The impact (influence, pressure) should be considered psychological when it has an external origin in relation to the addressee (recipient) and, being reflected by it, leads to a change in the psychological regulators of a specific human activity. In this case, we can talk about both externally oriented and internally oriented activity. The result of this may be a change in the degree of severity, direction, significance for the subject of various manifestations of activity. Psychological influence can be considered both as a process leading to a change in the psychological basis of a particular activity, and as a result (of the change itself).
Psychological influence is the influence on the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of other people with the help of exclusively psychological means: verbal, paralinguistic or non-verbal. References to the possibility of applying social sanctions or physical means of influence should also be considered psychological means, at least until these threats are activated. The threat of dismissal or beatings are psychological means, the fact of dismissal or beatings is no longer there, these are already social and physical influences. They undoubtedly have a psychological effect, but they are not psychological means themselves.
A characteristic of psychological influence is that the partner who is influenced has the opportunity to respond to it with psychological means. In other words, he is given the right to answer and the time for this answer.
In real life, it is difficult to estimate how likely it is that a threat can be activated, and how quickly this can happen. Therefore, many types of people's influence on each other are mixed, combining psychological, social, and sometimes physical means. However, such methods of influence and opposition to them should be considered already in the context of social confrontation, social struggle or physical self-defense.
So, psychological influence is the impact on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person with the help of exclusively psychological means, with the provision of the right and time to respond to this impact.
Resistance to other people's influence is resistance to the influence of another person with the help of psychological means.
The initiator of influence is the one of the partners who first attempts to influence in any of the known (or unknown) ways.
The addressee of influence (recipient) is the one of the partners to whom the first attempt to influence is addressed. In further interaction, the initiative can pass from one partner to another in an attempt to influence each other, but every time the one who first started a series of interactions will be called the initiator, and the one who first experienced his influence will be called the addressee.
The process of mutual influence is a clash of two or more wills, consciously or unconsciously fighting for assimilation to themselves, their plans, ideas, desires, feelings and actions of other people, their plans, ideas, desires, feelings and actions. At the same time, the symmetry of assimilation is by no means necessary here, for example, it is enough to liken the feelings or actions of another person to our intentions, but it is not at all necessary that his intentions coincide with ours. Various types of coercion and manipulation provide many examples of this kind. The peculiarity of psychologically constructive influence is that the likening of partners to each other occurs with their mutual consent.
There are the following types of influence.
Psychological influence can be operational and strategic, household and professional, analytical and constructive, at different levels - the communicative level, the level of relations, the level of activity and life.
The impact can be addressed to different components of the inner world: to consciousness, to the unconscious, to inner feelings. For example, to consciousness - persuasion, to the unconscious - suggestion, to feelings - persuasion or manipulation.
Voluntary and involuntary influence. The impact can be arbitrary, when the acting party assumes that a certain psychological effect will be caused, or, in other words, has the intention to influence someone (a person, a group, society as a whole). So, Julius Caesar ordered his soldiers on the eve of the battle of Pharsalus to change the established tactics of warfare, because. expected that as a result the Pompeians would be disorganized, i.e. a certain effect will be produced.
At the same time, the psychological impact can also be involuntary, when its possible results are not planned in advance. An example of such a combination of circumstances can be the adoption of a legal norm, which, in theory, should optimize the life of society in a certain area and have a positive effect, but, being comprehended by the population in the context of its vital interests, can provoke an experience that leads to just the opposite result (for example, , disappointment, loss of meaning of activity, distrust). It is clear that officials do not plan in advance the occurrence of such changes in the mood of citizens.
Open direct communicative influence - appeal. Forms of appeal: offer, request, demand, insistence, prayer, involvement, seduction.
Imperative and non-imperative influence. The imperative (authoritarian, directive) direct forms of influence include orders, demands, prohibitions and coercion. Non-mandatory direct forms of influence on the subject include a request, an offer (advice), persuasion, praise, support and consolation.
The most traditional is the so-called object, or reactive, paradigm, according to which the psyche and the person as a whole (regardless of specific theoretical settings) were considered as a passive object of external conditions and their product.
The most relevant to the reactive approach is the strategy conventionally designated as imperative influence. The main functions of this strategy are the functions of controlling the behavior and attitudes of a person, their reinforcement and direction in the right direction, as well as the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The implementation of an imperative strategy occurs most often where a person, due to certain circumstances, has limited opportunities to make an independent choice of actions or decisions. In social practice, such a strategy can be appropriate and effective in extreme situations where prompt and important decisions are required in conditions of temporary shortage, as well as in the regulation of hierarchical relations between people in "closed" organizations (for example, military type) and individual subcultures. However, in real human relations, in the sphere of interpersonal informal, non-role relations (for example, friendships, family), as well as in the field of pedagogical practice, the purpose of which is to reveal and develop the psychological potentials of the child, this strategy is unsuitable. Here, the use of imperative influences, carried out without taking into account the actual states and relations of another person, the conditions of interpersonal communications, most often leads to the opposite and even negative psychological consequences.
In recent years, a significant change has occurred in psychological knowledge, associated with the rejection of the approach to a person as a “passive reactor” (if I may say so, that is, only responding to influence). An approach was put forward that asserts its activity and selectivity in the process of reflecting external influences. This approach, conventionally labeled as subjective or actional, is most comprehensively represented in Western cognitive psychology.
Within the framework of this approach, the largest number of special theories of influence (about 40) have been developed, which are based on the idea of activity and the integrity of the mental functioning of a person. In accordance with this point of view, it is assumed that the process of influence occurs when interacting communicators internalize the meanings with which they designate information emanating from each other in a situation of perceptual choice.
The impact strategy within the actional paradigm is denoted as manipulative.
The actional approach to the organization of influence in its inner essence, in principle, can lead to the same, and sometimes even worse, psychological consequences than the reactive approach. Despite the recognition of the activity and individual selectivity of mental reflection proclaimed within the framework of this approach, when using specific methods of influence, a person actually still remains an object of external influences and mental manipulation. The imperative and manipulative strategies of psychological influence can be generally attributed to the same one-dimensional, objective, monological view of human nature, where a person as a whole is assigned a passive role, where his unique essence is depersonalized.
This position is quite common in Western human knowledge; it constitutes the ideology of most modern psychological services for people, it underlies the technology and many methods of psychotherapeutic and psycho-correctional work. In this case, a person (perhaps even with the best of intentions) is nevertheless adjusted to a certain standard of a “good” patient, often through rather sophisticated techniques, which exists in the professional cognitive map of an “omnipotent” and “omniscient” psychotherapist; the patient himself is deprived of the right to any independence in seeing the situation and making decisions. In the West, it is sometimes recognized that a person in bourgeois society is the object and product of constant and purposeful psychological manipulation and pressure, and that the possibilities for this manipulation are practically unlimited.
Imperative and manipulative forms of interpersonal communication refer to monologue communication. A person, considering the other as an object of his influence, in fact, communicates with himself, with his tasks and goals. He does not see the true interlocutor, ignores him, that is, a person sees around him not people, but his “doubles”.
Such a one-dimensional approach to man, as is known, has its roots in distant history and its fairly stable traditions in philosophy, culture, natural science, and ethics, associated with the so-called pessimistic view of human nature.
The pessimistic, one-dimensional approach to man in the history of human knowledge was opposed by the so-called optimistic tradition. It is based on faith in the constructive, active, creative and creative principle of human nature, on its original morality and kindness, its altruistic and collectivistic orientation, which act as prerequisites and conditions for the coexistence and survival of people. In Western psychology, this concept received the most consistent development primarily in the theory of humanistic psychology, the beginning of which was laid by A. Maslow, R. May, K. Rogers, E. Fromm and others. The main thing in this doctrine is the recognition of the uniqueness and uniqueness of the mental organization of each individual of a person, faith in the positive and creative beginning of a person, his social orientation. In contrast to the object approach to a person, this direction can be conditionally designated as a personal, or intersubjective, approach. Personality in a certain sense can be understood as a product and result of a person's communication with other people, i.e. as intersubjective education.
It is possible that the main heuristic potential and reserve of modern psychological knowledge is contained in the recognition of a person as an “intersubjective” formation, the zone of its proximal development is set, providing access to new frontiers of scientific development of human subjective reality, to the frontiers of new approaches to the scientifically based management of mental phenomena.
Dialogic communication is an alternative to imperative and manipulative types of interpersonal communication. It is based on the equality of partners and allows you to move from a fixed attitude towards oneself to an attitude towards an interlocutor, a real communication partner.
Types of impact
As a rule, influence is distinguished by suggestion (in the terminology of non-psychologists - an order, an impulse that comes from the speaker's conviction), persuasion (reasoning, argumentation, examples), emotional infection (organization of empathy, sympathy, mutual excitation, excitation or oppression from music and light) , imitation (the desire to be like everyone else, follow the example, monkeying).
A more complete list of impacts looks like this:
1. Persuasion (argument). Conscious reasoned influence on another person or group of people, with the aim of changing the judgment, attitude, intention or decision.
The stages of persuasion are as follows: presenting information, paying attention, understanding, accepting the proposed conclusion, fixing the attitude, translating the attitude into behavior.
Since attention is selective, we are more attracted to information that matches our attitudes. Conversely, we can easily reject what is contrary to the principles of life.
Attention can only focus on a limited amount of information. If there is too much of it, consciousness will simply reject most of the information.
For persuasion, it is necessary not only to understand the proposed message, but also to accept the conclusion that follows from it. Therefore, information transmitted clearly and clearly argued will convince faster than a long message with a lot of incomprehensible terms transmitted in a noisy environment. No wonder they say: "Brevity is the sister of talent", "Everything ingenious is simple." Information that is easy to understand is digested well.
Understanding does not always lead to acceptance. If a person listens several times to well-known and understood arguments, this will not change his attitude. The information provided must be new, not previously announced.
In addition, any information causes certain feelings and memories. Therefore, when a message evokes positive feelings and thoughts (for example, dreams of wealth), we agree with it.
2. self-promotion. Announcement of one's goals and presentation of evidence of one's competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in a choice situation (appointment to a position, etc.).
Self-promotion differs from self-praise in that the initiator of influence does not simply assert something about himself, but backs it up with real deeds or indisputable facts, evidence of these real deeds.
Self-promotion technique: a real demonstration of one's capabilities; presentation of certificates, diplomas, official reviews, patents, printed works, products, etc.; presentation of graphs, calculations, schemes; revealing your personal goals; formulating your requests and conditions.
3. Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or a group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.
Suggestion is the introduction of any ideas, feelings, emotions without the possibility of critical evaluation and logical processing, i.e. bypassing consciousness. When suggesting, all transmitted ideas are perceived and executed "blindly". Suggestion is used to block a person's unwanted behavior or thinking, to induce a desired action or behavior, to spread useful information and rumors.
Suggestions gain strength through repetition. A person can reject an offer made once, but if he listens to the same thing for a while, he will accept it. In addition, suggestion may not produce a noticeable effect immediately, but manifest itself after a certain time. When the conscious mind is interested and distracted, the subconscious mind is left unprotected and absorbs everything that is said to it.
The main instrument of suggestion is the word, and the gaze also has the effect of suggestion.
Suggestion (from lat. suggestio - suggestion) leads to the appearance, in addition to will and consciousness, of a certain state, feeling, attitude; to commit an act that does not coincide with the norms, attitudes and principles of human activity.
A suggestor, a source of suggestion or an inspiring subject can be an individual, a group, the media. Suggerend, the object of suggestion can be an individual, a group, a social stratum.
Suggestion types:
Direct - the impact of words.
b) instructions that affect emotions, attitudes and behavioral motives. These are soft lulling phrases, they are repeated several times in a calm tone.
Indirect - hidden, disguised suggestion. Intermediate actions or an irritant are used to enhance the effect, for example, a pill that does not have medicinal properties (“placebo effect”). Assimilated indirect suggestion unconsciously, involuntarily, imperceptibly.
Suggestion can occur either intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional suggestion in the case when the suggestor tries to achieve a specific goal, knows what and to whom he wants to inspire, makes efforts to achieve the set goals. The suggestion is unintentional, when the suggestor does not set himself the goal of suggesting anything to the suggester and does not make any efforts. Such a suggestion is possible if the suggerend is predisposed to what is being suggested. Those. the suggestion “You won’t succeed!” will only work if it is expressed at the moment when something didn’t work out for the suggerend.
4. Infection. The transfer of one's state or attitude to another person or group of people who somehow (not yet found an explanation) adopt this state or attitude. This state can be transmitted both involuntarily and arbitrarily, and it can be assimilated in the same way (involuntary or arbitrarily).
Suggestion differs from infection in that in the first case the initiator of influence is himself in one state, while the addressee of influence produces another state. Contagion implies that the initiator himself is in the state that he reproduces in other people.
The best way to inspire is to be infected by your own example; according to Bekhterev, mutual suggestion and infection are actually one and the same phenomenon. At the same time, the mechanism of the phenomenon remains unrevealed, and only its description, but not explanation, is possible.
5. Awakening the impulse to imitate. The ability to arouse the desire to be like you. This ability can manifest itself both involuntarily and voluntarily. The desire to imitate and imitation (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be arbitrary or involuntary.
Imitation differs from contagion in that it involves copying behaviors rather than mental states. Then, already in the process of reproducing someone else's behavioral model, a person, in accordance with the well-known James-Lange law, develops mental states associated with these behavioral models. The formula of this law is known: “First we run, then we get scared, first we cry, then we experience grief, first we laugh, and then it becomes funny to us.” A similar principle was proposed in religion. Those “unsteady in the faith” should demonstrate signs of religious reverence, ecstasy in the temple, kneel, offer prayers, etc., so that a real state of reverence is gradually born in them.
The ability to generate an impulse to imitate its antithesis has the ability to imitate others. Man, like the animal, is prone to imitation; it constitutes a need for him on condition, of course, if it is not surrounded by difficulties. It is this need that determines the powerful influence of the so-called fashion. Who dares not to submit to her power, whether it concerns opinions, ideas, literary works, or simply clothes? They control the crowd not with the help of arguments, but only with the help of samples. In every epoch there is a small number of individuals who inspire the crowd with their actions, and the unconscious mass imitates them.
But these individuals must not, after all, stray too far from the ideas prevailing in the crowd, otherwise it will be difficult to imitate, and then all their influence will be reduced to zero. For this reason, people who are much higher than their era have no influence on it at all. They are too far away from her.
The fact that others seek to imitate you also contributes to satisfying the need to overcome space-time limitations. However, this distribution method has its limits. Only those who have really seen and accurately mastered the model that they want to imitate can imitate. Imitation of someone who is already imitating someone else, and so on in a chain, gradually turns this method of distribution into a caricature. In addition, imitation does not allow you to go beyond the time limits of your own existence. First of all, they imitate a living person, a living model. In principle, it is also possible to imitate a video image, but it is also indirect, non-stereoscopic, and therefore also slides into caricature.
In contrast, suggestion and contagion must be considered more powerful means of dissemination, since they can use the printed word, which can be suggestive and contagious. In addition, these types of influence leave a certain freedom for the addressee in choosing those behavioral models that will be used to implement the ideas perceived and mastered by the person.
Imitation can be used consciously as a self-presentation strategy aimed at shaping the goodwill of the target person.
The law of imitation: the lower imitate the higher, the younger the older, the poor the rich, etc.
6. Favor formation. Attracting the addressee's involuntary attention to oneself by showing one's own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or rendering him a service.
This type of influence goes back to the classification of self-presentation styles by E. Jones (Jones E. E., 1964). Self-presentation is the management of the impression that the initiator makes on the target person in order to maintain or increase his influence on him. Jones proposed the following classification of self-presentation: bullying, exemplary orientation (exemplary behavior), petitioning and integrating (caring about the attractiveness of one's own personal qualities in order to influence another person).
To implement the integration strategy, a number of tactics are used: positive statements of the subject about himself; exalting the target person with flattery, compliments, and other positive reinforcement; manifestation of interest in this subject; conformity towards him; provision of any services.
The use of intimidation is inherent in subjects with a certain power, the authority to deprive of any benefits, change the living conditions of a person serving as a target. In this case, a person using this style of self-presentation often threatens the addressee of influence in order to achieve the required behavior from him.
The strategy of exemplary behavior involves the demonstration of the moral merits of the subject of self-presentation. This is realized through the following behavioral tactics: self-denial, disregard for one's own interests, struggle for a "just cause", and assistance.
Begging is a style of those who do not have much power and involves demonstrating their own helplessness and asking for the object of self-presentation.
As Jones notes, the implementation of each of these styles is associated with a certain risk for the subject. For example, a person who predominantly demonstrates a strategy of intimidation by his behavior runs the risk of being branded as "violent, weak, ineffective"; adhering to integration - "a flatterer, an obsequious conformist"; strategies of exemplary behavior - "a hypocrite", and petitions - "lazy, weak" (remember one of the stories of A.P. Chekhov, in which his heroine kept repeating: "I am a weak, defenseless woman").
7. Request. Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the impact.
8. Compulsion. The threat of the initiator using his control capabilities in order to achieve the desired behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the addressee of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. In the most brutal forms of coercion, threats of physical violence may be used. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as their own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or "circumstances".
9. Destructive criticism. Making disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality and / or rude aggressive condemnation, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The destructiveness of such criticism is that it does not allow a person to "save face", diverts his strength to fight the negative emotions that have arisen, and takes away his faith in himself.
The experience of destructive criticism is qualitatively different from the experience that arises in the process of persuasion. Any person can easily remember this difference in quality. The subject of destructive criticism is the addressee of the impact, the subject of persuasion is something more abstract, detached from him, and therefore not so painfully perceived. Even if a person is convinced that he made a mistake, the subject of discussion is this mistake, and not the person who made it. The distinction between persuasion and destructive criticism is thus at the point of discussion.
On the other hand, in form, destructive criticism is often indistinguishable from formulas of suggestion: “You are an irresponsible person. Everything you touch turns to nothing." However, the initiator of the impact has as his conscious goal the “improvement” of the behavior of the addressee of the impact (and the unconscious goal is liberation from annoyance and anger, a manifestation of strength or revenge). He by no means has in mind the consolidation and strengthening of those models of behavior that describe the formulas he uses. Characteristically, the reinforcement of negative patterns of behavior is one of the most destructive and paradoxical effects of destructive criticism. It is also known that in the formulas of suggestion and auto-training, positive formulations are persistently preferred over the negation of negative ones (for example, the formula “I am calm” is preferable to the formula “I am not worried”).
Thus, the difference between destructive criticism and suggestion is that criticism formulates what should not be done and what should not be, while suggestion is what should be done and what should be. We see that destructive criticism and suggestion also differ in subject matter.
10. Manipulation. The hidden motivation of the addressee to experience certain states, make decisions and / or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.
11. Rumors- a specific type of information that arises spontaneously and becomes the property of an extensive audience. It may be deliberately distributed in order to influence the public consciousness of people. Rumors are a very powerful tool of influence, therefore they are widely used in politics and marketing.
12. NLP- a set of techniques, models. Gives the initiator of the impact more power over the addressee. It is manipulative if the initiator achieves a win only for himself, and the addressee is a loser. If the goal of the initiator is noble in relation to the addressee, this is a positive hidden control. For example, when NLP is used in psychotherapy.
13. Control. Assumes the presence of an appropriate status, certain powers, power. To manage means to lead, direct the activities of someone. For example, a leader manages subordinates; parents, educators, teachers guide children.
There is also an approach in which the following system of methods of psychological influence is distinguished:
- Psychological attack
- Psychological programming
- Psychological manipulation
- Psychological pressure
Psychological attack is a method of varied, changeable; fast, active; verbose, polysemantic; mobile, pantomimic impact on the human psyche in order to turn off logical thinking: producing either an irresistible impression, or introducing into a state of confusion, followed by prompting a person to the desired reaction.
Psychological attack is used by entrepreneurs, salespeople, distributors; radio and TV presenters; in the process of presentation, attraction, etc. At the heart of the liberocratic style-method of leadership is a psi-attack.
Psychological programming is a method of monotonous, constant; precise, persistent; unambiguous, unique; immobile, inert influence on the human psyche in order to create algorithms for his intellect and form stereotypes of behavior.
Psychological manipulation is a dual, compositional method; dexterous, decisive; ambiguous, ambiguous; balanced, balanced impact on the human psyche in order to put him in an uncomfortable position of the necessary choice of his behavior between two alternatives (between good and bad, good and better, bad and worse, good and neutral, bad and neutral).
Psychological manipulation is used by politicians, ideologists; in the process of discussions, polemics, negotiations, etc. At the heart of the democratic style-method of leadership is psi-manipulation.
Psychological pressure is a representative, impressive method; strong, intense; pointing, affirmative; sustainable, stable impact on the human psyche in order to force him to act and place him on the lower rung of the social hierarchy.
Psychological pressure is used in the army, government and administration; in the process of terror, mobbing, etc. At the heart of the autocratic style-method of leadership is psi-pressure.
Related combinations are possible: attack + pressure, pressure + programming, programming + manipulation, manipulation + attack.
Paradoxical inclusions are possible: attack with programming elements, programming with attack elements; pressure with manipulation elements, manipulation with pressure elements.
True Goals of Influence
The main purpose of psychological pressure is to cause an unconscious desire to complete negotiations faster, undermine the will to resist, the ability to think critically and constructively. To list all the methods and techniques used for this purpose is simply unthinkable. Basically, for the implementation of psychological pressure, techniques are used to create a stressful situation, threats and warnings of a threatening nature. It is possible to single out a group of techniques for lowering the status of a partner by influencing the subconscious.
This is a repeated repetition of the same false thesis, references to authorities in combination with various speculations (starting from distorting quotes and ending with references to non-existent sources); manipulation (“game”) with figures and facts to create the appearance of objectivity and accuracy; biased selection of illustrative material with an emphasis on the effect of "dramatic influence"; frightening "visual illustrations" of propaganda views and positions, and other similar techniques designed to create emotional discomfort and neutralize a person's ability to rationally evaluate the information provided.
An example of psychological pressure is the so-called "Goebbels' propaganda", based on the cynical presumption that lies, in order to be effective, must be massive, large-scale, shameless and continuous. In more subtle ways, psychological pressure includes some element of truth, used as a cover for massive disinformation.
By convincing another person of something or inspiring him with an idea, what are we really trying to achieve? For example, what do we achieve by convincing the director of a firm that candidate A should be hired, not candidate B? What are we really striving for when we inspire a child that he should be independent? What purpose do we pursue when we encourage students or subordinates to take an example from us or copy our behavior? The traditional answer to these questions is expressed by two well-known worldly formulas: "this is done for the good of the cause" and "this is done for the good of these people." But is it? Is the purpose of our influence really for the good of the cause or for other people?
With a certain habit of introspection, each person can admit that in many cases he tried to convince other people of something or persuade them to a certain line of behavior because it was in his own interests, including material ones.
But still, there are cases when the initiator of influence sincerely believes that his goal is to serve the interests of the cause or other people. However, as the famous saying goes, "no one is good enough to teach others." All human rightness is relative, and people may differ on what is good for the cause, for themselves, or for other people. From this point of view, any influence is unrighteous, since by the very attempt to influence we aim at something that is higher than us - the idea of an alien soul unknown to us and, in fact, the priorities of various human affairs that are completely unknown to us. Who can judge which business is more and which is less important for a given person, for a given enterprise, for society, for comprehending the universal truth? Only with a certain degree of conventionality can we assume that marketing research is more important than production, accounting is more important than receiving visitors, reading a book is more important than playing football, etc. In fact, the judgment of priorities is based on an economic concept that we have adopted or on a personal value system. But after all, any concept and system of values is conditional. However, instead of experiencing this convention and dedicating ourselves to finding something closer to the truth, we strive to convince, inspire, declare something conventional as a role model, etc.
The explanation, apparently, is that the craving for absolute truth in real life is much less inherent in us than the inescapable desire to establish ourselves in the fact of our own existence and in the significance of this existence. The ability to act on others is a sure sign that you exist and that this existence matters. By persuading, inspiring, causing the desire to imitate ourselves, we help ourselves to be convinced that we exist and this existence matters. Obviously, from this point of view, any such influence is selfish, and - for this reason alone - unrighteous. It is dictated by considerations of one's own benefit, and not, "good for the cause", "benefit for others" or, in general, "the highest good".
In the struggle for gaining a sense of self-worth, a person seeks to achieve attention from others, power over them, the possibility of revenge for the harm that they previously caused him.
People who are able to concentrate on the objective side of the matter and completely digress from the assertion of their own significantly constitute the exception rather than the rule. Apparently, the reason for this is that in early childhood any action of the child is evaluated by adults, while initially the child needs only a description of the action itself. According to Gestalt therapists, for example, a young child needs others to recognize the fact of his existence and his actions. However, very quickly the child begins to understand that he will receive recognition of the facts of his existence only simultaneously with their assessment. Having learned this, in the future he begins to focus on assessments, on the recognition of social significance.
Another human need, which determines attempts to influence others or resist their influence, is the desire to save one's own efforts, which outwardly expresses itself as resistance to the new. Energetically, it is much easier to defend one's own point of view than to give oneself the trouble to listen to someone else's opinion and assimilate it. Resistance to the new is connected with the recognition of oneself as insolvent and therefore entitled to be left alone. If the refusal to try to do something or to react in any way to external influences can be attributed to children's immature forms of demonstrating insolvency, then insisting on one's opinion, on the advantages of one's own way of thinking, acting, and living are rather "adult" ways to cover (and in fact - demonstrations) of their inconsistency in the face of the pressure of the new.
So, the true purpose of "disinterested" influence is to confirm the significance of one's own existence. However, there are unintended influences that, at first glance, refute this assertion. It is typical for some people, for example, to influence others by the mere fact of their presence. Their word is weighty, no matter what they say, their look humbles or inspires, their laughter, enthusiasm is contagious, one involuntarily wants to imitate their behavior, and call their goals their own. Such is the action of a charismatic or charming personality. The Oxford Dictionary defines charisma as a psychological attraction, the ability to make people committed to their goals and enthusiastic in achieving them. In the Explanatory Dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov, charm is defined as charm, an attractive force. The “mechanism” of this ability to attract people to itself is still unknown and is waiting for its researchers.
The action of another person may be different. His word may even seem too heavy, and his mere presence may overwhelm, deprive him of strength, immerse him in a viscous infinity of boredom or a shaky quagmire of anxiety. Such facts prove that unintended influence can be an attribute of human existence. A person spreads influence as some physical objects spread heat or radiate radiance. Unintended influence is one of the manifestations of life.
If the intentional influence is made for some reason, for something, then the unintentional influence acts for some reason. The first has a purpose, and the second has only a reason.
Arbitrary and involuntary attention or arbitrary and involuntary memory are similarly distinguished. In essence, any influence is a strain of our ability, which can manifest itself completely spontaneously, without any effort on our part. This is the ability of psychological radiation, the ability to create an individual unique field around oneself with a peculiar distribution of forces of attraction and repulsion, warming: cooling, lightening and burdening, calming and tension, the field can electrify or freeze others, give energy or lull, cause a feeling of bliss in their soul an irresistible urge to leave immediately.
People undoubtedly differ in their natural gift of inadvertent (involuntary) influence on others. The psychological radiation of some people is so strong that it suppresses the weak radiation of others.
The gift of influence, apparently, to a certain extent is associated in our minds not only with the psychological, but also with the anthropometric characteristics of a person. The first is its physical dimensions. What does the expression "impressive size" mean, a head, an arm, or even a leg? What do they suggest? It can be assumed that this is respect mixed with fear. This fear of being destroyed or overwhelmed by someone else who is bigger and stronger than us seems to be biologically determined. We are all born small helpless and then learn to use our powers for a long time. Throughout the entire period of development, the child experiences the feeling that he is inferior in something both to his parents and to the whole world as a whole. Due to the immaturity of his organs, his uncertainty and independence, due to his need to rely on stronger natures and because of the often painful feeling of subordination to other people, a feeling of inadequacy develops in the child, which then betrays itself throughout life.
In this we find a possible explanation for the fact that people experience their inability to resist the influence of others much more acutely and painfully than their own inability to exert their own influence. The fear of dissolving in other people's rays, of losing the sense of one's own importance, the separateness and originality of one's own existence, of losing one's Self is the main drama of human interaction. People with a stronger personal radiation are simply better protected from this drama and are not even always aware of it, since this is a drama rather than other people - those who are close to them and experience their radiation. In cases where they are pointed out to their unintended but inevitable influence, they usually do not know what to do with it: “Yes, maybe my field is too hard. But it's me! What can I do about it? Just cease to be, die, and then the action of my field will cease. But if you don't want me to die, be patient. What else can be done here?
Apparently, it is necessary to recognize that any act of influence, regardless of the degree of its awareness and premeditation, realizes the conscious or unconscious desire of a person to affirm the fact of his existence and the significance of this existence. If we directly recognize this, there is no need for a moral and ethical assessment of influence, for determining its “righteousness” or “unrighteousness”. We influence because we defend our interests, and not because the absolute truth has been revealed to us and we feel entitled to decide for others.
Each person has the right to influence others, but everyone also has the right to reject other people's influence. This also applies to those who seem to us to be lower in terms of mental, moral or professional development. Each person can and will try to influence us in one way or another, because this is one of the ways they express their own needs, and everyone is given an equal right to express their needs and defend them. Thus, any influence is unrighteous, in the sense that it is dictated not by the highest considerations of God's providence, but by one's own needs. On the other hand, any influence is legitimate, because every person has the right to express his needs. It is only important to recognize that mutual influence is a mutual expression of their needs, and in this struggle everyone is equally right.
It might be objected that the needs of some people are undeveloped or low, while the needs of others are developed and elevated, so that the former may be less right than the latter. The influence of the former should be limited, while the influence of the latter should be strengthened. However, who in each specific case will determine the degree of development of needs and the preponderance of rightness?
Apparently, the problem of influence from the moral and ethical plane of consideration should be transferred to the psychological one. From a psychological point of view, it would be legitimate to talk not about who has the right to influence and who does not (everyone has the right), but about how constructive certain methods of mutual influence are, i.e. about how they are useful and creative for its participants.
Types of psychological resistance to influence
1. Counterargument. Conscious reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of the impact.
2. Constructive criticism. Fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of the impact and justification of their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.
3. Energy mobilization. The resistance of the addressee to attempts to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action.
4. Creation. Creation of a new, neglecting the influences of a pattern, example or fashion, or overcoming it.
5. Evasion. The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the impact, including random personal meetings and clashes.
6. Psychological self-defense. The use of speech formulas and intonation means that allow you to keep your presence of mind and gain time to think about next steps in a situation of destructive criticism, manipulation or coercion.
7. Ignoring. Actions indicating that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee.
8. Confrontation. Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his requirements to the initiator of the impact.
9. Refusal. Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the impact.
Counterargument. For a belief to be truly constructive, it must meet certain conditions.
Firstly, the goal of persuasion must be clearly understood by the initiator of influence and openly formulated to the addressee, for example: “I would like to prove to you the advantages of the method of strengthening the powers of subordinates” or “Let me prove to you that it is not advisable to hire this person for us.” In cases where we start the argument without realizing our own goal and / or without informing the addressee, he may perceive our influence as manipulative.
Secondly, before attempting to persuade, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the addressee to listen to us. For example, if our question: “Do you agree to listen to my arguments?”2 he answers: “Come on in an hour, okay? Otherwise, my head is now busy with something else, ”then further continuation of the argument directly at this moment will be perceived by him as coercion. At the same time, he took “later”2, if it is repeated systematically, may indicate attempts to ignore. In this case, it is necessary to first resist ignoring, and then, if successful, move on to persuasion. The problem is that persuasion is a constructive way of influencing, but not always energetically powerful enough. It requires "emotional calm2 and mental clarity. This often requires a lot of upfront work. An important point of switching here is the concentration not so much on the log of constructing your own proof, but on the psychology of interaction with the addressee. It is impossible to be convincing at all, objectively. You can be persuasive to someone in particular Persuasiveness is something that arises in the process of interaction.
The three most effective argumentation techniques are:
1. presentation of arguments
2. development of the argument
3. positive response method.
Counterargumentation also requires "emotional calm". If the partner gets too excited in the process of presenting his own arguments, it is recommended that the addressee first obtain agreement to listen to himself. It is pointless to start a counterargument without securing such consent. You can only listen to counterarguments voluntarily. If we force them to listen, this is no longer a counterargument, but coercion, and the effect will be appropriate.
A logically unmistakable counterargument may be psychologically fallacious and therefore ineffective. Her main possible mistake is excessive persuasiveness. If the evidence of the disputant is obvious, this indicates that our opinion was erroneous or worthless. The need to admit the error or inconsistency of our reasoning offends many people's sense of self-worth and leads to the actualization of the need for attention, power and revenge. The result may be a change in the subject of discussion, a switch to destructive criticism, an endless dragging out of the discussion, etc.
Psychologically literate counterargumentation should begin by agreeing with the opponent about something, and then continue in the form of an invitation to discuss our doubts. The presentation of new arguments must also carry an element of hesitation and doubt. For example: “I agree with you that the idea of a “flat structure” of an organization is now very common in the West, when both subordinates and bosses are almost on the same level in terms of their ability to influence the company’s strategy ... True, I sometimes I think to what extent this is consistent with our traditions? Or maybe you can not take into account the traditions? What do you think, maybe this traditional division into superiors and subordinates will dispel itself with us?”
The main purpose of counterargumentation is to find a solution to the problem, and not at all to convince the opponent. Therefore, the indicator of its effectiveness will be the solution found, and not the feeling of its own strength and significance. Even if the solution found is the solution that was originally developed by us, it is psychologically correct to structure the discussion in such a way that the opponent feels not convinced, but has come to this solution almost on his own.
Three counterargument techniques are most effective:
1. "turning" the partner's arguments
2. dismemberment of the partner's arguments
3. counter development of the argument.
Confrontation. Confrontation is positional warfare. Initially, the confrontation was described by Claude Steiner as opposing one's own power maneuver to the partner's power game in order to force him to reckon with us, to stop ignoring us. This method is justified in cases where the initiator of influence uses such non-constructive methods of influence as manipulation, destructive criticism, ignoring or coercion. This is a strong remedy, and if the addressee of the impact is solved by it; to use, it must be consistent and go to the end. A confrontation can be effective only if each of its necessary phases is realized.
The first phase of confrontation is the I-message about the feelings that this behavior of the initiator of influences causes.
Suppose a manipulator (a man) deliberately violated the psychological distance between himself and the addressee of his influences (a girl) so that she would experience a feeling of inconvenience and more likely agreed to fulfill his request. He pulls his chair close to her chair and, putting his arm around her shoulders, says: “Give me this manual, please, I just need it today.” The addressee girl answers him with an I-message: “When they sit down so close to me, I feel anxiety and discomfort.” If the manipulator accepts this I-message of the addressee, apologizes and sits down, the goal is achieved and the confrontation is over. Only in the event that he does not do this or, having done, then again repeats attempts to limit the psychological space of the addressee, it is necessary to move on to the second phase.
The second phase of the confrontation is the strengthening of the I-message.
In this example, the recipient girl did it like this. “When I say that I have anxiety and inconvenience, but they don’t react to it in any way, then I begin to feel longing, chagrin. Resentment. I feel bad, you know?" If the initiator of the influence accepts this I-message and stops his efforts to limit the psychological space, the confrontation can be considered successfully completed. Only if he doesn't do this should he move on to the next phase.
The third phase of the confrontation is the expression of the wish of the request.
For example: “I ask you to sit about this distance from me, not closer. And I also ask you not to slap my hand or touch me at all.” If the request is not fulfilled, it is necessary to proceed to the fourth phase.
The fourth phase of the confrontation is the imposition of sanctions.
Example: “If you pat me on the hand again or sit closer than it is convenient for me, firstly, I will leave immediately, and secondly, I will leave every time as soon as you come up to me. I'll stop talking to you, that's all." We see that a sanction is a threat, and a threat is an attribute of coercion. If the confrontation has reached this stage, it is necessary to admit to ourselves that we are forcing the manipulator to make a choice: either to comply with our demands, or to refuse the opportunity to interact with us. The manipulator may resist coercion in the form of a reciprocal confrontation. We can negotiate and discuss his demands. Only in the event that he continues his actions or we failed to reach an agreement, it is necessary to move on to the fifth phase.
The fifth phase of confrontation is the implementation of sanctions. The addressee of the impact must refuse any interaction with the initiator. Break off relations with him if there is no other way out.
We see that confrontation is a method that requires the determination to go all the way in asserting one's psychological freedom, one's right to resist other people's influence.
The concept of psychologically constructive influence
In our opinion, psychologically constructive influence should meet three criteria:
1. it does not destroy the personality of the people involved in it and their relationships,
2. it is psychologically correct (competent, unmistakable);
3. it satisfies the needs of both parties.
Psychologically constructive resistance to influence must also meet these three criteria. In reality, influence and resistance to influence are two sides of a single process of interaction, therefore it is more correct to speak of mutual psychological influence.
Psychologically correct (competent, infallible) will be such an attempt to influence in which:
- take into account the psychological characteristics of the partner and the current situation,
- apply the "correct" psychological methods of influence.
For an influence to be considered psychologically constructive, all three of the above criteria must be met. For example, it is obvious that a destructive influence on another person can also be psychologically infallible. Therefore, the concepts of psychological constructiveness and psychological correctness (error-free) are intersecting, but not coinciding.
If the influence exerted meets the criteria of psychological constructiveness, its addressee has two ways:
1. be influenced;
2. constructively resist it in correct psychological ways.
Traditionally, the behavior described by the formula "succumb to influence" is considered in our domestic culture as a sign of weakness and immaturity of the individual. It is more common to say "succumbed to bad influence" than "succumbed to good influence." Bad influences are "succumbed" to, and good influences are "provided". Meanwhile, the experience of the participation of the author of this article in interviewing applicants for the positions of managers and directors of multinational companies shows that one of the most important abilities of a leader in modern Western business culture is his flexibility, the ability to succumb to influence and change his behavior and his assessments. Many questions from Western interviewers are aimed at revealing this particular ability: “In what cases is it difficult to convince you?” or “In what way can a subordinate influence your decision?”
The ability to succumb to constructive influence is a sign of the predominance of a task orientation over a momentary desire to confirm one's own significance. Ultimately, the successful completion of the task will be more conducive to the confirmation of one's own importance than inflexibility in an argument.
If the partner's arguments convince us, we simply agree with him, without resorting to counterargument methods; if his goals and requests, as well as the level of competence he has demonstrated, satisfy us, we do not interfere with his self-promotion, but simply hire him. Similarly, we may agree to be infected by someone else's enthusiasm or voluntarily begin to imitate a high-class professional.
And vice versa, if the influence exerted does not correspond to the norms of psychological constructiveness, then only one way will be legitimate - to resist it in psychologically constructive ways. Refusal to resist would mean that the addressee agrees to more or less serious damage to his personality; counteraction with the help of psychologically unconstructive methods will undoubtedly cause damage to the addressee and / or initiator of the impact and / or their relationship.
The table reflects an attempt to determine the degree of constructiveness of different types of influence and types of resistance to influence.
Table. Classification of types of influence and opposition to influence on the basis of psychological constructiveness - non-constructive
| Type of influence | Characteristics of constructiveness - non-constructiveness | constructive | Unconstructive |
| Belief | Constructive type of influence, provided that we have clearly and openly formulated to the partner the purpose of our influence | Counterargument | Ignoring |
| self-promotion | A constructive form of influence, provided that we do not use deceptive "tricks" and reveal our true goals and requests | Constructive criticism | Destructive criticism |
| Suggestion | Controversial type of influence; suggestion is always penetration through the "back door" | Constructive criticism | Destructive criticism |
| Infection | Controversial type of influence; no one can determine how useful it is for the addressee to be infected with this particular feeling or state and right now | Constructive criticism | Destructive criticism |
| Awakening the impulse to imitate | Controversial type of influence; is considered acceptable in the upbringing of children and in the transfer of skills from a high-class professional to a young professional | Creation | Destructive criticism |
| Favor formation | Controversial type of influence; flattery, imitation as the highest form of flattery and service to the addressee of influence can be manipulation | Constructive criticism | Destructive criticism |
| Controversial type of influence; in Russian culture it is considered destructive for the one who asks; considered justified in American culture | Refusal | Destructive criticism |
|
| Compulsion | Controversial type of influence; considered constructive in some pedagogical, political systems and in emergency situations | Confrontation | Destructive criticism |
| Destructive criticism | Non-constructive kind of influence | Psychological self-defense | Reciprocal destructive criticism |
| Manipulation | Non-constructive kind of influence | Constructive criticism | Counter manipulation |
Characteristics of the means of psychological influence
Stimuli targeting different analyzers
visual stimuli
It is on this group of means that it is most convenient to demonstrate the variety of those psychological effects that are associated with their use in the structure of influence.
The first group of effects is a consequence of the orienting reaction, which can be caused by the unevenness of the visual background due to the appearance or disappearance of visual stimuli, or due to the fact that these stimuli are somehow distinguished from others that are also in the field of view (they differ in color, size, movement against the background). objects stably oriented in space, with special illumination; this can be an image of a living object against the background of inanimate objects, a person among animals, a child among adults).
Here is how U.S. describes the situation of purposeful arbitrary use of the indicated effect. Maugham in the novel Theatre. The main character, Julia Lambert, trying to change the accents of the mise-en-scène, unexpectedly changed her stage costume and instead of the yellow dress familiar to everyone at the dress rehearsal, she appeared at the premiere in a dress made of silver brocade.
“Its brilliance and the way it reflected light distracted viewers. Avis's blue dress looked like a faded rag next to him. As they approached the main mise-en-scène, Julia took out from somewhere, as a conjurer takes a rabbit out of a hat, a large scarf of crimson chiffon and began to play with it. She waved it, she straightened it on her lap as if she wanted to get a better look, rolled it up with a tourniquet, wiped her forehead with it, blew her nose gracefully into it. Spectators, as if spellbound, could not take their eyes off the red flap.
From this excerpt it is very clearly seen that the color spot that “stands out” from the general color context, “bewitching” the audience, contributes to a shift in attention to a character other than what the director intended. This helped the actress, who was interested in such an effect, to change the director's decision, allowed her to realize her own artistic intention, and along the way to solve everyday problems.
Specialists working in those areas where visual stimulation is used are forced to pay some attention to preventing the occurrence of such effects, so to speak, in an unauthorized version, when they may well reduce the effectiveness of the impact as a whole.
Similar effects are due to the orienting reaction due to the discrepancy between the visible fragment of the image and the familiar image, the visual stereotype.
Let's give a few more examples demonstrating the options for using the effect in question. Thus, drawing the attention of sunbathers to the problem of skin cancer due to excesses in the use of sunbathing, the authors place an unusual object in the image of a familiar context (pool, beach accessories, etc.) (a skeleton is sunbathing in a sun lounger), accompanying this composition with an explanatory text and phone numbers where you can get additional information on this issue.
It is clear that this group of effects cannot arise by chance. The task of specialists, if they wish to obtain the appropriate result, is to find ways to destroy visual stereotypes.
A special area of using the considered reactions to visual stimuli is their use as a means of facilitating the process of concentration.
These can be small moving objects, luminous dots, etc. Due to prolonged fixation of a person’s attention, for example, on a small brightly luminous object, on the contrary, the orienting reaction fades, the level of brain activation decreases and, as a result, an altered state of consciousness occurs, which can be used for hypnotic suggestion. Quite often, visual stimuli are used in this way by shamans to focus their attention while immersed in a trance state.
The next group of effects is due to the emotional response arising from the physical characteristics of stimuli.
These characteristics primarily include the color and brightness of stimuli. The influence of color on the human psyche attracted the attention of not only psychologists specializing in the field of perception, but also professionals who in one way or another comprehend the origins of human emotional reactions (art historians, artists, writers).
Psychologists are well aware of the studies of M. Luscher, which testify to the complex relationship between the current state of the emotional sphere and the attitude to color.
In itself, the division of the color scale into warm and cold components indicates a more or less steadily observed connection between the color and the level of activation experienced during its perception.
Interesting in this context is the study by A.L. Groisman, aimed at studying the effect of color on the mental state of a person, in which the task was to determine the difference both in physiological reactions and in subjective psychological perceptions in persons who were in a different color environment for five minutes. The subjects were 105 students. It turned out that the perception of red color, obtained using conventional projection lamps with additional light filters (exposure - 5 minutes), was associated with negative emotions: restriction, feeling of tightness, headache. When irradiated in a standing position, there was a desire to retreat or push the space apart. Physiological reactions are unstable, blood pressure rises irregularly, but the pulse, as a rule, quickens. Apparently, the red color has an exciting effect on the sympathetic-tonic reactions of the autonomic nervous system. In general, when illuminated in red, a reaction of the sympathetic nervous system was observed.
Here it is appropriate to provide data on the perception of color by creative people. Thus, the composer and philosopher Richard Wagner created his powerful epic canvases exclusively under red lighting, in the presence of color, which, as he believed, condenses the creative abilities of a person, his passion and thought to the maximum.
Perception of yellow color in the experiments of A.L. Groisman was associated by the subjects with a feeling of vibration, tension, motor excitation was observed. So, one of them indicated that she felt like a heated spiral. The impact of this color is associated with an increase in pulse blood supply.
When using blue-violet color, physiological reactions tend to slow down, and when using blue-green color, there was a tendency to normalize physiological reactions. In general, the reaction of the parasympathetic nervous system was observed with the blue-green spectrum of exposure.
In general, it can be argued that the emotional state of a person subjected to color exposure can both be modified, changed, and updated through certain color preferences.
The next group of effects that are quite often observed during the perception of visual stimuli are reactions, including emotional ones, as well as associations due to the specifics of the gestalt that occurs during the perception of a visual stimulus.
The concept of gestalt, widely used in psychology not only to characterize the phenomena of perception, but also to describe physical, physiological and social processes, denotes integral structures, forms, images, whose qualitative originality cannot be reduced to the sum of individual sensations from their perception.
Researchers working in this paradigm have put forward the assumption that individual sensations in the psychological field are connected into stable, simple, “economical” configurations. A special place among the factors contributing to the “binding” of individual stimuli into a gestalt is given by psychologists to the “proximity factor”, “similarity factor”, “continuation factor”, “common destiny factor”. Thus, any composition, especially graphic, can form a "good" or "bad" gestalt, not only in accordance with the laws of internal harmony, but also in accordance with the required emotional effect. Specialists take this into account when creating trademarks, logos, emblems, etc.
The next group of effects arises due to the stable attribution within a certain culture of a particular visual stimulus to a certain semantic context.
Examples of such visual objects can be images of, for example, Cheburashka and Pinocchio for children who grew up in the Soviet era, superman for those who are familiar with the relevant comics, etc. The images of Buddha and Shiva will not only not be unambiguously identified by the average Russian subject, but the associative array arising from the perception of these images will be completely different, more individualized than among subjects who are well acquainted with Indian culture.
Such objects can be placed in a different semantic context, which either achieves a comic effect, or provides conditions for linking the former and other contexts, if not on a semantic, then at least on an emotional level. An example is a political cartoon aimed at identifying Stalin with Hitler. Stalin, though not sympathetic, but quite recognizable, is depicted studying "Mein kampf". By placing such a book in the hands of Stalin, the author of this poster created for the readers of his publication the prerequisites for an emotional "linkage" of two political figures.
A somewhat different effect arises in the presence of complex visual compositions that convey a specific situation that has a certain meaning for the bearers of a certain culture. Such compositions, unlike the previous ones, set the context, providing the element included in it with a certain emotional and semantic load.
Posters used in the practice of political struggle can be an example of this. They are made in the form of posters traditional for the United States depicting wanted criminals, where under the call "WANTED!" Both a politician of his own country (before the assassination attempt in Dallas, leaflets with a similar image of J. Kennedy were distributed) and a representative of the enemy country can get on such a poster.
Let's look at another example from this series. It is known that religious subjects in the graphic series for believers can have a very special meaning and give it also to what is contextually linked with them. It can even be used in a political poster. Thus, one of these posters depicts a man with facial features traditional for the iconography of Christ and a halo, but with a rifle. When a soldier or a revolutionary is identified with God as a savior, killing the enemy is a sacred act - the destruction of the enemy of God. The rifle in this context takes on the meaning of God's instrument.
An indelible impression is made by a leaflet designed to draw the attention of the British public to the problem of hunger, starvation mortality and encourage it to actively support activities aimed at combating this evil, which affects (as the leaflet informs) more than 500 million inhabitants of the Earth every day. Its text part is only 1/6 of the total area. The rest is a mushroom of a nuclear explosion, but consisting not of a mass of dust, but of children's faces, or rather, even children's skulls, expressing horror and suffering. In the center of the image of the nuclear mushroom is an inset of text: "The number of children who die of starvation every week is equivalent to three Hiroshima."
The expected psychological effect, as in the previous example, is based on the generalization of the emotional context of a holistic visual composition on a separate introduced element, in this case represented by a message. According to the creators of the leaflet, the attitude to a nuclear explosion as a tragedy that must be combated should also be transferred to the problem of child mortality from starvation.
A completely special group of effects are reactions due to the symbolic meaning of a particular stimulus, which is the result of a generalization of a person’s natural observations, his direct sensory experience.
It turns out that not only color, but also other characteristics of the visible world are generalized and acquire a symbolic meaning in a certain context. Very interesting observations of such symbols are collected by V. Bauer, I. Dumoz, S. Golovin in the Encyclopedia of Symbols. So, they indicate that a straight line acts as a symbol of the horizon, a passive position, a feminine principle, and a vertical ray as a symbol of a masculine principle, an active active element of creation. Such symbols can also be more complex images, correlated not only with the passively contemplated world, but with the world perceived in the context of actual needs and experiences. The well-known researcher of the nature of symbolism R. Schwaller de Lubitsch called this kind of symbols isoteric. “An esoteric symbol,” he wrote, “is a natural phenomenon or artifact that evokes an extremely general living response, which finds expression at the level of physiology, nervous system, mentality and emotions of organized beings, or an energy reaction at the level of unorganized being.” Interesting in this sense is the explanation by W. Reich in a book published in 1933 of the attractive effect of the swastika on the masses:
“If we now turn to the swastikas depicted on the previous page, we will see a schematic, but easily recognizable image of two connected human figures. The swastika on the left depicts sexual intercourse in a prone position, and the swastika on the right depicts sexual intercourse in a standing position. This shows that the swastika symbolizes the main function of the life process. The impact of the swastika on the unconscious emotionality of the individual does not explain the success of the mass propaganda of fascism, but certainly contributes to it. Random testing of men and women, differing in age and social status, shows that after looking at the swastika for a while, most people sooner or later come to an intuitive understanding of its meaning. Therefore, it can be assumed that the swastika, depicting two connected figures, has a powerful effect on the deeper layers of the psyche, and the strength of its effect is determined by the degree of dissatisfaction and the intensity of the sexual desire of the individual. The perception of the swastika is greatly facilitated when it is presented as an emblem of honesty and fidelity. Thus, the defensive tendencies of the moralistic ego are taken into account.
Specific trajectories of movement of visual stimuli can also have symbolic meaning: rise, fall, wave-like movements, which is also associated with the generalization of human visual experience.
In this regard, we should especially dwell on the use of the symbolic function of visual gestalts, similar to the specific trajectories of movement of visual objects that have acquired a symbolic function.
Consider the following example. We will talk about a selection of materials in the newspaper "Moskovsky Komsomolets" dated January 10, 1996 (the height of the presidential election campaign) under the general heading "Communists, back!". The selection of materials is represented by letters from readers of both pro-communist political orientation and their opponents. In addition, the material is illustrated with three photographs that have a very interesting spatial arrangement for us: they seem to form steps going from the upper left corner to the lower right corner. The top picture is titled “Idealism. Communists of the 1920s. On it, the reader sees a group of young men and women, as it is customary to write, with very “good”, inspired faces. The middle photo shows an image of a rickety barbed wire fence, an observation tower. Signature - "Practice. Krasnoyarsk camps. And finally, the lower right visual object is “Nostalgia. Communists of the 1990s." - represented by a photograph of G.I. Zyuganov, allowing to form his image as a gloomy, wary, suspicious person, looking at the world frowningly.
It is clear that not only the plots of the visual series and orienting captions to them, but also the visual gestales give rise to an association with a slide from openness and revolutionary romanticism through totalitarianism and repression to wariness, suspicion of the outside world and even anger in the position of the corresponding forces personified in image of G.A. Zyuganov.
Such a composition, along with the plots used and orienting captions, can create a certain emotional background for the perception of the texts included in this selection, even before getting to know the texts themselves. The visual range is what in this material is the first thing that “stretches the eye”. This arrangement of text and visual objects allows readers to emotionally "tune" readers in the direction required by publishers, which is especially important in an election campaign for people who do not have certain political preferences.
The symbolic function of such gestalts is reflected in metaphors. So, in the hopelessness of the situation and the futility of efforts aimed at overcoming circumstances, they say that a person “is in a vicious circle”, “runs in a circle”; the process develops “downward” or “upward”, “in a spiral”, etc.
It should be noted that symbolic meaning can arise not only in connection with the generalization of visual experience, but also due to other sources. For example, it is known that in some cultures, the right and left orientation relative to the body in a symbolic sense are not equivalent. These orientations are associated with the symbolic meanings of various visual objects. Let us give some examples, based on the studies of E.B. Tylor. So she pointed out that “... the Kalmyk bows and thanks for the good omen when the falcon flies from him to the right, and seeing him on the left side, he turns away and expects disaster. Here we have an obvious symbolism of the right and left hand... For us, for example, it is clear why the omen in the form of a crow's cry should be different on the right and left sides...”.
E.B. Tylor also pointed out that symbol systems were not only based on direct perceptions and observations of natural objects, but also on fantasies. An example is the ideas reflected in the parable cited by I.P. Sakharov, a researcher of Russian folk beliefs, customs, traditions, who lived in the 19th century:
“There is a shield, a hare is sitting on the shield, a falcon flew in and took the hare, an owl flew on the shield and sat instead of the hare.”
“Shield bo is the earth; a hare sits on the shield, that is, truth on earth; a falcon flew in and took a hare - then truth was taken from earth to heaven; instead of a hare, an owl flew to the shield - then it sat on the ground falsely.
The perception of a certain visual stimulus in accordance with the existing symbolic meaning of the right-handed relative to the body or the left-handed orientation of objects or some fantastic assumptions is based on the generalization of experience and associative processes. This is possible due to a certain universality of experience and the need states of a person.
Quite often, images of such objects endowed by representatives of certain communities with symbolic meaning are included in the plots of artistic canvases or in the attributes of ordinary everyday situations.
At the same time, visual stimuli acquire symbolic meaning not only because of the universality of human experience and its basic need states, but also because of their inclusion in a certain cultural context. So, some visual object, possibly quite complex, is able to evoke a certain emotional reaction and actualize a certain semantic context due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities.
Returning to the study of E.B. Taylor, who considered, among other things, the origins of various signs and predictions, we find from her that it is quite clear to her why “a kite means predation, a stork means consent, a pelican means charity, a donkey is industriousness, ... why bees, a symbol of a submissive people, can be an auspicious omen for the king, and the flies that come again, no matter how much they are driven, can be a symbol of peskyness and impudence.
Having the opportunity to observe a specific environment, fauna and flora, members of a certain community, generalizing their experience, gave the corresponding objects and manifestations a symbolic meaning. Perceiving them or their images, the carriers of the corresponding culture could experience certain emotions: satisfaction, enthusiasm, or, conversely, fear, anxiety, depression.
However, the symbolic meaning of some objects in different communities will be different. As an example, consider the image of a five-pointed star. So, for the followers of medieval magicians, a pentagram with a human figure inscribed in it was a sign of adepts who believed that thanks to the knowledge of the laws of the world, which to the majority seems to be four-sided, they can find the way to a happy life; the pentagram in Gnostic schools is a sign of omnipotence and spiritual self-control; for free masons, the pentagram with the letter G inscribed in it was reminiscent of the two sacred words of the Cabal "gnosis" and "generation", and also meant "Great Architect". It is clear that for a simple Red Army soldier, the star on his Budyonovka could act in a completely different sense, as well as for US citizens, in connection with the use of this image on their national flag.
An example of a similar discrepancy in understanding the meaning of a certain symbol in different cultures can be the interpretation of the number of flowers in festive and funeral bouquets. In Japan and the USA, unlike the domestic tradition, the festive bouquet has an even number of flowers. Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva, a well-known researcher in the field of psychology and physiology, in a personal conversation with the author mentioned that despite the absence of a tendency to superstition, at first, receiving bouquets with an even number of flowers from her American colleagues, she noted in herself, although fleeting, but rather unpleasant feeling.
Very interesting examples of the use, so to speak, of the matryoshka metaphor for the characterization of certain stimuli, which, being already carriers of a certain symbolic meaning, acquire an additional meaning in addition to this. An example is the image of a pelican in medieval painting.
A little earlier, we already cited information from the study of E.B. Taylor regarding the fact that the pelican in the early stages of cultural development among peoples who have the opportunity to observe it, acquires the symbolic meaning of goodwill. As Christianity developed, the motif of a pelican tearing its chest to feed its cubs with its blood became a symbol of Christ's sacrifice on the cross. In this sense, for example, his image can decorate a vessel in a still life. As the famous iconologist D. Hall pointed out: "He is an attribute of personalized mercy."
At the same time, the symbolic meaning of a certain stimulus can be associated in its origin not only with the presence of a specific collective experience, but also with a special personally significant situation in which this stimulus was observed. An example is the analysis of the experience of one's own experiences, carried out by John Davis, a professor of psychology engaged in transpersonal psychology, in connection with his use of renewal rituals carried out in natural conditions and serving for personal growth: “... on my first trip, I surrounded myself with red objects sometimes almost unconsciously. All week I wore the same red neckerchief, without thinking about it, I drew a red heart in the middle of the picture that we painted together, I chose a place for my ritual in the Red Mountains, on the night of my vigil I saw red lights flickering in the forest. But it wasn't until a day or two after my return that I associated red with courage, bravery, and following one's own convictions. I found transpersonal support for the decision to bring my dedication to work into my professional life."
As a rule, the symbolic meaning of some stimulus fixed in this way, being actualized in other situations, is capable of causing certain emotional experiences, for example, inspiration, depression, confidence, readiness to face the worst, etc., which is also reflected in the activity regulators.
And, finally, a visual object can, to one degree or another, evoke aesthetic experiences that become stimuli for one activity or another.
Summing up the consideration of the reasons for the effects caused by visual stimuli, we recall once again that they act
- causing an orienting reaction due to unexpected observed changes in the visual field, its heterogeneity, the destruction of visual stereotypes;
- as additional means for concentration of attention when immersed in altered states of consciousness;
- causing an emotional reaction due to the physical characteristics of stimuli (color, brightness, contrast combinations), i.e. features of color impact on a person;
- causing an emotional reaction and associations due to the specifics of the gestalt that arises on the basis of the visual series;
- due to the stable attribution within a particular culture of a particular visual stimulus to a particular semantic context;
- conveying some specific situation that has or acquires a certain meaning for the recipient;
- due to the symbolic meaning of the given stimulus, which comes from the natural observations of a person, his direct sensory experience;
- causing a certain reaction due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities;
- causing a certain reaction due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within the framework of a person's personal experience;
- becoming a source of aesthetic experiences.
Based on the materials presented, it becomes clear that some inconsistency of information regarding the relationship of certain human reactions to color stimuli with the characteristics of the stimulus. This is due to the fact that color stimuli should be considered as if in a system of three coordinates.
The first group of effects is related to the physical nature of the stimulus. We have already mentioned this in sufficient detail.
The second group is the effects that arise as a result of the symbolic meaning of this stimulus, based on the natural observations of a person, arising from his direct sensory experience, for example, the perception by many generations of people of the light and darkness of night, blood and fire. In connection with this experience, dark blue is associated with night rest, yellow with daytime concerns, red with situations that require high activity. Noteworthy in this sense are the remarks of V. Kandinsky regarding the symbolic essence of white, which consists in the fact that white acts as a symbol of “the world where all colors, all material properties and substances have disappeared. This world stands so high above us that not a single sound reaches us. A great silence comes from there, similar in the material image of the environment, cold to infinity, leaving, which neither crosses nor destroys. Therefore, the white acts on our psyche, as silence of such magnitude, which is absolute for us.
From this passage we see how the symbolic is generated from sensory experience, its comprehension, association.
The third group of effects is related to cultural traditions. So, for Europeans, black represents mourning, for Muslims, on the contrary, mourning is white. At the same time, at a certain stage, even among Europeans, white symbolized mourning. Here is the information on cultural differences in the symbolic function of color that V.G. Zazykin: “Americans associate red with love, yellow with prosperity, ... green with hope, ... white represents purity, tranquility, peace, and black is a symbol of complexity and emergency. ... in China, red means kindness and courage, black means honesty, and white, which is too unusual for Europeans, means meanness and deceit.
As we can see, the differences in the interpretation of color are very different in different cultures. In support of this, let us once again turn to the study of T. Zabozlayeva, according to which it is easy to trace how the symbolism, due to the generalization of sensory experience, forms the basis of specifically historical symbolism. Let us recall once again how V. Kandinsky characterized the white color. White was perceived by him as a symbol of absolute silence, absolute emptiness.
From this sense of color, as it were, naturally follows its use in a situation of mourning. White clothes are an early symbol of mourning and, in European tradition, a symbol of undyed clothes as a sign of the rejection of all colors that together represent life. White mourning was worn by widowed queens. Some monastic orders have chosen white as their color as a sign of detachment from the colors of life. In Russia, black clothes, as a sign of grief and mourning, came into use only in the seventeenth century.
At the same time, young knights of the Middle Ages and English kings were dressed in white outfits on the day of the coronation. At the Burgundian court in the fifteenth century, it was customary to dress in white if they wanted to show incorruptibility of the heart and purity. In Christian symbolism, white color acts as a symbol of involvement in the angelic rank, holiness. Thus, detachment and purity, freedom from something in various conditions become the source of the next layer of associations, on which a specific historical symbolic context grows.
In this regard, it seems appropriate to talk about primary and secondary symbolism, although this terminology is used in the literature in a slightly different sense - in connection with the symbolism of sign means. In this case, the primary is the assignment of some symbolic meaning to a sign in a certain culture, and the secondary - at the level of a particular subject - is the linking of the sign with sensory experience. But since sign means, being presented as visual or audio stimuli, act as means of reflecting sensual and suprasensory experience, the process of becoming their symbolic meaning as a whole is secondary in relation to the primacy of the sensation process. Therefore, we considered it possible to use these terms in the sense indicated by us.
And finally, for specific people, a particular color can acquire a symbolic meaning due to its association with certain personal experiences, for example, the color of a car is happy or unlucky.
In general, let us once again point out that the existing multidimensionality in color assessment creates the prerequisites for some difficulties in using empirical research data regarding the relationship between the color of the stimulus and the emotional reaction to it.
Sound effects
Let us dwell further on the consideration of various variants of the use of sound stimuli as a means of psychological influence. As we have pointed out earlier, the main classes of effects they produce are the same as those we have already considered in the analysis of visual stimuli, and there are many activities where they are used.
Thus, a phrase, unlike others, uttered by an actor in a whisper, allows one to place semantic accents in a certain way in the corresponding replica. An example of the use of such an effect can also be a technique often used in stage practice, when the significance of the current moment, the "kink" of the situation, the directors try to designate with an unexpected sound, a musical fragment. The basis of such influences will be an orienting reaction. In this regard, a change in timbre, sound duration and other characteristics of the elements of the audio field can play the role of a kind of markers.
An orienting reaction can also be the result of an unexpected violation of the “sound” context, when an unexpected sound fragment appears, with a different emotional coloring, “not from this opera”; speech is interrupted by a specific noise or, conversely, is interrupted by silence.
It is clear that the introduced sound fragment can have a certain emotional load, which is also introduced into the appropriate context. This is actively used, for example, in stage productions, in musical works as a means of creating an image of a certain future, its inevitability.
Sound stimuli, as well as visual stimuli, are used as a means of concentrating attention.
A significant place among the effects caused by sound stimuli is occupied by those that are due to psychophysiological reactions due to the specifics of signals, their loudness, timbre, and pitch of sounds. Let us recall the effect of the sound produced by scratching metal on glass, the sound of a whistle, and so on.
The gestalt phenomenon has also been explored in relation to the audio field. It is with a holistic perception, not reducible to individual sensations, that the possibility of recognizing a certain musical theme, performed on various instruments and in various arrangements, is associated. But there are even more general gestalts. So, even an inexperienced listener can easily distinguish a sad melody from a cheerful one, a heroic theme from a tragic one, a “crystal” ringing of glasses from a “crimson” ringing of bells.
Thus, a certain gestalt makes it possible to identify musical fragments with a certain level of activity, an emotional state.
Extremely promising in this context are studies of the so-called emotional hearing. This term was introduced by V.P. Morozov to denote the ability to adequately perceive, as well as reproduce emotional information in speech, singing, music. The psychoacoustic basis of emotional hearing is a subtle analysis and distinction of timbre (spectral), tempo-rhythmic, dynamic and intonational (sound-pitch) features of the acoustic structure and dynamics of the sound of speech, voice or music, characteristic of a particular emotional coloring and its nuances. In experimental studies, V.P. Morozov and E.I. Serebryakova revealed the possibility of differentiating the emotional coloring (joy, sadness, fear, anger) of speech phrases voiced by Nar. art. USSR O. Basilashvili. It is clear that the psychoacoustic "codes" of specific emotional states are represented by rather complex gestalts, the ability to adequately recognize which (according to V.P. Morozov) can be considered as an individual psychological feature.
Very interesting are the effects based on the symbolic meaning of the stimulus, which follows from the generalization of direct observations of a person, his sensory experience.
Thunder rumbles, as harbingers of the approaching elements; the crowing of a rooster as a symbol of the turning of night into morning, with all the ensuing consequences, are examples of such stimuli.
We find confirmation of the existence of such a level of reactions to sound stimuli, for example, in the description of the features of the conceptual structure of the language and some rituals characteristic of the African Acholi and Luo tribes. For them, the night is a time of rest and security, when the family is protected by a hut. The peace of the night is disturbed only by "anti-social" creatures "lajoks", who, with their cries, portend misfortunes and failures. The crowing of a rooster at the dawn of the Luo was interpreted as an exclamation of pain, announcing the suffering of the coming day. A rooster that dared to crow in the evening or in the middle of the night was immediately slaughtered. In this example, the crowing of a rooster personifies the transition to pain and danger, acts as their symbol.
Sound stimuli, or rather their series, can also be perceived as an element of a certain culture. Various musical traditions serve as an example. It is clear that depending on whether the listener is a carrier of the corresponding culture or not, the depth and emotional richness of his experiences will be different. Indirect experimental evidence of this statement may be the data obtained by V.M. Tsekhansky and N.S. Shugrina when developing a methodology for selecting musical fragments for programs of musical impact on the functional states of a person. These researchers used musical fragments related to various musical traditions: Indian, Japanese, Vietnamese, Chukchi, Altai, Uighur; Arab cult music, Russian sacred music, domestic and European classics, images of modern mass culture were used. The experiment involved 40 people, our compatriots, aged 20 to 55 years, of different educational levels, belonging to different social groups. It turned out that the greatest "scattering effect", i.e. an increase in the dispersion of psychophysiological indicators was observed for a fragment corresponding to Japanese musical culture and Arabic cult music. Such data may indicate that such gestalts for listeners are not unambiguously “loaded” with specific emotional content, i.e. this way of "encoding" emotions in our culture is unusual, each listener has purely individual associations and emotions.
In addition, a specific sound range, being an element of culture, can also be considered in the structure of the personal experience of a particular person, due to which certain personal experiences can be associated with it. Thus, the performance of the national anthem can cause tears and a surge of pride in citizens, but not in everyone and not in all situations.
It is clear that all of these factors are most fully expressed in the influence of music on a person. Studies of the psychophysiological aspects of music perception made it possible to establish not only the fact that individual musical fragments are capable of generating mental states and physiological changes adequate to the nature of the stimulus, but also evoke moods and thoughts that raise a person above his experiences, help overcome internal conflicts, i.e. have a cathartic effect. The widest list of those psychological tasks that are solved through musical influence is given by V.M. Tsekhansky and N.S. Shugrina. Thus, musical creativity is associated with the satisfaction of higher social needs, such as the need for creativity and self-expression; musical influence contributes to the formation and maintenance of social contacts, ensures the removal of a tense social situation and changes the social activity of a person, acts as a psychotherapeutic tool.
- the specificity of the gestalt that arises on the basis of the sound range;
- assignment within a certain culture of a specific sound stimulus to a specific semantic context;
- assigning a sound stimulus to a specific situation that has a specific meaning for a particular person;
- the symbolic meaning of the given stimulus, which comes from the observations of a person, his direct sensory experience;
- the symbolic meaning of the stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience and traditions of specific communities;
- the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within the framework of a person's personal experience;
- aesthetic experiences due to the complex impact of musical works;
- direct experiences caused by musical images, as well as their comprehension in the context of their own worldview, leading to catharsis.
Tempo and rhythm in psychological impact
Considering the reasons for certain psychological effects under the influence of visual and audio stimuli, one cannot fail to mention such characteristics as the tempo and rhythm of their presentation. The researchers note that rhythmic stimuli (music, light and movement) were used in almost all cultures (Hasidim, Greeks, Africans). The role of rhythmic influences as regulators of labor activity was considered by the German researcher K. Bucherom at the end of the last century in his study “Work and Rhythm. Work songs, their origin, aesthetic and economic significance.
It is believed that rhythmic stimuli perform a number of functions:
It is precisely when they are rhythmically presented that sound and visual stimuli act as a means of concentrating attention during hypnosis, preparing shamans for rituals, in the process of mastering motor skills, for coordinating physical efforts and dynamic moments of people acting together.
Rhythmic stimuli act as destabilizing factors that cause a change in the current state of consciousness and a transition to altered states. So, for example, most Western neophytes, while participating in religious rituals, easily entered an altered state of consciousness when drums were beaten at a frequency of 200-220 beats per minute. In order to change the state of consciousness, rhythmic influence can be carried out not only with the help of sound stimuli, but also through light, color, sound, infrasound, electromagnetic fields.
Rhythmic stimuli are used as a means to promote more effective emotional contagion. The use of emotional contagion against the background of musical and rhythmic influences in various rituals is widely known. Researchers of ancient religious cults and rituals note that echoes of such a practice were observed in Europe in not so distant times. So, the "coven of witches", according to the researcher of the XIX century. Monier was a ritual of a cult that came to Western Europe from Asia, which lasted until the Middle Ages, and in some places survived until a later period. Its participants circled in a round dance in a spiral to the appropriate music and exclamations incomprehensible to outsiders. The rapid joint movement evoked the feeling that the whole body was being filled with vital forces, and the more acute such spiritual states, the stronger the feeling that an infinite fullness of energies was flowing (coming out) from the whole surrounding world.
It can be assumed that a similar situation from a psychological point of view arises in modern discotheques, when the cumulative psychological effect felt by their visitors is the result of rhythmic visual and sound influences, as well as the contagion effect due to the accumulation of a significant number of people involved in rhythmic interaction.
Smells
From life experience it is known how great is the role of odors in the process of human exposure. Sometimes subtle, not always conscious, they can cause certain associations, resurrect memories, signal something very important. It is difficult to find a literary work in which the author would not use the direct sensory experience of readers in the field of smell perception to create an image of a hero or reveal the meaning of a particular situation for the characters. And if the author writes about the smell of mold and smoldering, the sun and the sea, coffee, freshly baked bread and fresh milk, overripe fruits, snow that smells like watermelon, etc., readers have quite definite emotionally colored images.
The use of various fragrances to create a certain image, mood has been used since ancient times. The burning of aromatic substances during religious rituals, mysteries allowed their participants not only to create the required emotional background, but, as it turns out, facilitated their entry into altered states of consciousness. Smells can induce a sense of calm or promote a cheerful mood, which is currently being used in aromatherapy to improve the comfort of work and living spaces.
Thus, smells, as well as audio and visual stimuli, have an effect due to their chemical nature. Of particular note is the symbolic meaning of smells, which arises from the generalization of sensory experience, but colored by the social context.
So, many authors describe the smell of expensive perfumes, good tobacco as the smell of wealth and prosperity. In the Russian classics, the mention of the entrance and the stairs, which smelled of rotten sauerkraut and cats, always implied the poverty and hopelessness of the existence of the inhabitants of this dwelling.
Based on this symbolic function of smells, they can also be used as a means of placing certain accents, for example, in fashion. Thus, the creation of special feminine and masculine lines in perfumery implies certain trends in the formation of the image of femininity and masculinity, just as the creation of a unisex perfume line emphasizes the unisex trend in clothing. Considering the fact that fashion is a complex social phenomenon, one can to say that smells contribute to a more complete expression of trends in such a complex phenomenon.Thus, smells can be used as a marker that carries information about general fashion trends.
In relation to smells, as well as in relation to visual and sound stimuli, one can speak of the role of gestalt as the basis of a certain psychological effect.
So, there are "cold" and "warm", "for young girls" and "for mature ladies" perfume compositions. Each category can be represented by a variety of spirits, however, the images that arise on their basis are distinguished by a similar color.
assigning a stimulus to a specific situation that has a specific meaning for a particular person;- the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus, derived from the observations of a person, his direct sensory experience.
- due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities.
- due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within the framework of a person's personal experience.
Multimodal gestalts and their symbolic meaning
It seems necessary to consider some gestalts formed by a number of stimuli related to different sensory modalities, as well as theoretical approaches that try to reveal their psychological role in the context of problems of psychological impact. We are talking about the reflection by a person of natural phenomena that are not commensurate in scale with an individual human being, such as the Universe (sky, space), ocean (sea), natural disasters and cataclysms such as volcanic eruption, thunderstorms, etc.
Such multimodal gestalts are complex images that arise as a result of a specific experience and can be correlated in the mind of an individual with a certain personal meaning, but at the same time, for many, they will also act in a symbolic meaning, the origin of which is not determined, however, only by the experience of a particular generality, but, as a number of researchers believe, has a deeper nature, more precisely, a deep nature associated, for example, according to Jung, with the existence of archetypes, understood as universal images or symbols contained in the collective unconscious and predisposing the individual to experience certain feelings or think in a certain way with respect to a given object or situation.
Their impact nature is also associated with the functioning of “prenatal consciousness”, due to which the events of the prenatal period are recorded by the fetus and the results of this non-sensory perception are carried by a person through his whole life.
The theories used to explain the essence of this kind of symbols are themselves also distinguished by a certain metaphor, however, it is they that allow us to build hypotheses regarding the function of symbolic formations of this level. This function is seen in providing a deep connection between actual impressions and experiences with the essence of a person, understood as the unity of the spiritual and natural.
An example of the analysis from these positions of a complex multimodal gestalt, which performs a symbolic function in certain circumstances, is the study by N.V. Toporov "On the "poetic" complex of the sea and its psychophysiological foundations". The subject of analysis is what is usually denoted by the concepts of "ocean", "sea". Let's take a closer look at this study.
The existence of the “complex of the sea”, “ocean feeling”, as having a deep symbolic meaning, is substantiated by N.V. Toporov based on the analysis of literary texts of domestic and foreign writers, representatives of various literary movements who worked in different eras, as well as on the basis of the analysis of some philosophical and theological provisions.
The analysis of the texts carried out by this researcher shows that it is quite possible to distinguish between “natural”, “objective” (in terms of N.V. Toporov) descriptions of real impressions from the sea element, so characteristic of European poetry, from those in which the author uses the “sea » code for transmitting a "non-marine" message. N.V. Toporov points out that, although in the real experience of the creator of the text there was a fact of contact with this element, in these cases the author describes “... not the sea itself, not only it, but something with the sea, as an invisible core connected, but immeasurably wider and deeper than just the sea; rather, "marine" as a certain element, and even - already and more precisely - the principle of this element, present both in the sea and outside it, primarily in man ... ". The corresponding descriptions are a kind of deep metaphor, which is used to convey such an experience of experiences, "... which would return a person to himself, to his essence, which is drowned out by the secondary and does not reflect this essence, to his true inclinations and needs" . This, according to N.V. Toporov, has a certain psychotherapeutic meaning for their authors.
What is the reason for the possibility of implementing such a function? It is seen by the author in a certain similarity between the physical essence of man and the ocean, in particular, manifested through rhythmic structures, in the specifics of embryogenesis and, perhaps most importantly, in the prenatal experience of man.
One can accept or, conversely, try to refute such an understanding of the origins and functions of such symbols to one degree or another, but it is impossible to deny the presence in culture of a huge layer of metaphors that implement the “sea complex”, which in itself is symptomatic of the existence of diverse, multi-level , not always realized connections and embodiments of individual components of a holistic sensory experience in the context of the image of the world.
We constantly, without thinking about the metaphorical nature of familiar concepts, use them in describing everyday events and facts. So, the phrases “the sea is agitated”, “bread or feather grass in the steppe are agitated”, “a person is agitated” sound quite ordinary. However, in order for the “exciting-oscillatory” state (in terms of N.V. Toporov) of such different objects to be not only revealed and realized, but also identified with something in a person that has a nature other than physical, a constant orientation to the reflection of this “other” in the context of the natural, and not in an individual, but as a mass manifestation, as evidenced by the emergence and everyday use of the corresponding linguistic means.
In this context, the presence in the language of such metaphors is a diagnostic sign of the existence of the process of “linking” the external physical with the mental and spiritual. Apparently, there are circumstances when this process becomes relevant for a particular person, rising from the operational level (use of the sign) to a higher one, up to the level of activity. In this sense, the level of action corresponds to the search, the creation of a deep artistic metaphor, which serves to more fully embody the creative intention of the creator of the text, the one who is trying to realize and express himself in the corresponding text, and the level of activity corresponds to the worldview understanding of the nature of "external" and "internal", up to the creation of cosmogonic concepts.
Thus, if we return to the problem of psychological impact, it should be noted that the impact on a person of such complex multimodal gestalts, which are images of large-scale natural phenomena, arises due to:
- brightness and variety of direct sensory experience that takes place in contact with the corresponding phenomena;
- experiencing a deep connection of one's human essence (physical, mental and spiritual) with the essence of the corresponding natural phenomenon (possibly due to prenatal experience or manifestations of the collective unconscious);
- comprehending the experience of deep connections with the world and reflecting this in the image of the world and worldview concept.
Such a diverse and deep impact of large-scale natural factors could not but be used for the purpose of influence, in particular in psychotherapeutic practice. Sea travel has long been considered the best remedy for "spleen". Communication with nature for many people is a source of resources for self-regulation, "tuning to the required wave." Modern psychotherapy uses these factors to optimize the processes of meaning formation.
Psychological influence is a process that changes the behavior and type of thinking of another person. There are different types of influence (persuasion, infection, suggestion, imitation, etc.) and opposition to influence (ignoring, criticism, refusal, etc.).
The concept of influence
Psychological influence is a concept that is often used in psychology and sociology. It means a process that results in a change in the behavior, attitudes, intentions, desires and ideas of an outsider.
The mechanisms of psychological influence help in realizing the potential of intra-group or mass interaction. The concept implies the use of methods of disintegration or group differentiation.
Features of psychological influence:
- is spontaneous, unconscious;
- not subject to social control;
- used for specific purposes (positive or negative);
- is an intermediate state of man.
The topic of psychological influence is of particular interest to entrepreneurs, advertisers, marketers and businessmen. With the help of mechanisms of influence, they can sell their product. The results of the activities of representatives of these professions depend on the ability to use the tools of psychological influence.
The concept of psychologically constructive influence implies that the influence should not negatively affect the individual. Mandatory requirements - psychological literacy and correctness.
The impact on a person is often used by people in everyday life. Usually with selfish intentions or for the purpose of obtaining benefits. Knowing the characteristics of your interlocutor, it is not difficult to achieve the desired result.
Main types
In psychology and sociology, directed and undirected psychological influence is distinguished. Directed methods include such methods of psychological influence as persuasion and suggestion. To the undirected - infection and imitation.
You need to know the difference between criticism and suggestion. Criticism directly indicates how not to do, and suggestion - how to do it. Criticism and suggestion also differ in subject matter.
Designed to relieve certain fears. It is necessary to remove obstacles on the way of information to human consciousness.
Persuasion is a type of influence, the purpose of which is the impact of an individual on the human psyche through appeal to his personal judgment, satisfaction of his needs with the help of other people.
It is implemented through communication with the desired object. The main purpose is to change a person's views on certain things. The first to attempt to talk is the initiator of the conversation.
The basis of persuasion is the individual's conscious attitude to certain information, its introspection, criticism, and evaluation. Persuasion is built on a system of arguments. They are formed according to the laws of logic and must be substantiated by those who induce conviction.
This type of influence is best introduced during discussions, group discussions, and disputes. Basic requirements for persuasion:
- logic;
- subsequence;
- reasoning;
- validity based on scientifically evidence-based materials.
The success of this type of influence directly depends on the skills of the person who conducts it. If the belief was successfully introduced, then the individual will accept and will continue to be guided in choosing something by new information. In the process, the worldview is transformed.
Persuasion is most commonly used in child-rearing and scientific controversy. It requires great effort and the use of various oratory techniques.
Infection
The oldest method of influence. Most often used in relation to large groups of people - at stadiums, concerts. Especially effective during rallies, protests, strikes. It develops most rapidly in a poorly cohesive team, where the level of organization is poor or completely absent. The main sign of infection is spontaneity.
In the process of such influence, the communicator conveys to the person his mood, mood, emotions, motives. This is realized not through communication, but through the emotional environment. The process of transition of the mood of one person to another is unconscious.
In psychology, the phenomenon of infection is explained as a way of transmitting the emotional state of one individual to another at the psychological level. It happens that both people want to infect at the same time. The one whose emotional charge is stronger will be successful.
The degree of infection of the crowd depends on:
- level of development;
- the strength of the energy charge of the communicator;
- psychological state;
- age;
- beliefs;
- degree of suggestibility;
- self-awareness;
- emotional mood, etc.
Infection is like a chain reaction. Initially, one person can become infected, which transfers an emotional charge to another, etc.
This type of influence is easiest to implement in a crowd, because in such a situation a person becomes more vulnerable. Criticality to the assessment and perception of information narrows.
Sometimes speakers use infection in their trainings. Their goal is to motivate listeners, literally infect them with their vital energy.
Suggestion
Suggestion is considered the most dangerous kind of influence. This is the main instrument of influence in various types of hypnotherapy. With its help, you can force a person to perform certain functions, change the type of behavior, thinking or opinion about an object.
Suggestion consists in reducing the criticality of the individual to the information received. Because there is no desire to check it for authenticity.
Suggestion is very effective if a trusting relationship between the interlocutor and the doctor is established. Therefore, the hypnologist, before introducing suggestions, tries to build contact with the patient and only then proceeds to introduce into a trance and impose certain patterns of behavior or thoughts.
An important feature of suggestion is that it is not aimed at the ability to think, but at the willingness to accept a proposal, new thoughts, contradictory statements and implement them. There are 2 forms of this type of influence - autosuggestion (self-suggestion) and heterosuggestion (influence from outside). The hallmark of self-hypnosis is that it is conscious self-regulation.
The results of using suggestion are influenced by the following indicators (in relation to the speaker):
- authority;
- status;
- volitional qualities;
- self-confidence;
- categorical tone;
- expressive intonation;
- faith in one's strength;
- the ability to convince, etc.
Suggestion is actively used when presenting information to the media. Another popular source of the introduction of this tool of influence is advertising. It is implemented with the help of bright, short and memorable slogans. This is necessary to achieve your own benefits.
Imitation
One of the most popular forms of behavior in interpersonal contacts. It develops due to the complexes of one of the interlocutors. Wanting to become better, he begins to copy the behavior, manner of communication, walking, intonation, pronunciation and other unique characteristics of another person.
Imitation affects the process of socialization of the individual, its upbringing and development. Young children and adolescents who do not yet have an accurate vision of themselves or a formed character are very vulnerable to this type of influence. They imitate those around them and those they consider authoritative. These are manifestations of conscious imitation.
Unconscious imitation is the result of active influence on the psyche. Counting on a certain reaction, the initiators stimulate it in various ways. This impact is twofold. Depending on the person who uses imitation as a tool of influence, the result may be positive or negative for the other individual.
The most famous manifestation of imitation is fashion. It is a form of standardized mass human behavior. It arises due to the imposition of certain taste preferences.
Minor types of psychological influence
One of the commonly used methods of influence is rumors. These are messages that come from a specific person. They are usually false and are used to humiliate another individual. Often they are not supported by any facts. People perceive rumors because of the desire to quickly get the information they need.
Favor formation
This technique is often used by merchants and sellers to sell their goods. They express favorable judgments about a person, especially about his appearance. They can additionally use imitation, copying a person’s behavior, his gestures, facial expressions, and manner of communication.
The communicator does this to form a positive impression of himself. In the process of forming favor, the following techniques are used:
- Attention;
- compliments;
- seeking advice;
- playing along with identified complexes, etc.
The success of this type of influence depends on the first impression. The second important key to success is self-presentation.
In order for the formation of favor to have the desired effect, you need to have excellent communication skills. You need to be able to find an approach to a person, see his weaknesses and put pressure on them morally.
Request
A situation where a communicator makes a request to someone. He can do it calmly or obsessively. The result of influence depends on the relationship between individuals.
Often this is an appeal with a wish to satisfy the needs of the communicator. The secret weapons are a gentle voice, a calm tone, a smile and maximum sincerity and openness.
It is important to be able to say “no”. The presence of such an ability will help to avoid conflict situations and save a person from arguing his choice. There will also be no shouting at each other.
self-promotion
This is an open type of influence. Designed to show their best qualities, professional skills and abilities. This method is used by people with a sense of self-worth. In the process of exposure, there is an open demonstration of professionalism and qualifications.
A frequent goal of self-promotion is to gain the competitive advantage needed to achieve one's own goals. It can occur voluntarily and involuntarily.
Self-promotion is often implemented on:
- conferences;
- meetings;
- negotiations;
- interviews;
- public speaking.
This technique of influence is often used by politicians when running for office. Their goal is to gain recognition from citizens.
Compulsion
This kind of influence is needed to force people to work or perform certain actions. In the forms of coercion, threats, blackmail, imprisonment can be used. The most rude forms are physical violence, violence, restriction of freedom of action.
In addition to physical means of influence, moral ones can be used. These are humiliations, insults, subjective criticism in a rude form.
The victim perceives coercion as a strong psychological pressure and taking away the necessary benefits for a normal life. The threat can be lethal or warning. The possibility of applying social sanctions or physical beatings is implied.
Attack
One of the forms of discharge of emotional stress. A sudden, deliberate attack on the human psyche is carried out to make him irritable, nervous and aggressive.
This type of influence is often used by athletes, especially when the sport involves physical contact between 2 or more people. Speaking of attack, it should be said that opposition to someone else's influence is resistance to the influence of suggestion.
The main tools of influence in an attack:
- negative statements;
- rude, offensive judgments;
- ridicule of life or certain qualities;
- a reminder of defeats or shameful cases from the biography.
The person using the attack can impose his opinion on the communicator or give him advice. Often such an individual enjoys because he has hurt another.
Argumentation
Usually used to convince a person of the wrongness of his thoughts. The speaker, with the help of specific arguments, tries to convince a person to change his mind.
The main requirements for argumentation:
- accuracy;
- correctness;
- reinforcement with reported and recognized facts;
- brevity.
This type of influence is often used by teachers in educational institutions. Trying to bring the pupil or student to his mistake, they begin to suggest a lot of arguments. The right to answer is usually given when the person has already thought everything over and is ready to announce a counterargument.
Another option for applying argumentation is the field of advertising. Done with persuasion. Initially, advertisers describe a product or service, and the need to purchase it is proved with the help of arguments. They are a detailed description of the benefits of the advertised object.
Manipulation
One of the most commonly used methods of influence in everyday life. Manipulations are hidden urges to experience certain states.
With the help of certain phrases, the communicator tries to influence the choice, the decision-making of another person. He does this out of selfish motives to achieve his own goals.
Types of psychological resistance to influence
The first type is ignorance. This is deliberate inattention, absent-mindedness in relation to the interlocutor. Distinguished by the lack of reaction to any actions of another person.
It is perceived as a sign of disrespect on the part of the interlocutor. In certain cases, it is the only correct behavior in an awkward situation. Used to forgive tactlessness on the part.
Other types of psychological resistance to influence:
- Constructive criticism. It is used in a controversial situation to prove one's own innocence. With the help of criticism, they justify the incorrectness of actions, thoughts or goals. Must be backed up by facts. Otherwise, it will not be constructive criticism, but an obsessive subjective opinion.
- Counterargumentation. This is an attempt to convince someone with the reinforcement of certain facts. Used to challenge someone else's opinion, which is completely contrary to the thoughts of the interlocutor. A prerequisite is to be supported by scientific or internationally recognized facts.
- Confrontation. This is a direct opposition of thoughts. It is carried out in a direct (hard and verbal) form or in a hidden form with the introduction of non-verbal techniques. Often used by psychologists in cognitive behavioral therapy.
- Refusal. Specific designation by the interlocutor of his dissatisfaction or disagreement. Usually taken for the purpose of refusing to fulfill another person's request. Can be voiced in a soft and calm tone. In another case, in an authoritative, menacing voice. Helps to avoid the fact of dismissal or beatings.
- Psychological self-defense. Concrete designation of their boundaries without listening to others. Helps prevent behavior that controls all human actions. In the process, verbal and non-verbal techniques are introduced in the form of verbal formulas and intonations. The purpose for which psychological self-defense is used is the need to eliminate oneself from participating in conflicts, to remain calm. So a person gets extra time to think about the criticism he heard, manipulations.
- Creation. The creation of a mindset can also be arbitrary. It involves the implementation of previously unused decisions, unpredictable actions. Manifested as a desire to be unique rather than conform to others. Used against imitation. Formed under the influence of craving for self-expression.
- Evasion. This desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator. The reasons may be personal hostility or a negative attitude against such an interlocutor. Any meeting is avoided. There is a reduction in the rules of time, the conditions for the conversation. A similar attitude of a partner towards another in an attempt to evade meetings is necessary for personal peace of mind.
Another frequently used method of confrontation is energy mobilization. It manifests itself as resistance to attempts to suggest, transfer, impose certain actions, patterns of behavior, type of thinking and other factors.
This is the transformation of any negative emotions into anger, rage and aggression. Sometimes this is due to the fact that a person does not know how to react to a certain situation to the extent of his lack of information. This helps to bring your emotional state into tone.
Entrepreneurs often use such a technique of resisting influence as creativity. This gives them a competitive advantage over others and allows them to create unique products. Imitation is the first thing a young entrepreneur needs to get rid of.
Conclusion
In psychology and sociology, there are different methods of influencing a person. Chief among these are persuasion, contagion, imitation, and suggestion. Techniques such as creativity, counter-argumentation, constructive criticism, confrontation, refusal, evasion, etc., help to resist them.
Knowledge is power, power is knowledge.
F. Bacon
Definition of the concept of "psychological influence"
By influence we mean psychological influence. Let's start with the most successful, in our opinion, definitions of this concept.
“Influence (in psychology) is the process and result of an individual changing the behavior of another person, his attitudes, intentions, ideas, assessments, etc. while interacting with him.
Influence in the process1 of psychological influence is the result of the activity of the subject of influence, leading to a change in any features of the personality of the object, its consciousness, subconsciousness and behavior.
It is interesting to compare the concepts of "influence" and "power". Power is based on the existing system of needs, attitudes, attitudes, stereotypes, statuses, etc. The influence is manifested through their change.
Psychological influence is the process and result of effective (successful) psychological influence, so it is natural to turn to the definition of the latter.
“The impact is psychological, when it has an external origin in relation to the addressee (recipient) and, being reflected by him, leads to a change in the psychological regulators of a specific human activity. In this case, we can talk about both externally oriented and internally oriented activity. The result of this may be a change in the degree of severity, direction, significance for the subject of various manifestations of activity. Psychological influence can be considered both as a process leading to a change in the psychological basis of a particular activity, and as a result (of the change itself) ” .
G.A. Kovalev combines the concepts of "psychological impact" and "influence". Under the psychological impact (influence), he understands "the process carried out
which regulates (self-regulates) the activity of interacting equally ordered systems of a certain psychological content, the result of which is the maintenance of the functional state of these systems or a change in the state of at least one of them.
The concept of psychological "space-time" or the concept of "chronotope" acts as an operational unit of psychological analysis of the category of impact (influence).
From the general definition of the psyche and its spatio-temporal organization, we can conclude that, in its essence, the psychological impact is the “penetration” of one person or group of people into the psyche of another person (or group of people). The goal and result of such "penetration" is the change, restructuring of individual or group mental phenomena (views, relationships, motives, attitudes, states, etc.).
Psychological influence is the impact on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person with the help of exclusively psychological means, with the provision of the right and time to respond to this impact.
Cause, however, doubt the words "granting the right and time to respond to the impact." With some types of influence (for example, when manipulating and attacking), they try not to provide this right.
Therefore, we are inclined to accept for further work only the part of this definition of influence highlighted by us in bold italics.
All the above definitions, mutually complementing each other, reveal different aspects of the concept of "psychological influence".
In the following, for brevity, we will use the term "influence", meaning "psychological influence".
The types of psychological influence primarily include persuasion, infection, suggestion, imitation.
Belief
As a way of psychological influence, persuasion is aimed at removing specific filters on the way of information to the consciousness and feelings of a person. It is used to transform the information that is being communicated into a system of attitudes and principles of the individual.
Persuasion - a method of conscious and organized influence on the psyche of the individual through appeal to his critical judgment.
Realized in the process of communicative interaction, beliefs ensure the perception and inclusion of new information in the system of views of a person. It is based on the conscious attitude of the individual to information, its analysis and evaluation. The effectiveness of persuasion depends on many factors, especially the skill of its subject. One of its prerequisites is the conscious attitude of the recipient to the process of forming beliefs. Elements of the unconscious are simultaneously involved in this process. The most favorable conditions for persuasion are discussion, group polemics, disputes, since the thought formed during their course is much deeper than the one that arose due to the passive perception of information. Consequently, beliefs, influencing the mind and feelings of a person, is a way of psychological influence of one person on another or a group of people, which affects the rational and emotional beginning, while forming new views and relationships.
taking into account the attitude of the recipient to the information used for the purpose of psychological influence, there are direct and indirect (mediated) methods of persuasion. The prerequisite for the direct method of persuasion is the recipient's interest in information, the focus of his attention on logical, truthful, obvious arguments. For an indirect method of persuasion, the recipient becomes subject to random factors, such as the attractiveness of the communicator. A more analytical, sustainable and less storied direct way of persuasion. More effective is its influence on the attitudes and behavior of the individual. Its strength and depth also depend on persuasive communication - a set of measures aimed at increasing the effectiveness of speech impact. On its basis, applied research is carried out on the features of communicative influence, experimental rhetoric is developed, and the main and auxiliary elements of persuasion that make up persuasive communicative influence are analyzed. According to the American journalist G. Lassuel, the model of the communicative process covers five elements: 1) who transmits the message (communicator); 2) what is transmitted (message, text); 3) how the transmission (channel) is carried out; 4) to whom the message was sent (audience); 5) what was the result of the communication (effectiveness of the impact).
Competent, reliable, attractive, capable of convincingly proving his case, the communicator is also trusted as an effective expert. Significant in relation to the communicative impact are its qualities such as sociability (a measure of the desire of the individual to communicate), contact (mastering the ways of communication) and others. In the process of interaction, the communicator, as a rule, takes an open, closed or detached position. In an open position, he frankly expresses his point of view, evaluates the facts that confirm it. A closed position obliges him to hide his thoughts, even to use certain techniques for this. Emphasized neutral behavior, dispassionate comparison of opposing views testify to the detached position of the communicator.
An important factor influencing the perception of information is the interaction of information and attitudes of the audience.
As a specific type of psychological influence, persuasive influence is distinguished by the situation that determines its necessity, the psychological state of partners in the process of communication. We are talking about their awareness of the act of influence, the possibility of critical evaluation of episodes of communication, communicative autonomy in the choice of the final decision by the recipient, the moral aspect of the content and goals of influence. Persuasive influence is simultaneously a psychological phenomenon (considering the structure, functions) and a communicative process (dynamics, conditions, factors, patterns, mechanisms of its manifestation). As a psychological phenomenon, persuasive influence is a systemic formation that has its own structure. Its task is to regulate the behavior of the recipient with subsequent self-regulation of his activities. Persuasive influence as a communicative process is realized in the form of mutual influence of partners in dialogic communication (Fig. 11). Since each of them pursues its own goals in the reversal of influence, then, given the goal of interaction, the partners are in an asymmetric position, but with participation in communication they are equal.
The effectiveness of a persuasive communicative impact depends on the partners' interest in each other: the recipient must be ready to perceive and accept information, and the communicator must be interested in who the impact is aimed at. In addition, the content and form of persuasion must correspond to age, and persuasive communication - to the individual characteristics of a person. The belief must be logical, consistent, evidence-based, reasoned. Convincing others, the communicator should believe in what he says, use both general theoretical information and specific facts and examples.
If a person is not ready to be convinced, then neither logic, nor the attractiveness of the communicator, nor his arguments will help. The effect of the impact is impossible due to the scornful or condescending attitude of the communicator to the audience.
Infection
This ancient method of integrating group activity arises from the significant accumulation of people - in stadiums, in concert halls, at carnivals, rallies and the like. One of its characteristics is spontaneity.
Infection is a psychological impact on a person in the process of communication and interaction, which conveys certain moods, impulses not through consciousness and intellect, but through the emotional sphere.
During mental infection, an emotional state is transmitted from one person to another at an unconscious level. The sphere of consciousness under such conditions sharply narrows, criticality to events, information coming from various sources almost disappears. Psychology interprets contagion as an unconscious, involuntary exposure of a person to certain mental states. Social psychology considers it as a process of transferring the emotional state of one individual to another at the level of mental contact. Infection occurs through
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the transmission of a mental mood endowed with a large emotional charge. It is both a product of the influence of the mental state of an individual or a group on other energies, as well as a person's ability to perceive, empathize with this state, complicity.
The effectiveness of the power of mental contagion depends on the depth and brightness of emotional excitations directed from the communicator. The psychological readiness of the recipient for an emotional response to him is also significant. Outbursts of emotions caused by a positive or negative state of people (crying, contagious laughter, etc.) become a strong catalyst for emotional arousal. The main catalyst for this phenomenon is the communicative contact of individuals - the subjects of interaction. The mechanism of socio-psychological infection lies in the repeated mutual strengthening of emotional influences from many individuals. A chain reaction of infection is observed in large classrooms, an unorganized community, a crowd. The degree of infection of people, groups depends on the general level of development, mental state, age, emotional state, self-awareness. The constructive action of this phenomenon turns out to be even greater group cohesion, and is also used as a means of compensating for its insufficient organization.
Suggestion
It can be one of the dangerous tools for manipulating human behavior, since it affects his consciousness and subconscious.
Suggestion, or suggestion (lat. - suggestion) - the process of influencing the mental sphere of a person, associated with a significant decrease in its criticality to incoming information, the lack of desire to verify its reliability, unlimited trust in its sources.
The basis of the effectiveness of suggestion is trust. The source of suggestion can be familiar and unfamiliar people, the media, advertising, and so on. The suggestion is directed not to the logic of the individual, his ability to think, analyze, evaluate, but to his readiness to accept the order, order, advice and act. At the same time, the individual characteristics of the person to whom the impact is directed are of great importance: the ability to think critically, make decisions independently, firmness of convictions, gender, age, and emotional state. A significant factor determining the effectiveness of suggestion is the authority, skills, status, volitional qualities of the suggestor (source of influence), his confident manner, categorical tone, expressive intonation. Efficiency also depends on the relationship between the sugestor and the sugerend (the object of suggestion). It's about trust, credibility, dependency, and the like. An indicator of the effect of suggestion is the way the message is constructed (the level of argumentation, the combination of logical and emotional components).
Social psychology considers suggestion as a spontaneous component of everyday communication and as a specially organized kind of communicative influence, which is used in the mass media, fashion, advertising, etc. She associates suggestion with trust in the communicator's information, with a person's obedience to external circumstances, and its dependence on coercive force. collective actions and ideas, the preservation of customs, and the like. Countersuggestion is based on distrust of information, disobedience to the existing state of affairs, on the desire of the individual for independence. It is a tool for bringing about change in society. The researchers consider the unity of action of the mechanisms of suggestion and countersuggestion necessary in human development.
Behind the content and result of the impact, a positive (moral) and negative (unethical) suggestion is distinguished. Suggestion as a positive, moral factor is used in many areas of social relations. It is one of the methods of activating group activity - industrial, educational, etc. It is widely used in medicine (hypnosis, psychotherapy). At the same time, suggestion can also have a negative impact, becoming an instrument of irresponsible manipulation of the consciousness of an individual or a group.
Suggestion is carried out in the form of heterosuggestion (influence from outside) and autosuggestion (self-suggestion). Self-hypnosis refers to conscious self-regulation, the suggestion to oneself of certain ideas, feelings, emotions. To do this, a person creates a model of a state or actions and introduces them into his psyche by identifying the shortcomings that he wants to get rid of, develops and uses formulas and methods of self-hypnosis.
given the implementation mechanism, direct and indirect, intentional and unintentional suggestion are distinguished. Direct suggestion consists in a call to a specific action, the sugestor transmits as an order, instruction, order, prohibition. Behind indirect suggestion the communicator hides the true meaning of the information. It is designed for non-critical perception of the message, for which they use not imperative, but opposing forms. Deliberate suggestion is a purposeful, consciously organized psychological influence (the suggestor knows the goal, the object of influence, choosing his methods accordingly). Unintentional suggestion does not pursue a special purpose and an appropriate organization. Sugerend during suggestion can be in an active state, in a state of natural sleep, hypnosis, post-hypnotic state (suggestion is implemented after leaving hypnosis).
Imitation
This is one of the most widespread forms of human behavior in communication.
Imitation is the process of focusing on a specific example, pattern, repetition and reproduction by one person of actions, deeds, gestures, manners, intonations of another person, copying the features of her character and lifestyle.
Imitation is an emotionally and rationally directed act. It is both conscious and unconscious. Conscious imitation is a purposeful manifestation of the activity, initiative, desire of the individual. A person tries to repeat everything that seems right and useful to him (skills, effective ways of communication and activity, rational methods of performing labor operations). For unconscious imitation, she is active due to the influence of other people who count on such a reaction, stimulating it by various means.
Imitation is one of the important mechanisms of personality socialization, ways of its training and education. It is of particular importance in the development of the child. Therefore, the majority of scientific and applied research on this issue is carried out in child, developmental and educational psychology. In an adult, imitation is a side way of mastering the world around us. its psychological mechanisms of inheritance are much more complicated than those of a child and a teenager, since the criticality of the personality is triggered. Imitation in adulthood is an element of learning in certain types of professional activities (sports, art). However, it cannot be considered as a unidirectional movement of information, patterns of behavior from the inductor (communicator) to the recipient. There is always a (sometimes minimal) reverse process - from the recipient to the inductor.
Nadezhda SuvorovaEvery day we are psychologically affected. Sometimes it's annoying, and sometimes we don't even know we're being manipulated. Psychological influence is a powerful tool in capable hands. To master the techniques, you need to thoroughly study the characteristics of the individual and the possible ways of influencing the minds of people.
What types of influence are there and how to protect yourself from the influence of others, we will talk in this article.
The concept of psychological impact
It is a complex and multifaceted term. In short, the psychological impact is the manipulation of the human subconscious, which occurs contrary to common sense. allow you to control human behavior.
At the dawn of civilization, shamans and tribal leaders possessed the skills of psychological influence. They used primitive methods: body language, intonations of the voice, rituals and potions that cloud the mind.
With the development of science and technology, there are so many ways to manipulate the subconscious that each of us uses them daily and does not suspect it.
The purpose of the psychological impact
Regardless of the object (one person or group), there is a specific goal of psychological impact behind the process:
Using other people to meet personal needs.
Gaining prestige in the group.
Creation of the framework and standards of society.
Finding a sense of significance.
proof of its existence.
Most attempts at manipulation have selfish goals. We see a person who is emotionally weaker than us, and we strive to subdue him. One needs to be listened to, the other needs to carry out instructions for him. These are the goals that we achieve through psychological influence.
Some use this skill for good purposes, others are driven by selfishness. But in the first and second cases, the true goal is to prove one's own importance to society and to establish the fact of one's existence. Psychology does not divide motives into good and bad; it studies methods and methods of influence, discovering new facts.
A skillful master is difficult to figure out, especially if he acts on you and your environment. It is easier to convince several people in practice than one. This is due to the herd mentality and the development of the media. We blindly believe what we are told on TV.
Methods of psychological influence
Diverse. Politicians and dictators are fluent in each of them:
Belief. Impact with arguments.
Self-promotion. Demonstration of one's advantages over other people in order to gain the trust of others.
Suggestion. Impact without arguments.
Infection. Transferring your feelings and emotions to other people.
Arousing the desire to imitate. Through words and actions, awaken people to imitate you.
Call for favor. Belief in your good intentions and goals.
Request. Expressing your desires and asking for their satisfaction.
Compulsion. Pressure and intimidation with threats.
destructive criticism. Suppression of a person's personality, ridicule and insult of a person.
Manipulation. Indirect awakening to action or judgment.
Types of psychological influence have similar and different features, some are suitable for achieving a quick result, others for influencing a person over time.
Tools of psychological influence
It's one thing when a person is nearby and you can convince him with words, looks, movements, intonation. But what if the goal is the consciousness of an audience of people located in different cities and even countries.
To do this, psychological tools are used:
Military funds.
Trade and financial sanctions.
political means.
Fine and.
MEDIA.
Internet.
Managing the masses with these tools leads to stunning results. We are used to believing what we read on the Internet and see on TV, and it would never occur to us that this is another way of psychological influence. Let's take as an example the canons of beauty that were 50 years ago and that exist now. Both were dictated by fashion with the help of the media in order to sell their products.
Belief
This method has three components: thesis, arguments and demonstration. First, you formulate a specific position - this is a thesis, then you form arguments, and at the end, with the help of a demonstration, you convince the target audience.
The method is very effective if you know the secrets of persuasion:
terms and arguments should be extremely simple and understandable;
use only those facts in the veracity of which you are sure;
take into account the personality of the interlocutor;
conduct a conversation without discussing other people;
your speech should be simple, without complex epithets and winged expressions.
Much of the success depends on the arguments you present. Those arguments that are supported by well-known facts, relate specifically to the topic of the conversation, are interesting to the interlocutor and have not lost their relevance, have the effect.
Suggestion
This method has no arguments and facts. It affects the individual in a different way. With it, you can impose your opinion on a person and force him to act in your interests.
Suggestion is direct and indirect. In the first case, you directly express your point of view and expect obedience. This method is used by parents, educators, teachers. In the second case, techniques are chosen that unobtrusively push for action. This method is used by the advertisers.
The following factors influence the effectiveness of suggestion:
the age of the person or target audience;
state (fatigue, fatigue);
your authority;
the type of personality of the person who is psychologically affected.
Infection
This is the third main method of influencing the personality. It is aimed at a mass of people, and not at one individual. Religious sects and fan clubs are a striking example of the psychological impact through infection.
The fact that there is a method of infection, people knew at the dawn of a civilized society, when mass ceremonies were held around an idol or altar with ritual dances and entering a trance.
Today, this method is widely studied. It is better known as mass psychology or crowd phenomenon. A rare person will be able to resist the general impulse and go against the crowd.
Infection can be identified by the following signs:
turning off consciousness;
transition to a state of unconsciousness;
direction of thoughts and feelings in one direction;
the desire to implement ideas into reality right here and now;
loss of personality;
disable logic;
unwillingness to be responsible for their actions.
Persuasion, suggestion and infection are the "three pillars" on which the psychological impact is based. But other methods are also popular among those who wish to control the behavior and mind of people.
Methods of protection against psychological influence
Today, each of us has access to information about the methods of psychological influence and how to master them, so people who are inspired often have to be a puppet in someone's hands and fulfill his requests and wishes. In order not to find yourself in a similar situation, you should be able to resist manipulators and maintain a sober mind.
Methods of protection against psychological influence:
In any situation, you should analyze whether you need to obey the words of another person or not, what will be the benefit from this. In most cases, you will not be able to specifically answer the question why you do something. And this is the first sign that they want to influence you;
rational approach. If you are offered to perform specific actions, then offer your option, which will be more convenient for you. This will lead the manipulator into a stupor, and he will lose power over you;
faith in one's own righteousness. If someone else's opinion is trying to impose on you, do not blindly believe other people's words. It is better to analyze the arguments provided, compare with your own;
Change your behavior. Manipulators read information about your personality from the manner of communication and behavior. Enter such people into a dead end, trying on different roles;
distrust should become your habit. This is not about close people who wish you well. But if a stranger or work colleague suddenly begins to take an interest in you and impose his communication, beware and try to notice signs of a manipulator in his words and behavior;
review past mistakes. Focus on situations where you have been controlled. Think about how you allowed this and what to do so as not to repeat the sad experience;
ask for an explanation. If you are tempted to do something, ask lots of questions. The manipulator will give himself away if he tries to deceive you, to evade the answer;
do not do what is expected of you. Often, at the first meeting, we show ourselves better than we really are. Others take advantage of this situation, and you have to comply with their requests so as not to lose confidence. But you have the right to change and there is no need to act to the detriment of yourself and to please others;
do not test . This is a powerful incentive to get you to obey. Accept your mistakes and don't let others pressure you with memories of the past.
Psychological impact can work wonders: help loved ones, change them for the better. But greedy individuals use it for selfish purposes, so you should protect yourself and your family from negative influences.
February 17, 2014, 11:06 am