The Entente and the Triple Alliance are military-political associations, each of which pursued its own interests, they were opposing forces during the First World War.
The Entente is a political union of three friendly states - Russia, England and France, created in 1895.
Unlike the Triple Alliance, which was a military bloc even before the Entente, it became a full-fledged military association only when gun shots thundered over Europe in 1914. It was in this year that England, France and Russia signed an agreement under which they assumed obligations not to conclude with their opponents.
The triple alliance arose from and Austria-Hungary in 1879. A little later, namely in 1882, Italy joins them, which completes the formation of this military-political bloc. He played a significant role in creating situations that led to the outbreak of the First World War. In accordance with the clauses of the agreement, signed for a five-year period, the participating countries of this agreement pledged not to participate in actions directed against one of them, to provide all possible support in relation to each other. According to their agreement, all three parties were to serve as the so-called "insurers". In the event of an attack on Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary became its reliable defense. In the case of Germany - its supporters, Italy and Austria-Hungary, which were a trump card in case of participation in the hostilities of Russia.
The triple alliance was concluded on a secret basis and with minor reservations from Italy. Since she did not want to enter into conflict relations with Great Britain, she warned her allies not to count on her support in the event of an attack on any of them by Great Britain.
The creation of the Triple Alliance served as an impetus for the formation of a counterweight in the person of the Entente, which included France, Russia and Great Britain. It was this confrontation that led to the outbreak of the First World War.
The triple alliance lasted until 1915, since Italy was already participating in hostilities on the side of the Entente. This redistribution of forces was preceded by the neutrality of this country in relations between Germany and France, with which it was not profitable for the "native" to spoil relations.
The triple alliance was eventually replaced by a quarter alliance in which Italy was replaced by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
The Entente and the Triple Alliance were extremely interested in the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, the Middle and Germany wanted to capture part of France and its colonies; Austria-Hungary needed control of the Balkans; England pursued the goal of weakening the position of Germany, securing a world market monopoly, and also maintaining maritime power; France dreamed of returning the territories of Alsace and Lorraine taken away during the Franco-Prussian war; Russia wanted to take root in the Balkans, to seize the western
The greatest number of contradictions was associated with the Balkan Peninsula. Both the first and the second blocks wanted to strengthen their positions in this region. The struggle began by peaceful diplomatic methods, accompanied by parallel training and strengthening of the military forces of the countries. Germany and Austria-Hungary actively took up the modernization of the troops. Russia was the least prepared.
The event that served and prompted the start of hostilities was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Serbia by a student. A shot in a driving car hit not only Ferdinand, but also his wife. On July 15, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia...
By 1914, Europe was split into two major alliances, which included the six most powerful powers. Their confrontation escalated into a world war. Britain, France and Russia formed the Entente, while Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy united in the Triple Alliance. The split into alliances exacerbated the explosiveness and completely quarreled the countries.
The beginning of the formation of alliances
Having won a series of victories (1862-1871), the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck created a new German state, united from several small principalities. However, Bismarck feared that after the formation of the new state, neighboring countries, especially France and Austria-Hungary, would feel threatened and begin to take action to destroy Germany. Bismarck saw the creation of alliances as the only way out in order to stabilize and balance the forces on the geopolitical map of Europe. He believed that this could stop the inevitability of war for Germany.
dual union
Bismarck understood that France as an ally for Germany was lost. After the defeat of France in Franco-Prussian War and the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, the French treated the Germans sharply negatively. Britain, on the other hand, strove for dominance and actively prevented the formation of any alliances, fearing possible competition from their side.
Based on these circumstances, Bismarck decided to turn to Austria-Hungary and Russia. As a result, in 1873 they united in the Union of the Three Emperors, whose members guaranteed mutual support if hostilities suddenly began. Five years later, Russia decided to leave the union. The following year, the remaining members of the alliance formed the Dual Alliance and now began to consider Russia a threat. They agreed on military assistance should Russia attack either them or provide military support to anyone else.
Triple Alliance
In 1881, Italy joined the two countries participating in the alliance, and the Triple Alliance was formed, and France has now been added to the list of threats. Moreover, the alliance guaranteed that if any of its members was at war with two or more states, the alliance would come to the rescue.
Italy, being the weakest member of the alliance, insisted on the inclusion in the treaty of an additional clause that she had the right to withdraw from it if the Triple Alliance acted as an aggressor. Shortly thereafter, Italy signed a treaty with France, pledging its support in the event of a German attack on them.
"Reinsurance" agreement
Bismarck was frightened by the possibility of a war on two fronts, and this meant the settlement of relations either with France or with Russia. The Germans' relations with the French were badly damaged, so Bismarck's choice fell on the Russians. The Chancellor invited Russia to sign a "reinsurance agreement". Under the terms of this agreement, both parties were to remain neutral in the event of a war with a third country.
However, this agreement was valid only until 1890, then the German government canceled it, sending Bismarck to resign. Russia sought to keep the treaty in force, but Germany did not want this. This decision is considered major mistake Bismarck's successors.
Franco-Russian alliance
Carefully designed by Bismarck foreign policy began to crumble after he left. In an effort to expand the German Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued a policy of aggressive militarization. The expansion and strengthening of the German fleet caused concern in England, France and Russia, which caused the rallying of these countries. Meanwhile, the new German government was not competent enough to maintain the alliance that had been created, and Germany soon faced the distrust and hostility of the European powers.
In 1892, Russia entered into an alliance with France within the framework of a secret convention. The terms of this alliance assumed mutual assistance in case of war, without imposing other restrictions. The Alliance was created in opposition to the Triple Alliance. Germany's departure from political course, laid by Bismarck, put her in a dangerous position. Now the empire faced the threat of war on two fronts.
The growing tension between the major powers of Europe made Britain think about the need to join one of the alliances. Britain did not support France in the Franco-Prussian War, but nevertheless the countries concluded the Entente Cordiale agreement between themselves in 1904. Three years later, a similar agreement appeared between Great Britain and Russia. In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention made this bond even stronger. The Alliance is in effect.
World War
When the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in 1914, the reaction of Austria-Hungary was immediate. In the next few weeks, a full-scale war unfolded across Europe. The Entente fought with the Triple Alliance, which Italy soon left.
The parties to the conflict were sure that the war would be fleeting and end by Christmas 1914, but it lasted 4 long years During this time, the United States was also drawn into the conflict. During the entire period, it claimed the lives of 11 million soldiers and 7 million civilians. The war ended in 1919 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE - a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, which arose in 1882 and played a major role in unleashing the world war of 1914-1918. Having concluded an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, Germany, in order to isolate France, energetically sought a new ally in Italy. It can be said that German diplomacy not only found this ally, but partly created it itself, since for this it had to overcome the Francophile tendencies of the then Italian government, the old hatred of the Italians for their former oppressors, the Austrians, and the desire of the Italian nationalists to take away from Austria-Hungary not only Trentino, but also Trieste. Bismarck used the struggle for the capture of Tunisia in order to first, in order to isolate France, to quarrel with Italy, and then to force Italy to rapprochement not only with Germany, but also with Austria-Hungary. In 1881, France occupied Tunisia, and the Italian government, annoyed by this, reported to Berlin that Italy would like to enter into closer relations with Germany. Bismarck reassured the Italian ambassador, but emphasized that "Italy can find the keys to the German doors only in Vienna." Having received this instruction, the Italian government took appropriate steps in Austria. The Vienna government, seeking to secure its rear in case of war with Russia, went towards the proposals of Italy. As a result of negotiations on 20. V 1882 in Vienna, alliance treaty between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
The introductory part of the treaty contained a statement that the contracting parties, "inspired by the desire to increase the guarantees of world peace, strengthen monarchical principles and thereby ensure the preservation of the social and political system in their states," concluded this "protective and defensive" treaty.
According to Art. 1 the parties to the treaty promised each other "peace and friendship", pledged not to take part in any alliances or obligations directed against one of them, to consult among themselves on "political and economic issues general and provide each other with mutual support "within the boundaries of their own interests."
According to Art. 2 Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to provide Italy "assistance and assistance with all their forces" if she "without a direct challenge from her side would be attacked by France for any reason," and Italy pledged to do the same in the event unprovoked French attack on Germany. As for Austria-Hungary, it was exempted from rendering assistance to Germany against France - it was assigned the role of a reserve in case Russia entered the war. It was in this article of the treaty that its value for Italy and Germany lay, since at that time they considered France to be their potential adversary.
Italy's attitude towards Art. 3 of the treaty, which stated that in the event of an unprovoked attack on one or two parties to the treaty by two or more great powers not participating in this treaty, all three parties to the treaty enter the war with the attacking powers. Austria-Hungary and Germany, following the signing of the treaty at the insistence of Italy, took into account its special statement, the essence of which was that if one of the powers that attacked its partners was England, then the provisions of Art. 3 military aid Italy will not render its allies. Italy, whose shores were easily vulnerable to the English navy, was afraid of England and considered it dangerous to enter into conflict with her. Thus, from the very beginning of the existence of the Triple Alliance, it was clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary would have a more or less faithful ally in Italy only as long as England did not become enemies of the Triple Alliance.
According to Art. 4, in the event of an unprovoked attack on one of the parties to the treaty by one of the great powers not participating in this treaty (except France), the other two parties were obliged to maintain benevolent neutrality with respect to their attacked ally. The practical value of this article for Germany and Austria-Hungary was to guarantee the neutrality of Italy in the event of a Russo-Austrian war.
Art. 5 provided for a preliminary agreement of the parties on joint actions in the event of a threat to one of them. Here, the parties pledged "in all cases of common participation in the war not to conclude a truce, peace or treaty except with common consent among themselves."
Art. 6 provided for the secrecy of both the content and the very existence of this treaty. According to Art. 7 the contract was concluded for 5 years.
The second treaty of alliance of the powers of the Triple Alliance was signed in Berlin on 20.II.1887. He confirmed all the provisions of the 1882 treaty and fixed its validity until 30. V 1892. At the same time, separate Italo-Austrian and Italo-German treaties were signed in Berlin, supplementing the obligations of the 1882 treaty.
The Italo-Austrian treaty obliged its participants to try to maintain the territorial status quo in the East. If, however, the preservation of this status quo in the Balkans, or on the Turkish coast, or on the islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas would be impossible and the occupation of these areas by Italy and Austria-Hungary would follow, then it was envisaged that "this occupation will follow only after a preliminary agreement between both named Powers, based on the principle of compensation for any territorial or other acquisition beyond the present status quo". The Italo-German treaty contained the same obligation to maintain the territorial status quo in the East, but left free rein for both sides in the Egyptian question. It was further stated that if France made an attempt to seize new North African territories, be it Tripoli or Morocco, and Italy found it necessary to oppose it, then in the event of war Germany would provide Italy with the same military assistance as provided for in Art. 2 of the union treaty of 1882. In the course of any war undertaken jointly against France, Germany pledged to assist Italy in her desire to obtain from France "territorial guarantees to secure the borders of the kingdom and its position on the sea." Additional agreements were kept secret and were valid, like the main agreement, until 30. V, 1892.
The Treaty of the Triple Alliance was signed for the third time in Berlin on 6.V.1891. Its text repeated all the provisions of the 1882 treaty and included the main provisions of the Italo-Austrian and Italo-German treaties of 20.II 1887. In addition, according to Art. 9 of the treaty of 1891, Germany and Italy pledged to make efforts to maintain the territorial status quo in Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Tunisia, and if this became impossible, then Germany pledged to support Italy in any of her actions taken "in the interests of balance and obtaining legal compensation" . It was further added: "It goes without saying that in the event of such a case, both powers will also try to enter into an agreement with England." The contract was concluded for 6 years, with an automatic extension for the next six years, provided that one or another contracting party does not denounce it a year before the expiration of the term. The additional protocol attached to the treaty stated that since it was possible to achieve, in principle, England's accession to the resolution of the treaty concerning the East, i.e., the territory of the Ottoman Empire (see Mediterranean Entente), the contracting parties will make every effort "to achieve a similar accessions in relation to the North African territories in the central and western parts mediterranean sea including Morocco.
However, hopes for an alliance with England did not come true. The British rejected repeated proposals for such an alliance by Chancellor Caprivi.
From the end of the 19th century, Italy, frightened by the growing Anglo-German enmity and suffering damage from the customs war waged against it by France, began to change the course of its policy. In 1896, Italy recognized the French protectorate over Tunisia; in 1898, it concluded a trade treaty with France; case of a Franco-German war caused by Germany. But formally, Italy remained a member of the Triple Alliance and participated in its new renewal in 1902, and secretly informed France about this act.
The fourth union treaty between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy was signed in Berlin on June 28, 1902, fully reproduced the text of the previous, third union treaty, was concluded for the same 6-year period and with the same extension conditions. In a secret declaration communicated to the Italian government on June 30, 1902, the Austro-Hungarian government announced that it was striving to maintain the territorial status quo in the East, but would not do anything that could interfere with Italian actions dictated by its interests in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica .
The policy of the countries participating in the Triple Alliance in the decade 1902-1912 is characterized by the growing aggressiveness of German imperialism, which leads this alliance (see Moroccan crises), the ever-increasing penetration of the powers of the Triple Alliance into the Balkans and Turkey (see Bosnian crisis, Baghdad Railway) ; Italy's capture of Tripoli and Cyrenaica as a result of the Italo-Turkish war (see the Lausanne Peace Treaty of 1912) and Italy's continued withdrawal from the Triple Alliance.
The fifth Treaty of the Triple Alliance was signed in Vienna on 5. XII 1912. The content of this treaty is identical to that of the treaties of 1891 and 1902. The 1912 treaty was the last in the history of the Triple Alliance; during the world war that began a year and a half later, Italy went over to the side of the Entente powers, and the Triple Alliance broke up.
Diplomatic Dictionary. Ch. ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M., 1948.
Reasons for the war. First World War was caused by the aggravation of fundamental contradictions between the major capitalist states. The imperialist countries fought each other for markets and sources of raw materials. These contradictions (mainly of an economic nature) arose and grew over a long period of time and led to the formation of hostile coalitions.
Germany, late to the colonial division of the world, sought to catch up. It was Germany, of all the powers, that was most interested in global war for the redistribution of the world (although this does not remove responsibility from other states). Germany's ally was Austria-Hungary, which had its own views on the Balkans.
France, the traditional enemy of Germany on the continent, remembering the unsuccessful war for itself 1870 was looking for an ally and found him in the person of Russia. Britain, in turn, was forced to break the traditional policy of "brilliant isolation". The United Kingdom was the largest colonial empire and had the strongest navy, but the United States and Germany, having surpassed Britain in economic potential, gradually overtook her in terms of the power of their naval units. Especially
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Anglo-German conflicts arose sharply. Therefore, Great Britain joined the Russian-French alliance. Russia and Great Britain smoothed over their contradictions by delimiting spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. This is how the countries of Concord - the Entente - united.
Russia's participation in the war is explained not by its immediate interests, but, first of all, by allied obligations and the desire to assert its status as a great power. In Russia, they understood the disastrous nature of war in conditions of an unstable economy and sharp internal contradictions. Remembering the results of the Russian-Japanese war and revolution, P.A. Stolypin, and after him Russian diplomacy adhered to the formula "peace, whatever the cost." But still, in the upcoming war, Russia was going to capture the Black Sea straits, opening the way to the Mediterranean. Russia also sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans to the detriment of the interests of Austria-Hungary.
Side plans. Germany and Austria-Hungary faced the unattractive prospect of a war on two fronts. Germany intended, first of all, to concentrate troops in the western direction and defeat France, and then transfer them to Russia. The German command proceeded from the fact that mobilization in Russia due to large spaces and underdevelopment of the system railways usually passed very slowly. In the event of war, Russia was late with the start of hostilities.
Reason for war. The reason for the war was the assassination in Sarajevo by a Serbian student of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Ferdinand. The assassination took place on June 28, 1914, on July 10 Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with a deliberately impossible ultimatum, and on July 14 declared war. Within a matter of days, all the major European powers entered the war.
Start
war. Germany invaded France through Belgium and began to launch an offensive against Paris. The position of France was becoming catastrophic. To save an ally, Russia, without completing its mobilization, moved two large military groups into East Prussia. Germany weakened the onslaught on Paris (to which 30-40 km remained), transferring part of the troops to
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Eastern front. Due to uncoordinated actions, the Russian armies were defeated. Later, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Central Powers.
In autumn, the situation on the fronts stabilized. In all directions, the troops froze in the trenches. All countries preparing for the koine believed that it would be fleeting, as the experience of previous conflicts had indicated. But the defense turned out to be stronger than the offensive, and attempts to break through a powerful, deeply echeloned defensive system, as a rule, only led to huge losses.
The nature of wars. Thus, the world war turned into a war of attrition. The outcome of the war was decided by the ratio of material and human resources on both sides. The belligerent states were forced to transfer their economies to war footing. The big capitalists who unleashed the war doomed their peoples to the most severe trials and huge sacrifices, unprecedented in the history of mankind.
In such a war, the Entente countries had significant advantages. Two of the largest colonial empires, Great Britain and France, worked for them. jriQ concerns the colonies of Germany, they were very quickly conquered by the Allies. The German fleet was blocked in its ports for more than powerful fleet Great Britain, attempts to break into the Atlantic remained only attempts. Only German submarines could interfere with Allied sea communications.
In this situation, the Central Powers had to rely only on their own resources.
The course of the war in 1915-1916. Unable to immediately defeat France, Germany decided in the second year of the war to disable Russia. For Russia, this year was a year of retreat, but after leveling the front line, the situation stabilized. Russia constantly pulled over 50% of the enemy forces.
In the same year, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente. Bloody battles begin on the Franco-German front - near Verdun ("Verdun Meat Grinder") and on the Somme. All military operations were concentrated on a small section of the front, to which new reserves were brought up. In these fierce and bloody massacres, both sides lost millions of people.
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A fundamentally different tactic was used by the Russian General A.A. Brusilov when attacking Southwestern Front. The blows were struck in several places at once. Tactics of the "Brusilovsky breakthrough" 1916 allowed to inflict the largest defeat of Austria-Hungary. In the same year, Russian troops achieved significant successes on the Turkish front as well.
Romania, closely watching the successes of the parties, decided to take the side of the Entente, but was immediately defeated by the Central Powers. Russia had to stretch its front south to the Black Sea.
War and Russian society. The attitude to the war in Russian society at different stages was not the same. Initially, the war was met with a surge of patriotism, as, indeed, in other countries. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. The mobilization was successful, all parties except the Bolsheviks declared their support for the government.
But the war dragged on, and the situation gradually became worse. All pre-war contradictions aggravated, worsened economic situation, the transport and energy industries were in a crisis. Significant losses were also Agriculture.
Since 1914
on 1917
Over the years, the government changed the personnel of the Russian army several times. By 1917 It consisted mainly of poorly trained peasants and hastily trained officers. The army has turned from a stronghold of the existing order into a source of unrest and unrest (especially in the rear).
The revolution. The outbreak of the February Revolution complicated the situation at the front. Order No. 1, issued by the Soviets, actually disintegrated the army. According to this order, democratic orders were introduced in the army, officers were equalized in rights with soldiers, which naturally contributed to a sharp drop in discipline.
The provisional government did not dare to violate allied obligations and unilaterally withdraw from the war. But the continuation of the war contributed to the prolongation of pressing internal problems, the deepening of the socio-economic crisis. It turned out a vicious circle, which could only be broken by a victory over Germany,
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The inevitability of the victory of the Entente became more and more obvious, especially after the US entered the war.
But the Russian army was no longer the same. The scale of desertion from the army grew, the front was barely held. Russia stood on the threshold civil war.
Russia's exit from the war. The Bolsheviks who came to power agreed to conclude a peace agreement with the Austro-German bloc in Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918 in order to preserve their own regime in the context of the civil war that was growing in the country. With the Decree on Peace, the Bolshevik government legalized secret diplomacy and published the secret treaties concluded by the tsarist and provisional governments. This is how Russia got out of the World War. The Entente countries did not recognize the Brest Peace and began to prepare for intervention.
Participation in the First World War cost Russia the death of 2 million people, another 5 million were wounded and taken prisoner. The war and the resulting crisis that engulfed all spheres of life Russian society, contributed to the activation social processes which led to the collapse of the empire and the establishment of a new regime.
Military actions in 1917-1918 1917- 1918 was the final stage of the First World War. This period was characterized by a further expansion of the conflict, even greater bitterness and bloodshed, as well as the extreme exhaustion of the forces of all the belligerents. fighting in 1917 they went with varying degrees of success. The large-scale offensive undertaken by the French troops on the Western Front did not lead to anything other than huge losses. The defeat of the Italian troops at the Battle of Caporetto in the autumn of 1917 was to a certain extent compensated by the significant successes of the British in the Middle East, where they managed to inflict a number of sensitive blows on the Ottoman Empire. The belligerents still could not solve the problem of overcoming the positional defense and entering the operational space. To solve this problem, new types of weapons and equipment were designed, more effective ways conducting an offensive - the Entente countries sought not only to achieve military superiority over Germany, but also to seize the initiative
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active on the ideological front. The key role in this belonged to US President W. Wilson, who delivered his message, which went down in history under the title "Wilson's 14 Points". It was a program of post-war peace settlement and, at the same time, an attempt to prevent future global conflicts by creating international organization- League of Nations.
The US entry into the war in 1917 significantly changed the situation in favor of the Entente. Realizing this, the German command in March-July 1918 made several desperate attempts to achieve victory. At the cost of an incredible effort, the German troops managed to break through the French front and approach Paris at a distance of 70 kilometers. But more power was not enough. On July 18, 1918, the Allies launched a counteroffensive, which the German army was no longer able to contain. By the autumn of 1918, the Allies had almost completely liberated the territory of France, starting preparations for an offensive against Germany, which by that time had almost completely exhausted its material and human resources. The military bloc opposing Atlanta was falling apart: on September 29, 1918, Bulgaria withdrew from the war, on October 30 - Ottoman Empire. In October 1918, a revolution broke out in Austria-Hungary, which led to the complete disintegration of this "patchwork" empire. Germany continued to resist, but here, too, a revolutionary explosion was brewing. November 3, 1918 in Kiel there was an uprising in the fleet, which quickly spread throughout the country and led to the overthrow of the monarchy. November 11, 1918 Germany signed the act of surrender. World War I World War I was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.
main reason The war became a contradiction between the powers of two large blocs - the Entente (a coalition of Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).
The reason for the start of an armed clash was the terrorist attack by a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, a high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style) 1914, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed in Sarajevo.
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia, in which it accused the country's government of supporting terrorism and demanded that its military formations be allowed into the territory. Despite the fact that the note of the Serbian government expressed readiness to resolve the conflict, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On July 28, hostilities began on the Austro-Serbian border.
On July 30, Russia announced general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. After the German invasion of Belgium on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. In August 1914, Japan joined the hostilities, in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc. In October 1915, to the bloc of the so-called Central states Bulgaria joined.
A dog carries a machine gun of the Belgian army, Northern France
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Unknown photographs from World War I
In May 1915, under diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, Italy, which initially took a position of neutrality, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.
The main theaters of military operations were the Western European and East European Front s, the main maritime theaters are the North, Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.
Hostilities began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which involved an offensive by large forces against France through Belgium. However, Germany's calculation of a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front took on a positional character. The confrontation went along a line of trenches with a length of about 970 kilometers along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.
The East European front during the maneuverable period of the war was located on the strip along the border of Russia with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then - mainly on the western border strip of Russia. Beginning of the 1914 campaign on Eastern Front was marked by the desire of the Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and to pull the German forces over Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia, during these battles the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lvov and pushed the enemy back to the Carpathians, blocking a large Austrian fortress Przemysl. However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal, due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, replenishment and ammunition did not have time to arrive on time, so the Russian troops could not build on their success.
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On the whole, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente. German troops were defeated on the Marne, Austrian - in Galicia and Serbia, Turkish - at Sarykamysh. On the Far East Japan captured the port of Jiaozhou, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to Germany, British troops captured the rest of Germany's possessions on pacific ocean. Later, in July 1915, British troops captured German South-West Africa (a German protectorate in Africa) after protracted fighting.
The First World War was marked by the testing of new means of warfare and weapons. On October 8, 1914, the first air raid was carried out: British aircraft raided the German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen. After this raid, aircraft of a new class, bombers, began to be created.
On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany used chemical weapons for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used regularly by both warring parties.
Biggest battles campaigns of 1917 - Nevelskaya offensive and the operation at Cambrai, showed the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.
In late 1916, Germany and its allies first began to talk about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states actively participating in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war. However, they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers were reserve older ages and youth of early conscription, poorly trained in military-technical terms and not physically trained enough.
In 1917 two major events radically influenced the balance of forces of opponents.
On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had long been neutral in the war, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was an incident off the southeastern coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania sailing from the USA to England, carrying a large group of Americans, 128 of them died.
Following the United States in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam also entered the war on the side of the Entente.
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Russian soldiers in France in 1916
The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey. In total, Russia has lost about 1 million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity of 6 billion marks.
On August 8, 1918, in the battle of Amiens, the German front was torn apart by the Allied forces: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle was the last major battle of the war.
On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Solonik Front, Bulgaria signed a truce, Turkey capitulated in October, and Austria-Hungary on November 3.
In Germany, popular unrest began: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass mutinies began: the soldiers intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a republic was proclaimed.
November 11, 1918 at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer guns and vehicles to the allies, release all prisoners. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the abolition of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of valuables. The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.
World War I radically reshaped political map world and became one of the largest and bloodiest in history. During the war, about 73.5 million people were mobilized; of these, 9.5 million were killed and died of wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled. The greatest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses).
The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated at between $208 billion and $359 billion.
36. Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Science and education.
Education
. At the beginning of the XX century. the network of primary schools is expanding, which were divided into zemstvo, schools of the Ministry of Education and parochial. Only in state primary schools 6 million children studied. The literacy of the population older than 8 years of age was about 40%.
The industrial rise caused by the reforms of S.Yu. Witte, increased the country's need for specialists in various sectors of the economy. This contributed to the growth of higher, mostly university, education. Although the number of universities remained almost unchanged (in 1909, the university in Saratov was opened), the number of students increased by an order of magnitude (in the mid-90s of the 19th century - 14 thousand, in 1907 - 35.5 thousand). The network of higher technical educational institutions, in 1916 there were 16 of them. Higher private education (Psychoneurological Institute of V.M. Bekhterev) became widespread. About 30 women's universities were opened. There were special teachers' seminaries that trained school teachers according to an accelerated program. Personnel for the seminaries themselves and secondary educational institutions were trained by 47 pedagogical institutes. In 1903 a women's pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg.
At the beginning of the century, in order to eliminate illiteracy among the adult population, people's universities and educational people's societies arose, where many prominent Russian scientists taught for free. By the number of books published in the first decade of the 20th century. Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. More than 1,000 legal newspapers were published. The most popular magazine was Niva. In 1905, the government lifted preliminary censorship periodicals. It should be noted educational activities publisher and bookseller I. D. Sytin, whose printing houses produced in mass editions the “Library for Self-Education” and other books for the people. In the first decade of the 20th century, there were more than 10 thousand public and folk libraries in the Russian Empire. 2 thousand feature films of domestic production were created between 1908 and 1917. According to many contemporaries, hallmark the beginning of the century was the craving of the lower strata of the population for knowledge.
The science.
By the beginning of the XX century. in Russia there was an Academy of Sciences with a developed system of branch institutes, as well as universities with numerous scientific societies. All-Russian congresses of scientists continued to play the role of coordinating centers for the scientific forces of the country. Advanced knowledge was disseminated with the help of numerous periodicals (magazines "Around the World", "Nature", "Science and Life", etc.). scientists of the country often gave public lectures. New scientific branches developed in Russia: aeronautics and electrical engineering, hydro- and aerodynamics (N.E. Zhukovsky). In 1913, the first Russian aircraft were built. continued scientific activity K.E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid theoretical basis future space flights. Russian science developed in close contact with the world. Discoveries of Russian scientists - physicist P.N. Lebedev, naturalist V.I. Vernadsky, physiologists I.P. Pavlov and I.I. Mechnikov - were received with interest by the international scientific community. Pavlov and Mechnikov were awarded Nobel Prizes. The development of natural science has led to a reassessment of many philosophical theories. Materialism and Marxism were losing followers among Russian intellectuals. These changes were reflected in the social sciences. According to many prominent scientists, the center of philosophy has moved from Germany to Russia. At the beginning of the century, the works of religious idealist philosophers B.C. Solovieva, N.A. Berdyaeva, S.N. Bulgakov, S.N. Trubetskoy, P.A. Florensky, which affirmed the primacy of spirituality. New names appear in economic science (M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky) and in history (S.F. Platonov, N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky).
Art culture. The beginning of the century is considered a time of “revaluation of values” in the spiritual sphere. Intellectuals and creators abandon their former passion for social problems and move on to considering the feelings and experiences of an individual. This phenomenon in art is called “decadence”. Supporters of this direction called in their works to leave the gray reality in dreams, in mysticism, in the beyond worlds. There was such a trend as modernism, which reflected life through the subjective perception of the artist-creator.
In literature, such luminaries of Russian literature as L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, young I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin. Among the revolutionary-democratic strata, the popularity of M. Gorky (A.M. Peshkov) is growing. Next to realism in Russian literature at the turn of the century, a new, modernist trend emerged. Modernism was a complex trend, within which several directions can be distinguished that prevailed at different stages of its development. These are symbolism, futurism, acmeism, etc. Each of them put forward its own aesthetic program, but they all denied the principles of realistic art. Modernists advocated "pure and free" creativity, reflecting the sensual world of individuality, and not social problems. D.S. can be attributed to the symbolists. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, A.A. Blok, A. Bely (B.N. Bugaev). Other areas of modernism (futurism, acmeism) were represented by V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Akhmatova, SM. Gorodetsky, N.S. Gumilyov, A. Kruchenykh.
In the conditions of "electricity" public life the role of the theatre. New approaches to this type of creativity were developed by directors K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (Moscow Art Theatre). The aesthetics of the symbolic, conditional theater was also formed, associated with the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold. In 1904, the theater of V.F. Komissarzhevskaya, where M. Gorky's plays were performed with great success.
Music is also undergoing significant changes. Expanding scope music education, new conservatories were opened in Saratov, Odessa, Kyiv. In 1906 in Moscow, SI. Taneyev created the People's Conservatory and the House of Song. As in other art forms, in music there has been an increase in interest in inner world person. The lyrical beginnings are intensifying in the works of Russian composers - N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.I. Scriabin, SV. Rachmaninov. At the beginning of the XX century. The centers of musical life in Russia were the Mariinsky and Bolshoi theatres, which competed with numerous private operas. It is in the private opera SI. Mamontov, the talent of the famous singer and actor F.I. Chaliapin, who became on a par with the stars of Russian vocals L.V. Sobinov and A.V. Nezhdanova.
In the visual arts, along with the work of the Wanderers, new trends appear. Searches in Russian painting are associated with the names of such artists as M.A. Vrubel, M.V. Nesterov, V.A. Serov, K.A. Korovin. In the work of the latter, Russian impressionism found its most striking expression. Noticeable revival of painters' interest in culture Ancient Russia(V.M. Vasnetsov, N.K. Roerich). In 1898 in St. Petersburg, under the patronage of Princess M. Tenisheva, the artistic association "World of Art" and a magazine with the same name arose. A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, E. E. Lansere united around the magazine. "World of Art" was to transform life "by touching the beautiful." This movement, in addition to painting, embraced architecture, sculpture, poetry, opera and ballet. A prominent figure in this direction was S. Diaghilev, who introduced Europe to Russian talents and arranged purpose of the exhibition in Russian cities. Big success had Diaghilev's "Russian Seasons" in Paris. Since 1907, new associations have appeared in the visual arts: "Blue Rose", "Jack of Diamonds", "Donkey's Tail", etc. The work of artists belonging to these groups bore the imprint of modernism (M.S. Saryan, P.P. Konchalovsky, M.F. Larionov). By 1913, the emergence of the Russian avant-garde, which played a large role in the development of world painting, dates back. The founders of this trend are the artists K.S. Malevich, V.V. Kandinsky, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, M.Z. Chagall, P.N. Filonov.
In sculpture, the aesthetics of classical tranquility were replaced by the harmony of continuous movement. It was reflected in the work of the sculptors P.P. Trubetskoy, A.S. Golubkina, ST. Konenkov.
In general, culture and art of the early XX century. distinguished by the complexity of philosophical and artistic searches, the variety of movements and groups, each of which came out with its own slogans and manifestos.
The formation of the opposing blocs took place over a number of years. Their configuration changed under the influence of the dynamics of foreign policy contradictions.
Triple Alliance- the military-political unification of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy - was created back in 1882. However, distinct forms of bloc confrontation emerged during local armed conflicts at the turn of the century. These were the first wars for the redistribution of territories: the Spanish-American War (1898), the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The Moroccan crises, the Balkan wars, and the national liberation revolutions in a number of colonial and semi-colonial countries had no less active influence on the formation of the system of bloc confrontation.
At the time of the signing by England and France of the Entente Cordiale, Russia was at war with Japan. Before signing the treaty with France, England had already concluded a military-political alliance with Japan directed against Russia, thus the Anglo-French alliance was directed mainly against Germany. Under the circumstances, Germany tried to take advantage of the Russo-Japanese War to weaken the political and economic positions of Russia, but at the same time took into account the danger of the emerging alliance between England and France, inclining Russia towards an alliance. This was evidenced by the meeting of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II and Russian emperor Nicholas II in the summer of 1905
The further aggravation of the contradictions between Germany, France and England served First Moroccan Crisis 1905-1906 At the Algeciras (Spain) conference on the problem of Morocco, France received firm support not only from England, but also from Russia, which was a step towards Russia's entry into the Entente. A member of the Triple Alliance - Italy - also supported France, recognizing its claims to Morocco, thereby moving away from Germany and Austria-Hungary.
One year after graduation Russo-Japanese War England, taking into account the imbalance of power in the East and the growing hostility on the part of Germany, signed an agreement with Russia, which determined the spheres of influence of the two countries in Iran, Afghanistan, Northeast China and Tibet.
The agreement between England and Russia finally formalized the bloc Entente.
Steadily growing power navy Germany led to an intensification of its confrontation with the first maritime power in the world - England.
The main epicenter of controversy on the eve of the First World War was Balkans, where the interests of not only the great derwarriors of the Zhavs, but also the small peoples inhabiting this
region. Traditionally oriented towards Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia in 1912 concluded an alliance treaty with a number of secret annexes, which provided, in case of violation of their sovereignty, a joint armed action, as well as attempts to partition Macedonia. This treaty was directed primarily against Austria-Hungary and Turkey. It was soon joined by Greece and Montenegro, forming a broad coalition that went down in history as Balkan union.
In the autumn of 1912, the First Balkan War established military-political alliance with Turkey. The reason for the war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Albania and Macedonia and Turkey's refusal to grant autonomy to Macedonia. Intervention in the conflict of the great powers (Austria-Hungary, Russia and