginning of the reforms was the convening of the first Zemsky Sobor (1549) - an advisory body, which included representatives of the nobility, clergy, merchants, townspeople. Questions were discussed at the Zemsky Sobor foreign policy, finance, complaints were listened to. The Council decided to replace the outdated Sudebnik of 1497 with a new one and formulated a program of reforms.
1) Reform of the central government. As a result of this reform, we will create new system central government - orders, specialized by type of activity. By the middle of the XVI century. in Russia there were about 20 orders. Each order was headed by a noble boyar, to whom clerks and clerks were subordinate. The orders were in charge of tax collection and the courts. Subsequently, with the strengthening of the specialization of the civil service, the number of orders also increased.
2) The reform of legislative norms led to the creation of the Sudebnik of 1550, which confirmed the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another only on St. George's Day and increased the payment for the "elderly".
The general trend towards the centralization of the country led to modifications in the taxation system, which was also legally enshrined in the Sudebnik of 1550. A single tax collection unit for the entire state was established - a large plow.
3) System reform local government. In 1556 the feeding system was abolished. Service people began to receive remuneration in the form of assistance, which was allocated by a centralized fund. According to the lip reform, power and judicial functions were assigned to the labial elders, who were elected from local nobles. This reform ensured an influx of additional funds to the treasury and strengthened the position of the nobility in the local administrative apparatus.
4) Military reform. In 1550, a permanent archery army was created from pishchalnikov in Moscow. The personal protection of the king was provided by a special detachment of 3,000 people. By the end of the XVI century. the number of streltsy troops reached 25 thousand people. The army was divided into Moscow and city orders. Streltsy were obliged to participate in hostilities, in Peaceful time engage in military training, carry out guard duty. By the end of the XVI century. the Russian army exceeded 100 thousand people. The reforms carried out have strengthened the country's armed forces.
5) Church reforms. At the Stoglavy Council, so named because its decisions were formulated in 100 chapters (1551), important decisions were made that reflected changes in the socio-political situation in the Russian state: the reforms of the Elected Rada were approved;
The unification of saints, religious rites, canons was carried out;
Measures were taken to limit monastic land ownership and royal control was established over monastic possessions.
Results of the reforms:
Reforms of the 50s of the XVI century. had the following results:
The centralization of the state and the personal power of the king increased;
The system of central and local government has become clearer and more efficient;
The military power of the country has grown;
There was a further enslavement of the Russian peasantry.
Expansion of the territory of Russia
By the end of the XVI century. Russia's territory has almost doubled in comparison with the middle of the century. It included the lands of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanates, Bashkiria. There was a development of fertile lands in the south of the country. Attempts were made to reach the Baltic Sea. Compared with the middle of the XNUMXth century. the territory of Russia during the reign of Ivan 1U increased by more than 10 times. With the entry of the lands of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia the multinational composition of the country was further strengthened. Kazan was taken by storm on October 1, 1552.
4 years later, in 1556, Astrakhan was annexed, in 1557 - Chuvashia and most of Bashkiria.
The Levonian war lasted 25 years and at the beginning was accompanied by the victories of the Russian troops. A total of 20 cities were taken. The Order has collapsed. His lands passed to Poland, Denmark and Sweden. A truce was signed. In the 11th century the territory of Russia expanded due to the inclusion of new lands of Siberia, the Southern Urals and the Left-Bank Ukraine, and the further development of the Wild Field. The borders of Russia - from the Dnieper to Pacific Ocean and from the White Sea to the possessions of the Crimean Khan, North Caucasus and Kazakh steppes. The geographical discoveries of Russian researchers also expanded the borders of Russia. In 1648 Dezhnev discovered the strait between Alaska and Chukotka. In the middle of the century, Khabarov subjugated the lands along the Amur River to Russia. Many Siberian cities were founded: Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk, Yakutsk, Irkutsk.
In wide populace growing dissatisfaction with taxes, which were unsustainable. The impetus for the uprising was a fire in Moscow at the end of the second decade of June. In terms of its size, it was huge and caused irreparable damage to the well-being of Muscovites.
Embittered people who lost all their property took to the streets of the capital on June 21, 1547.
Rumors spread among the rebels that the Glinsky princes had set fire to the city. Allegedly, their wives cut out the hearts of the dead, dried them, pounded them, and sprinkled houses and fences with the resulting powder. After that, magic spells were cast, and the powder flared up. So they set fire to Moscow buildings in which ordinary people lived.
The angry crowd tore to pieces all the princes of Glinsky, who fell under the arm. Their estates, which survived the fire, were looted and burned.
The indignant people began to look for the young tsar, but he left Moscow and took refuge in the village of Vorobyovo (Vorobyovy Gory, during the years of Soviet power were called Leninskiye Gory). A huge mass of people went to the village and on June 29 surrounded it.
The emperor went out to the people. According to available evidence, he behaved calmly and confidently. After much persuasion and promises, he managed to persuade the people to calm down and disperse. People believed the young king. Their indignant fervor faded away. The crowd moved to the ashes in order to somehow begin to equip their life.
Meanwhile, on the orders of Ivan IV, troops were drawn to Moscow. The instigators of the uprising began to be seized. Many of them were executed. Some managed to escape from the capital. But the power of the Glinskys was irrevocably undermined. The situation was aggravated by unrest in other Russian cities. All this made it clear to the king that the existing state system was ineffective. That is why he gathered around him progressively thinking people. Life itself and the instinct of self-preservation made him do it. Thus, in 1549, the Elected Council began its work on reforming state structure in the Moscow kingdom .
The first steps towards reforms were expressed in the convocation on February 27, 1549. extended meeting, which was attended by the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral, governors, as well as boyar children and "big" nobles (obviously, Moscow). February meeting of 1549. ("The Cathedral of Reconciliation") was actually the first Zemsky Sobor.
Its convocation marked the transformation of the Russian state into a class-representative monarchy, the creation of a central class-representative institution. It was extremely important that the most important state events begin to be taken with the sanction of representatives of the ruling class, among which the nobles played a significant role.
The decision of the Zemsky Sobor showed that the government was going to continue to use the support of both the boyars and the nobility. It was clearly not in favor of the feudal aristocracy, since it had to give up a number of its privileges in favor of the bulk of the service people. The abolition of the jurisdiction of the nobles (hereinafter the Sudebnik of 1550) meant the gradual formalization of the class privileges of the nobility.
Due to the fact that in February 1549. it was decided to “give judgment” if a person applied with a petition to the boyars, treasurers and butlers, a special petition hut was created, which was in charge of A. Adashev and, possibly, Sylvester.
The author of the Piskarevsky Chronicler gives the location of this "hut" at the Annunciation in the Kremlin . But in reality, the location of the petition hut is not entirely clear: near the Annunciation there was a treasury room. Not being formally a treasurer, A. Adashev in the 50s of the 16th century actually headed the activities of the state treasury .
But, in any case, the connection between the appearance of the petition hut and the reforms of the middle of the century is undeniable. Petitions addressed to the sovereign were sent to the Petition Hut, here decisions were made on them - the Petition Hut was a kind of supreme appellate agency and control body that supervised another government agency. Simultaneously with the "Council of Reconciliation" there were meetings of the church council, which established the church celebration of 16 more "saints" and examined the lives of these "wonderworkers".
In the context of the growth of the reform movement, the church sought to strengthen its falling authority by canonizing its prominent figures. After the February councils, government activity in 1549. deployed in various areas. The growth of popular movements in the city and the countryside forced the resumption of the lip reform, after the triumph of the Shuiskys in 1542. September 27, 1549 A lip order was issued to the peasants of the Kirillov Monastery.
This order testified to the growth of the influence of the nobility. Now labial affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of elected labial elders from among the children of the boyars.
The formation of various huts took place according to a functional difference, and not according to a territorial one.
This testified to the significant success of the centralization of control.
1549 was a year of active attack on the immune privileges of spiritual feudal lords . June 4, 1549 a letter was sent to Dmitrov, according to which a number of monasteries were deprived of the right to duty-free trade in Dmitrov and other cities. But the large monasteries retained their privileges.
By the end of 1549 more and more insistent voices began to be heard pushing the government to reform. Yermolai-Erasmus submitted his project to the Tsar, suggesting, at the cost of some concessions, to prevent the possibility of new unrest. He began measures to unify the system of land taxation, to provide service people with land.
The projects of I.S. Peresvetov, a defender of strong autocratic power. The centralization of the court and finances, the codification of laws, the creation of a permanent army, provided with a salary - these are some of the proposals of this "warrior" - a publicist who expressed the thoughts and aspirations of the advanced part of the nobility affected by the reformation-humanist movement.
Initially, in royal matters, the task was to issue laws that were supposed to restore the order that existed under Ivan III and Vasily III.
The reference to “father” and “grandfather” found in the legislation meant that “they tried to give the reforms the appearance of measures aimed at those abuses of power by the boyars with which the minor years of Ivan IV were “filled” ” .
After the statement about the abolition of localism, the draft outlined a number of considerations about the need to restore order in patrimonial and local law. According to the author of the project, it was necessary to check land holdings (estates, estates) and feeding in order to find out the size of possessions and the performance of military duties by service people. It was necessary to redistribute the available service fund in order to provide for land-poor and landless feudal lords.
But this project violated the original patrimonial rights of the feudal aristocracy, so the project was not implemented .
Financial reforms include the elimination of travel fees (myta) within countries.
Customs partitions between the individual lands of the Russian state, reflecting the incompleteness of the process of getting rid of economic fragmentation, hindered the further development of commodity-money relations.
If we sum up the consideration of the royal "issues" in the composition of the Elected Rada, then we can state the far-reaching intentions of the government to satisfy the land requirements of the nobles at the expense of boyar land ownership, to strengthen the army and state finances.
The composition of the "Chosen Rada" is the subject of discussion . Definitely, the priest of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral, the tsar's confessor Sylvester and a young figure from a not very noble family A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Viskovaty and others participated in the Rada. The full composition of this unofficial government is unknown.
On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Chosen Rada as an institution. For example. K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin talks about it like this: “everything that was done in this era is attributed to the “chosen council” (i.e., the closest advisers to the tsar); they say that this council was elected by Sylvester and Adashev. It is unlikely, however, that any advisers could do much without completely convincing the king of the need for changes in the existing system. I.'s exaggerated, in anger, testimony that the advisers did not allow him to step freely, testifies only to how far Sylvester extended his claims, how much the tsar was irritated against him and his supporters; but one should not think that these words were completely true. . Thus, the historian denies the very need for Rage and denies that she could lead some kind of separate from IvanIVpolitics.
R. Skrynnikov partly agrees with him, arguing that “the traditional interpretation of Kurbsky's text boils down to the fact that after the Moscow fire of 1547, Sylvester and Adashev came to power. They drove away the “petters” from the king and formed the government of the Chosen One, which carried out reforms. This interpretation is inconsistent with the facts. In the story about the Rada, the names of the "petters" are not named. But from the further narration it follows that Kurbsky considered the “shuryas” of the sovereign Zakharyins to be the main “petters”. He called them the wicked destroyers of the entire Holy Russian kingdom, noting at the same time that above he “many times” (he spoke many times) about them .... The history of the Rada cannot be connected either with the fire of 1547 or with the removal of the "petters". The Zakharins not only did not lose their influence after the fire, but, on the contrary, came into power. There was no question of any replacement of "caresses" with wise men - a rada. We have to admit that Kurbsky's muddled story can only give a wrong idea of the government of reforms in the middle of the 16th century .... " .
Thus, the researcher does not consider the Rada to be a real institution. However, he is convinced of the reality of the so-called. The Near Duma - “Unlike the Elected Rada, the Near Duma was a real institution that operated for many years. To solve current affairs, the authorities gathered a few "near people" who had a direct bearing on the agenda. In a critical situation, the Middle Duma was assembled in full strength"
). It was the time of reforms.
At the beginning of his reign, Ivan IV surrounded himself with far-sighted and intelligent people whom he trusted. Among them were the nobleman Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, the priest Sylvester, and the head of the Ambassadorial Department Ivan Viskovaty. They went down in history under the name "Chosen Rada".
The term "Chosen Rada" was introduced by Prince Kurbsky. Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky is an outstanding commander, one of the most educated people of his time. He was a personal friend of Ivan IV, served him "faithfully". The historian N. M. Karamzin wrote about him: “Whether he fought near Tula, near Kazan, whether in the steppes of Bashkiria, on the fields of Livonia, everywhere victory adorned his forehead with its laurels.” For the feat near Kazan, Kurbsky received land in the Moscow region and the rank of boyar.
Relatives of Tsar Ivan the Terrible from the Glinsky family, with their arrogance and arbitrariness, earned universal hatred. In the summer of 1547, after a huge fire in Moscow, a popular uprising broke out against them. uncle king Yuri Glinsky was killed by a mob on Cathedral Square in the Kremlin. Frightened Ivan took refuge in his country residence on Sparrow Hills. The estates of the Glinskys were plundered, and they themselves fled from the capital. The authorities hardly managed to restore order in the city.
The Moscow uprising shocked and frightened Tsar Ivan. He realized that he urgently needed advisers who could warn him against mistakes in time and explain the mechanisms of supreme power. Not trusting the boyars, Ivan decided to resort to the help of people who were not very noble, but honest and knowledgeable. So under the young Tsar Ivan IV, in addition to Boyar Duma, a kind of "supreme council" arose - the Chosen Rada.
The Chosen Rada included Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Alexey Adashev, royal confessor priest Sylvester, head of the Ambassadorial order clerk Ivan Viskovaty, young voivode prince Andrey Kurbsky and etc.
Members of the Chosen Rada were prominent figures of that era.
Alexey Fedorovich Adashev
Alexey Fedorovich Adashev - Kostroma landowner. He was in charge of the royal archive, was the custodian state seal, led the petition order, had a court rank of a sleeping bag, that is, he was one of the people closest to the king. The Russian historian N. M. Karamzin spoke of him as follows: “The beauty of the century and mankind.”
Sylvester
Sylvester is a priest of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. Originally from Novgorod, he was an educated person, he collected a rich library. He was one of the authors and compilers of the book on home economics - "Domostroy".
Metropolitan Macarius
Metropolitan Macarius took care of Ivan IV from childhood and had a beneficial effect on him. He did much to educate the clergy. With his participation and with his blessing, the first printing house was opened in Moscow and the first printed book, The Apostle, was published.
Under the Elected Rada, a number of reforms were carried out in the country. material from the site
At the end of the 50s. 16th century the attitude of the king towards the members of the Chosen Rada has changed. Adashev was sent by the governor to Livonia, where he soon died. Sylvester was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery, where he died. Prince Kurbsky, fearing reprisals, fled the country and went to the service of the Polish king.
Historians believe that main reason the cooling of the king towards his associates should be sought in the reforms that they began to implement. The transformations initiated by the Chosen Rada proceeded slowly, and the results did not appear immediately. Ivan IV, as an impatient man, accused his associates of doing nothing for the state, but only trying to take power away from him.
After the fall of the Chosen One, the second period of the reign of Ivan IV (oprichnina) began. The centralization of power in the country began to be carried out through violence.