During the First World War. Interesting facts about the First World War (15 photos). Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

His life story is like a movie, it’s not for nothing that there is a documentary series about him, and soon a full-length film.

Today we took the liberty of telling you about Hef better.

1. Hef studied psychology at the University of Illinois and received degree in just two and a half years.

2. The Playboy founder served as an infantry clerk in 1944 during World War II. After returning, he married Mildred Williams. They divorced after 10 years and had two children, Christy and David.

Hef in 1944. Mildred and Hef. Thanksgiving, 1945

3. During a semester of graduate school, Hef wrote an article titled "Sexual Behavior in United States Law." He received the highest grade (A) for his research from his professor, which was then downgraded to a B+ due to the findings.

4. Hef was subsequently hired as a copywriter for men's magazine Esquire, but he quit shortly after being refused a $5 raise.

Rare frame. Hef singing into a microphone in 1946

5. Hefner immediately began to make plans to create his own men's magazine. He took out a $600 loan from a local bank and borrowed another $8,000 from friends and relatives. With this money, he was able to make and publish the first issue of Playboy magazine.

6. Hefner's mother lent him $1,000 to give him the chance to try out his magazine.

7. In early 1953, Hef served as circulation manager for the children's magazine Children's Activities.

It's hard to imagine clubs across the country with girls with horns on their heads

8. At night, he worked at a men's magazine, mailing letters as "Hugh Hefner, editor-in-chief" or "Hugh Hefner, advertising director" or "Hugh Hefner, circulation director." "It was literally a one-man team," he once joked.

9. The magazine was originally called Stag Party ("Bachelor Party" or "Bachelor Party"). Hef even asked his friend, cartoonist Arv Miller, to develop an appropriate emblem - he drew a deer dressed in a tuxedo (stag is also a deer, translated from English).

10. Prior to the release of the first issue, in September 1953, Hef received a letter from a lawyer in a magazine called Stag about the rights to the title.

11. I needed to come up with a different name. So Hugh decided to borrow the name from a small car dealership where another friend of his worked. It was called Playboy (at that time this word also denoted sports cars).

12. Later, the artist Arthur Pohl depicted a rabbit in a tie for the emblem.

The first issue of Playboy cost 50 cents.

13. “If we had not changed the logo then, I think that this interview would not have happened now. It's hard to imagine clubs all over the country with girls with horns on their heads,” Hef once joked in an interview.

14. Wanting to attract potential readers, Hef recalled how in the army he stuck photos of actresses above the bed. So he came up with the idea of ​​placing a beautiful girl on the spread of the magazine, which could then be hung on the wall as a poster.

15. One of his friends, John Baumgart, was the owner of a Chicago wall calendar company with nude girls. Hef enlisted the help of a friend and bought from him for $ 50 a photograph of the young actress Jean Mortenson, who later took the pseudonym Marilyn Monroe. Hef put the photo on the cover of the first issue of Playboy.

16. Since the $8,000 collected by Hef was only enough to pay for the printing, he did not have a separate editorial office - the layout of the issue was drawn up, drawn, corrected and glued together in the kitchen of his own apartment. Hef was not sure that the first issue would be followed by the second, so he did not even put a date on its cover.

I wanted to show that beauty is in everyone, that it is everywhere.

17. However, the sales success exceeded all expectations. In 1953, 70,000 copies of the first issue of Playboy were printed, of which 52,000 were sold (at a price of 50 cents per issue). This allowed Hefner to pay for the printing of the second issue.

18. Curiously, the first Girls of the Month, like Marilyn Monroe, were actually the girls on the wall calendars.

19. Gahan Wilson, one of Hef's favorite cartoonists, first appeared in the magazine in the mid-1950s. Since then, his illustrations have appeared in almost every issue of Playboy.

20. In 1955, Hef published a fictional story in Playboy called The Crooked Man ("The Hunchback" or "The Crooked Man"), which was shown as the norm. The material caused a controversial reaction in society.

21. Hef soon came up with the idea of ​​publishing in the magazine not only photos of aspiring actresses and models, but also ordinary girls (also giving them the title of "Girl of the Month"). He began by posting in Playboy pictures of Charlene Coralis, who worked as an editor in the subscriptions department (in the magazine, her photos appeared under the assumed name of Janet Pilgrim).

22. By the way, Hef and Coralis met from time to time.

He asked to be addressed exclusively as "Mr. Playboy", drove a white Mercedes and smoked a pipe.

23. “I wanted to show that beauty is in everyone, that it is everywhere. So that the very concept of “Girl of the Month” suggests that this is your neighbor,” said Hef.

24. The idea turned out to be revolutionary, the issues of the magazine were sold out instantly, and in the late 50s Playboy was already published with a circulation of 1 million copies, overtaking even Esquire.

25. More than $6 million in annual income from retail sales alone allowed Hefner to develop the idea of ​​"the girl next door" and look for beautiful women across the country.

26. Hef invented his own image for himself - he asked to be addressed exclusively as "Mr. Playboy", drove a white Mercedes and smoked a pipe.

27. The idea of ​​jazz festivals sponsored by Playboy Enterprises, held annually on the stage of the Hollywood Bowl, belongs to Tony Bennett.

28. It is curious that Hef published a large material in the magazine about Charlie Chaplin at a time when he was the most hated man in America.

29. In October 1959, Hef advertised in Playboy offering "keys" to the Chicago nightclub Gaslight, where his friends worked. To which he received about 3 thousand reader responses.

30. Then Hef decided to open his own club. The first Playboy establishment appeared in Chicago in February 1960; within a year, similar clubs opened in Miami, New Orleans and New York.

31. During segregation, Hef opened his clubs on principle to people of all races.

32. In 1961, Dick Gregory became the first black comedian to perform at the Chicago Playboy Club, opening the door for other black performers.

33. Hefner's new coup was the placement of serious texts on the pages of Playboy.

If I'm going to be cursed by other people, then at least for the things I truly believe in.

34. In September 1962, Alex Haley had his very first Playboy interview with iconic American jazz trumpeter Miles Davis. “Curiously, Miles talked more about racing than about music,” Hef later joked.

35. Soon the magazine published interviews with Vladimir Nabokov, Fidel Castro, Martin Luther King, Andy Warhol and other famous people.

36. A guest who paid $25 for a "key" to enter the Playboy Club had access to a restaurant, bar, jazz, and cabaret. Local artists, comedians and musicians performed at the club. Drinks and food were served to the guests by girls dressed as rabbits. They were dressed in tight-fitting bodysuits (in ten colors), with bunny ears on their heads and a fluffy bunny tail attached to the back. Each also had a personalized rosette. Some of the girls were featured naked in the magazine. Curiously, guests were not allowed to touch the Playboy Bunny. Also, the girls were not allowed to meet with the guests of the institution outside the club and even just tell them their last name and give a phone number.

Chicago police arrest Hef on obscenity charges

37. The Playboy Bunny became the sex symbol of the 60s. Many models wanted to get this position. The girls who came to work were promised career and good earnings, up to $200 per week.

38. The main reason Hef bought his famous Chicago mansion in 1960 was to have a place where he would like to take a break from work. “However, very quickly I transferred all the work to the Playboy Mansion. I have been working from home since the early 1960s. I like this state of affairs,” Hef recalled.

39. The Playboy Mansion even had an underwater bar, which could only be reached by a fire pole (or, as it is called in Russia, a pole).

40. Hef started his famous column called Playboy Philosophy in 1962. It was published from December 1962 to January 1966. “It was kind of a response to all of our critics and chewing on important things. I thought that if I were to be cursed by other people, then at least for those things that I truly believe in, and not those that are mistakenly attributed to me, ”said Hef.

41. Hef had his personal lawyer defend Lenny Bruce when the comedian was arrested in Chicago while performing in late 1962. Hef later wrote a series of articles for the magazine criticizing the unfairness of Bruce's arrest.

42. In June 1963, Chicago police arrested Hef on obscenity charges based on an illustration by Jane Mansfield in the June 1963 issue of Playboy. Hef felt that the real reason for the arrest was his editorials defending Lenny Bruce as well as criticizing the Chicago police and government. A jury of 11 women and one man could not reach a verdict.

43. In the mid-1960s, there were already more than 1 million people in 30 Playboy clubs around the world, in total, Playboy sold 2.5 million "keys" worth more than $60 million.

My thoughts and dreams have always been about Hollywood

45. During police clashes with protesters at the Democratic National Convention in 1968, one of the law enforcement officers hit a passing Hef on the back with a rubber truncheon.

46. Actor Yul Brynner asked Hef for his personal one to pick up Vietnamese children (military orphans) who arrived in San Francisco and take them to new families throughout the country. During the flights, the children were looked after by the Playboy Bunny girls.

47. Hef set a special subscription price for the magazine for all members of the clergy, in the hope of allowing free debate between church and secular society.

Hefner never met Marilyn Monroe in person

48. Playboy circulation in the US in the early 70s exceeded 7 million copies - a record for glossy publications, and an annual profit of $ 11 million. And in 1971, Playboy Enterprises went public - its shares appeared on the New York Stock Exchange. Success allowed to start conquering foreign markets. In August 1972, a German edition was released, followed by an Italian version three months later. A little later, French, Brazilian, Japanese, Mexican and Spanish editions saw the light in turn.

49. In 1975, after spending years between Chicago and Los Angeles, Hef bought a mansion on the West Coast (in California). “I have always lived in two cities: my roots are in Chicago, but my thoughts and dreams are always about Hollywood,” he said.

Hef and Barbie Benton

50. The idea to buy a house in Los Angeles was suggested to Hef by a former girlfriend, Barbie Benton.

51. Hef bought a replica of his Hollywood Walk of Fame star and installed it on the grounds of his Chicago mansion.

52. Hefner never met Marilyn Monroe in person.

Nothing beats censorship like humor

53. But he bought a place in the cemetery next to his favorite actress in 1992 for $75,000 in order to "stay there forever." The location is in Westwood Memorial Park in Los Angeles.

54. Hef holds the Guinness World Record for owning the world's largest collection of magazine clippings.

55. Every Monday, Hef invited his closest friends to his mansion for dinner and a movie. Such days were called Manly Night.

Movie schedule for the evening at Hef's mansion

56. The Playboy founder has appeared on the television series Handsome, Sex and the City, Curb Your Enthusiasm, The Simpsons, and the television program Single Comedian.

57. Hef has donated more than $1 million to help save the iconic Hollywood symbol (the big sign), which he considers "Hollywood's Eiffel Tower."

Hef liked to sleep in a nightcap

58. Hefner's Big Bunny private jet cost a little more than $5 million, but now it costs about $32 million. It was used for discos and could accommodate 16 people at once.

59. In response to the government's attempt to remove Playboy magazines from stores in the 1980s, in December 1986, Hef launched the "Women of the 7-Eleven" campaign. “We decided that satire would be the best answer. Nothing can fight censorship like humor,” he said.

60. In 1985, Hef suffered a stroke. He always referred to this incident as a stroke of luck because, he claimed, this incident changed his character and the direction of his life.

61. In 1989, Hef married Girl of the Year Kimberly Conrad. The wedding ceremony took place at the Playboy Mansion. They have two joint children with Kimberly - Marston and Cooper. The latter is currently the chief creative officer of Playboy Enterprises.

By the way, Hef has a genius IQ of 152.

62. Hef liked to sleep in a nightcap. He had two favorite nightcaps at once, one with the Jack Daniel's logo, and the second with the Pepsi logo.

63. Hef's favorite movie is Casablanca.

64. Khef's favorite food is fried chicken.

It's not actually a chicken in the photo. Hef took a picture of his Thanksgiving dinner, so it's most likely a turkey

65. Hef had over 200 silk robes in his wardrobe.

66. In 2007, Hef told Esquire magazine that he "slept with thousands of women - and they all still feel good about him."

67. The rabbit species Sylvilagus Palustris Hefneri was named after Hefner.

68. Hef's daughter Christy was the CEO of Playboy Enterprises from 1988 to 2008.

69. Hefner's personal film archive included over a thousand films.

70. Hef once hosted a Saturday Night Live broadcast in 1977.

71. By the way, Hef has a genius IQ of 152.

Most of the facts in this list are taken from Brigitte Berman's documentary Hugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebel, as well as from the biography of Hugh Hefner by American journalist Steven Watts and other sources.

First World War- the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.

The main reason for the war was the contradictions between the two coalitions of European powers - the Entente (Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), caused by the intensification of the struggle for the redistribution of already divided colonies, spheres of influence and markets. Starting in Europe, where the main events took place, it gradually acquired a global character, also covering the Far and Middle East, Africa, the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic and Indian oceans.

The reason for the start of an armed clash was the terrorist attack by a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, a high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style) 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.

On July 23, under pressure from Germany, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with deliberately unacceptable conditions for resolving the conflict that had arisen. In her ultimatum, she demanded that her military formations be allowed into Serbian territory in order to stop hostile actions together with Serbian forces. After the ultimatum was rejected by the Serbian government, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28.

Fulfilling its allied obligations to Serbia, Russia, having received assurances of support from France, on July 30 announced a general mobilization. The next day, Germany in an ultimatum demanded that Russia stop mobilization. Having received no answer, on August 1 she declared war on Russia, and on August 3 on France, as well as neutral Belgium, which refused to let German troops through its territory. On August 4, Great Britain with its dominions declared war on Germany, on August 6, Austria-Hungary - Russia.

In August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany, in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc, and in October 1915, Bulgaria.

Italy, which initially held a position of neutrality, in May 1915, under British diplomatic pressure, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.

The main land fronts were the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian), the main maritime theaters of military operations were the North, Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.

Hostilities began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which involved a large offensive against France through Belgium. However, Germany's calculation of a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front took on a positional character.

The confrontation went along a line of trenches with a length of about 970 kilometers along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.

The eastern front during the maneuverable period of the war was located on the strip along the border of Russia with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then - mainly on the western border strip of Russia.

The beginning of the 1914 campaign on the Eastern Front was marked by the desire of the Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and pull the German forces from the Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia, during these battles the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lvov and pushed the enemy back to the Carpathians, blocking the large Austrian fortress of Przemysl.

However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal, due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, replenishment and ammunition did not have time to arrive on time, so the Russian troops could not build on their success.

On the whole, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente.

The 1914 campaign was marked by the world's first aerial bombardment. On October 8, 1914, British aircraft armed with 20-pound bombs attacked the German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen. After this raid, aircraft of a new class, bombers, began to be created.

In the 1915 campaign, Germany shifted its main efforts to the Eastern Front, intending to defeat the Russian army and withdraw Russia from the war. As a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough in May 1915, the Germans inflicted a heavy defeat on the Russian troops, who were forced to leave Poland, Galicia and part of the Baltic states in the summer. However, in the autumn, having repulsed the enemy offensive in the Vilna region, they forced the German army to move to positional defense on the Eastern Front as well (October 1915).

On the Western Front, the parties continued to hold a strategic defense. On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany used chemical weapons (chlorine) for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used regularly by both warring parties.

The defeat ended the large-scale Dardanelles landing operation (1915-1916) - a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped in early 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting allies to the side Balkan states.

On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and most of Russian Poland.

In the 1916 campaign, Germany again shifted its main efforts to the West in order to withdraw France from the war, but a powerful blow to France during the Verdun operation ended in failure. This was largely facilitated by the Russian Southwestern Front, which made a breakthrough of the Austro-Hungarian front in Galicia and Volhynia. The Anglo-French troops launched a decisive offensive on the Somme River, but, despite all efforts and the involvement of huge forces and means, they could not break through the German defenses. During this operation, the British used tanks for the first time. At sea, the largest battle of Jutland in the war took place, in which German Navy failed. As a result of the military campaign of 1916, the Entente seized the strategic initiative.

In late 1916, Germany and its allies first began to talk about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states actively participating in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war, but they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers were reserve older ages and youth of early conscription, poorly trained in military-technical terms and not physically trained enough.

In 1917, two major events radically influenced the balance of forces of the opponents.

On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had long been neutral in the war, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was an incident off the southeast coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania sailing from the USA to England, carrying a large group of Americans, 128 of them died.

Following the United States in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam also entered the war on the side of the Entente.

The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey. In total, Russia has lost about one million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity of six billion marks.

The major battles of the 1917 campaign of the year, Operation Nivelle and Operation Cambrai, showed the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.

In 1918, Germany, concentrating its main efforts on the Western Front, launched the March offensive in Picardy, and then an offensive operation in Flanders, on the Aisne and Marne rivers, but due to the lack of sufficient strategic reserves, it was unable to build on the initial success achieved. The Allies, having repulsed the blows of the German troops, on August 8, 1918, in the battle of Amiens, broke the German front: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle was the last major battle of the war.

On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Thessaloniki front, Bulgaria signed a truce, Turkey capitulated in October, and Austria-Hungary on November 3.

In Germany, popular unrest began: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass mutinies began: the soldiers intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a republic was proclaimed.

November 11, 1918 at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer guns and vehicles to the allies, release all prisoners. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the abolition of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties, financial - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of values. The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.

The First World War, which for the first time in the history of mankind engulfed the territories of two continents (Eurasia and Africa) and vast sea areas, radically reshaped political map world and became one of the largest and bloodiest. During the war, 70 million people were mobilized into the ranks of the armies; of these, 9.5 million were killed and died of wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled. The greatest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated at between $208 billion and $359 billion.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources

The First World War is the most large-scale, one of the tragic events not only of the 20th century, but of almost the entire history of mankind. The First World War takes its beginning in June 1914, but the end of the bloody war was recorded in November. 11th of 1918. Despite the fact that the hostilities lasted for 4 whole years and all actions were carefully documented by historians, many facts are still unknown to many connoisseurs and admirers of history. In order to lift the veil of mystery at least a little, get acquainted with several interesting and unusual facts and historical moments of the course of the First World War.

What is history

The reason for the war was precisely the deliberate murder in Sarajevo of an Austrian duke F. Ferdinand- 28th of 1914. The killer was Gavrilo Princip, who was 19 years old at that time - he was a terrorist from Bosnia, who belonged to the Young Bosnia group, which fought for the country's independence. At that moment, there were only 59 states on the map of world countries, and 38 of them participated in the war itself.

The very name of the First World War was approved as such by historians only in the year 39 of the last century, after the Second World War began. Prior to that, it was called the Great War, the Second Patriotic War or the Great.


The countries participating in this war lost from among the subjects over 22 million of its people, and 55 million were injured.

It was during the First World War that the military began to use flamethrowers and it was the German troops who were the first to adopt them. During the war, the very first prototype of the tank was designed - it was affectionately called "Baby Willie". Such a combat vehicle interfered with 3 fighters and moved at a speed of 4.8 kilometers per hour - not much, but still this is a combat power that had to be reckoned with.

Many celebrities participated in the First World War - for example, the famous writer of the famous world detectives Agatha Christie. During the period of hostilities, she was a nurse and was well versed in many poisons, and therefore, in many of her stories and detective stories, murders were committed with the help of poisons.

During the First World War, a truce was declared several times in the war - the first time this was done on Christmas Day in 14, when the troops of England and Germany decided to celebrate it together on the front line. The second time this fact took place in the winter of 1916-17, when severe frosts and wolves raged. It was in the harsh winter that they had to shoot back from hungry portages - when several hundred of them were killed, only then did all military operations at the front continue.

He became the most courageous and successful pilot of that war - he managed to shoot down 80 enemy aircraft. The second place is occupied by the French pilot - ace - on his account 75 downed enemy vehicles, while not far behind the German fighter pilot.

So, not only soldiers and military equipment, but also animals were enrolled in the service in the troops - it was during this period that many attempts were made to teach military science and cunning tricks of animals. So the famous trainer V. Durov in 1915 submitted a proposal to the military leadership to train seals to search for combat mines. in a short period of time, it was really possible to train only 20 of these animals, but as historical evidence notes, one day they were simply found poisoned. According to modern historians, this result was the result of the actions of military intelligence.

Who exactly from the air attacked the ground target with darts?

In the arsenal of military aviation, both bombs, rockets, and metal darts were used to destroy ground targets. During the First World War, it was metal darts that found their use against enemy ground forces. So flying out of special cassettes, and when approaching the ground, they developed incredible speed and successfully defeated the infantry. In addition, it was such a psychological attack on people and animals - such an invention rightfully belongs to the French, but was used in service with the German troops and Russian.

A Hungarian soldier wounded in the temple could no longer sleep

So, according to historical data, one of the battles during the First World War, a Hungarian military man was wounded by a bullet in the temple area. Despite the severity of the injury and the fact that most of the frontal lobe of the brain was crushed by a bullet, the warrior was able to survive. But as a result of such an injury - he could no longer fall asleep and even the examinations carried out, the course of treatment could not eliminate this phenomenon, Paul claimed that his condition was excellent and he felt great, without feeling tired and drowsy. Kern lived after the war for another 40 years and could not sleep and died in 195.

Why were ships painted in zebra patterns in World War I?

During the war of 1914 - 1918, for warships, most of the British and American fleets, very often used unusual camouflage - the ship was simply repainted in fragmentary patterns, weaves and stripes, made with contrasting colors and colors. The purpose of such a war paint is not to hide the ship itself, but to do everything in order to complicate the calculation of its course and speed. During World War II, unusual camouflage was also used, but it was the radars that appeared in service that nullified all the arguments and arguments in his asset and support.

Why did the Fuhrer shave off his mustache in World War I?

So, according to and written evidence writer A. Moritz Frei, which found their reflection in his autobiography, who served with the future Fuhrer of the nation in the same regiment, Hitler, who at the very beginning wore a lush, long mustache in the style of Emperor Wilhelm 2, shaved them off, leaving such a brush for himself. The thing is that the lush and long mustaches interfered with putting on a gas mask and the head of the regiment ordered Adolf to shave them off.

The First World War is one of the most tragically famous events not only of the 20th century, but in principle of the entire history of mankind. The foundation was laid in July 1914. This bloody military conflict ended on November 11, 1918.
The reason for the battle was the Sarajevo assassination of the Austrian Duke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914. He was killed by 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a terrorist from Bosnia, who was a member of the Mlada Bosnia group, which fought to liberate their country from oppression.
At that time there were only 59 states in the world. 38 countries took part in this war, among which were the territories of modern Ukraine and Russia.

In general, the name of this great battle was established only in 1939, after the start of World War II. In the interwar period, the name was often used Great War(as well as Great, Second Patriotic, Great Patriotic, Imperialist).

As a result of the military conflict, 4 empires ceased to exist: Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian and Ottoman. The countries participating in the battles lost more than 22 million people and 55 million people were injured.
It turns out that at that time, according to eyewitnesses, Hitler wore a magnificent mustache. They had to be shaved off and left with the well-known "toothbrush" only because they interfered with putting on a gas mask correctly.
Thanks to the First World War, a very significant figure appeared in world history - Lettov-Vorbeck. He is the most productive guerrilla in the world. Lettov-Vorbeck was a German major general and commanded the German troops during the African campaign, the only one that was not defeated until the end of all battles.


Another interesting and memorable fact was the use of flamethrowers in World War I. Before this conflict, they were not in any battle. The Germans took them first. Also during the First World War, the first prototype of a tank called "Baby Willie" was designed. He accommodated three fighters and moved at a speed of only 4.8 km / h. It is also known that during the great battles of the 19th century, many countries used only armored trains from heavy equipment. It was in the First World War that separate combat units called "armored tires" began to be used, which also resembled tanks. Their most significant difference from modern "armored vehicles" was the limited movement on rails.

Participation in the First World War was taken even worldwide famous people such as Agatha Christie. She was a nurse and well versed in poisons. For this reason, in her books, many murders were committed in this way.
During the battle, a truce was declared several times. The first time was at Christmas 1914, when the British and German military decided to spend it together on the front line. The second time it happened in the harsh winter of 1916-1917. A temporary truce was declared on the eastern front of the war, because the soldiers began to be attacked by starving wolves. Only after several hundred aggressive animals had been exterminated did hostilities resume.

The most successful fighter pilot of the time was the Rietmeister von Richthofen, who shot down about 80 aircraft in this war. However, in second place after him was the Frenchman Rene Fonck, who fought on the side of the socialists. He was not far behind the Germans - he shot down 75 enemy "birds".
During the First World War, an interesting commemorative sign called the "Dead Man's Penny" appeared in Great Britain. It was a medallion with the engraving "He died for honor and freedom" and with the image of a lion, a female personification and two dolphins on the side. The uniqueness of this decoration was that the name and surname of a particular deceased person were minted on each of the million medallions.
The consequences of the war also affected the 21st century, because only in October 2010 did Germany finally complete the payment of reparations imposed under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.


Today, it is precisely Brown color. He was chosen by the Nazis for a prosaic reason, by no means on purpose. When the Germans lost their African colonies after the First World War, they were left with a huge amount of brown uniforms for African landscapes. Soon these uniforms were bought on the cheap by the National Socialist Party for the storm troopers.


An interesting fact: some indigenous Slavs who lived on the territory of Austria-Hungary signed up for the army specifically in order to go over to the side of Russia.
The largest burial of the First World War is a mass grave not far from the village of Sovkhoznoye. The soldiers who fell during the battle of Gumbinnen are buried there: 646 soldiers from Germany and 438 from Russia. The largest burial of Russian fighters is a mass grave in the village of Pushkino. 196 Germans and 601 Russian soldiers found their rest in this place.


The First World War is the largest bloody confrontation in the history of all mankind. But, at the same time, in those days there were a lot of discoveries and great events that brought not only grief, but also gave impetus to the development of military affairs.

“The times have already passed when other peoples divided land and water among themselves, and we Germans were content with only blue sky... We also demand a place in the sun for ourselves, "said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the days of the crusaders or Frederick II, the emphasis on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines of Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification made it possible Germany significantly increased its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power.At the beginning of the 20th century, it became the second largest in the world in terms of industrial production.

The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle of rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - the colonies from England and France and the western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of the aggressive strategy of Berlin remained the "onslaught to the East", to the Slavic lands, where the German sword was to win a place for the German plow. In this, Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where the Austro-German diplomacy managed to split the alliance of the Balkan countries on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions and cause a second Balkan war between Bulgaria and the rest of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing Austria-Hungary's dominance in the Balkans. Aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states created by Russia's centuries-old struggle against Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, breaking off negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.

Two days later, William declared war on France, which was defended by England. Turkey became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing her to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After the entry into the war of Turkey, which closed the straits, Russian empire was effectively isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. The Russian state by the end of the XVIII century. achieved its main territorial objectives in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and sales markets that attracted the aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force holding back German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with the seizure of control over the straits and the provision of free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where there were hostile Russian Orthodox Church Uniate centers.

The German attack found Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay with which deprived the Germans of the chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles' heel" has become the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The leadership of Russia was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle were used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and cartridges with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, which had not fought the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And in the highest circles, not everyone saw in German Empire cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: kindred dynastic ties, similar political systems long and close relationship between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also paid attention to the weakening of the feeling of patriotism in the educated strata. Russian society who were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. So, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: "The French have "che" re France", the British have "Old England". The Germans have "our old Fritz". Only the last Russian gymnasium and university - "damned Russia". A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military clash. As for Russian society, as a rule, it did not feel the prospect of a long and exhausting struggle with a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the coming" terrible years Russia". Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.

1914 campaign Western theater

The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the head General Staff A. von Schlieffen. It provided for the containment of the slowly mobilizing Russians by small forces and the main attack in the west against France. After its defeat and surrender, it was supposed to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was drawn up under the influence of the allies. Even before the completion of the mobilization, he envisaged an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, proceeded from the fact that the Germans would strike the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilna-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. In the end, events began to develop according to the first option. Starting the war, Germany brought down all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to the slow mobilization in the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by the persistent requests for help from the allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught of the Germans.

East Prussian operation (1914). From the Russian side, this operation was attended by: 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies. The front of their offensive was divided by the Masurian Lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd - to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (Generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Yepanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian infantry division(General Rosenshild-Paulin), which struck the Germans on the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, the 25th division of General Bulgakov captured Stallupenen. The losses of the Russians amounted to 6.7 thousand people, the Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, the German troops gave a new, larger battle to the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, advancing from two directions to Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break the 1st Army in parts. On the morning of August 7, the German shock group fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to pincer them. The Germans pressed the right Russian flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. The total losses of the Germans amounted to about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off the path to the west of Pritvitz, forced the German commander to initially order a retreat beyond the Vistula (this was provided for by the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood still for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup forces. Not having accurate information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Koenigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (to the south of Koenigsberg).

While Rennenkampf was marching on Koenigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against the army of Samsonov, who did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radio messages, were aware of all the plans of the Russians. On August 13, Hindenburg attacked the 2nd Army with an unexpected blow from almost all of its East Prussian divisions, and in 4 days of fighting inflicted a severe defeat on it. Samsonov, having lost command of the troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage of the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which had withdrawn behind the Neman by 2 September. The East Prussian operation had severe tactical and especially moral consequences for the Russians. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, tactically won by the Germans, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the blitzkrieg plan. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle for her on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon again went on the offensive in East Prussia.

Battle of Galicia (1914). The most grandiose and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It was attended by 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front(under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German group of Woyrsch. The parties had an approximately equal number of fighters. In total, it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them surpassed the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with an attack by the Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the region of Lublin and Kholm. There were: 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce oncoming battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed against Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation was taking place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and the 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th Army captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholmsko-Lublin direction. However general situation at the front, it developed threateningly for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southerly direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. Poland.

But despite the persistent appeals of the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not advance on Sedlec. First of all, he took up the cleansing of East Prussia from the 1st Army and left his allies to the mercy of fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and on August 22 went on the counteroffensive. However, it developed slowly. Restraining the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th army of General Brusilov still managed to close the breakthrough with the last of his strength and hold positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the onslaught of Russians from the north (from the Lublin-Kholmsky region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the strength of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. In the future, Austria-Hungary, if it achieved success in Russian front, then only with the strong support of the Germans.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). The victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army to the area of ​​the Warta River (including those that had arrived from the western front). Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), on September 15, 1914, went on the offensive against Warsaw and Ivangorod. In late September - early October, the Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the nearest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this sector to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of the lines of communication by the retreating, the poor supply of the Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states in 1914.

First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow forests (near the Polish city of Augustow), since fighting in the forest area did not allow the Germans to use the advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce battles flared up at this turn, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.

Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). The siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops in September 1914 laid siege to Przemysl. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created, led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, the Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles near Khyrov and Sana, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible at the end of October 1914 to block Przemysl for the second time. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful, but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his sortie on March 5, 1915, ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the biggest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl due to a general retreat from Galicia.

Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the North-Western Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here, the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command from the intercepted radiograms knew about the upcoming offensive. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful preemptive strike on October 29 in order to surround and destroy the 5th (General Plehve) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz region. The core of the advancing German grouping with a total number of 280 thousand people. were parts of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under the onslaught of superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The most heated battles broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough on November 5-6 of the German corps of General Schaeffer in the region of eastern Lodz, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which approached from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin the withdrawal of troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the Lodz Piglet, and the German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and connected with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap at the site of the breakthrough of Schaeffer's corps was closed, and he himself was surrounded. Although the German corps managed to break out of the bag, the plan of the German command to defeat the armies of the North-Western Front failed. However, the Russian command had to say goodbye to the plan of attack on Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving a decisive success to either side. Yet strategically lost all the same Russian side. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), the Russian troops were no longer able to really threaten German territory. The damage of the Germans amounted to 50 thousand people.

"Battle on Four Rivers" (1914). Having not achieved success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back beyond the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, the German troops, with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsh group, on November 19 again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction. After heavy fighting in the area of ​​the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After that, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl) to the south went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce "battle on four rivers" (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire Russian front line in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the onslaught of the Germans on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The "Battle of the Four Rivers" was distinguished by extreme stubbornness and significant losses on both sides. The damage of the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its personnel suffered especially, which directly affected the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German Army exceeded 100 thousand people.

Campaign of 1914. Caucasian theater of operations

The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already in 1914 entered the war. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. The Minister of War Enver Pasha led the 90,000th Turkish army. These troops were opposed by parts of the 63,000th Caucasian army under the general command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (general A.Z. Myshlaevsky actually commanded the troops). The Sarykamysh operation became the central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of operations.

Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Oltinsky detachment), the Turks on December 12, in a severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units (up to 1 battalion) here. Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived in time for the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led his defense. Having failed to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10 thousand frostbitten people. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main blow to Karaudan, which was defended by parts of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repulsed. Meanwhile, the Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh on December 22 completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and captured. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory near Sarykamysh stopped the Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the positions of the Caucasian army.

Campaign of 1914 War at sea

During this period, the main actions unfolded on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (which was based on the German battlecruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.

Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships off Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle was reduced to an artillery duel between the "Goeben" and the Russian lead battleship "Evstafiy". Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, "Goeben" received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the others to join the battle, Russian ships, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there "Goeben" was being repaired until December, and then, going out to sea, hit a mine and again stood up for repairs). "Evstafiy" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having checked the fortress of the Black Sea borders of Russia in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations near the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea lanes.

Campaign of 1915 Western Front

By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front not far from the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there had been no casualties from Russia in 1914,” said the English Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “the German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still be in Belgium and France. In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This meant the occupation of East Prussia and the invasion of the Hungarian plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During the active military operations of 1914 on the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia, the Russian cadre army was killed. Its loss had to be made up for by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular nature of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained militia army.” Another major problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition is ten times higher than the calculated ones. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, was particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet the needs of the army by 15-30%. With all the obviousness, the task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing arose. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, in New Year Russian armed forces entered with a shortage of weapons and military personnel. This had a fatal effect on the 1915 campaign. The results of the fighting in the east forced the Germans to radically revise the Schlieffen plan.

The main rival of the German leadership now considered Russia. Her troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to send their main forces to the east in order to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was facilitated by the possibility of waging a maneuver war in the east (in the west, by that time, a solid positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which cost huge victims). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted in a deep coverage from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of the Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal of these "strategic Cannes" was to be the encirclement of the Russian armies in the "Polish bag".

Carpathian battle (1915). It was the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had in the Carpathians offensive plans. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of the Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling the Russian troops in Poland. The battle in the Carpathians began on January 7 with the almost simultaneous offensive of the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). There was an oncoming battle, called the "rubber war". Both sides that put pressure on each other had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat. The battles in the snow-capped mountains were distinguished by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push the left flank of the 8th Army, but they could not break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repulsed their offensive. "While driving around the troops in mountainous positions," he recalled, "I bowed to these heroes, who steadfastly endured the horrendous burden of a winter mountain war with insufficient weapons, having three times the strongest enemy against them." Partial success was achieved only by the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi. In early March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming the fierce resistance of the enemy, the Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command deployed new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Carpathian battle, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.

Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian battle, fierce battles broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Belov) and 10th (General Eichhorn) went on the offensive from East Prussia german armies. Their main blow fell on the area of ​​the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created a numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of the Sievers army and tried to surround it. At the second stage, a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front was envisaged. But due to the resilience of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely take it into pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repulsed the attacks of the German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overturned the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. "The attempt to break through was sheer madness. But this holy madness is the heroism that showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the time of the assault on Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the assault on Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all sorts of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable at the same time! ”Wrote in those days the German war correspondent R. Brandt. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from under attack by mid-February and took up defensive positions on the Kovno-Osovets line. The North-Western Front held out, and then managed to partially restore the lost positions.

Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out in another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) stood. On February 7, in the Prasnysh area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Belov). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repulsed the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for the winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, the 1st Siberian Corps of General Pleshkov approached Prasnysh, who attacked the Germans on the move. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians utterly defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on the general offensive, which, after stubborn battles, threw the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. In the meantime, the 10th Army also went on the offensive, which cleared the Augustow forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Meeting battles near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians exhausted the reserves of the Russian army on the eve of the formidable blow that the Austro-German command was already preparing for it.

Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). Beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push the Russian troops near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third option for a breakthrough. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, more than half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. On the 35-kilometer breakthrough section near Gorlice, an attack group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It outnumbered the 3rd Russian Army (General Radko-Dmitriev) standing in this area: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, the Mackensen group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the buildup of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here belatedly, introduced into battle in parts and quickly perished in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of lack of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this greatest success of the Germans on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible rumble of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew ... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.

The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left the whole of Galicia. Through courageous resistance Russian soldiers and officers, the Mackensen group was unable to rapidly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to "pushing through" the Russian front. He was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the advance of the Germans from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called. The great retreat, during which the Russian troops in the spring - summer of 1915 left Galicia, Lithuania, Poland. Meanwhile, Russia's allies were engaged in strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The allied leadership used the respite allotted to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. "We," Lloyd George later admitted, "left Russia to its fate."

Prasnysh and Narew battles (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began the second act of its "strategic Cannes" and struck from the north, from East Prussia, at the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and the 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. The German troops had superiority in the number of personnel (177 thousand against 141 thousand people) and weapons. Especially significant was the superiority in artillery (1256 against 377 guns). After a hurricane of fire and a powerful onslaught, the German units captured the main line of defense. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, and even more so the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, going over to counterattacks in threatened areas. For 6 days of continuous fighting, the soldiers of Galwitz were able to advance 30-35 km. Not even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began a regrouping of forces and pulled up reserves for a new strike. In the battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The steadfastness of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin the withdrawal of its armies beyond the Vistula.

Pulling up the reserves, the Germans on July 10 again went on the offensive. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies participated in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narew front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. With an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They succeeded in forcing the river in several places, but the Russians with furious counterattacks until the beginning of August did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads. Especially important role played the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The steadfastness of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate without hindrance from the Warsaw area. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narew. The Germans also suffered considerable damage. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the Prasnysh and Narew battles saved the Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.

Battle of Vilna (1915). End of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno (now Kaunas) region. But the Germans preempted this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and surrendered the fortress to the Germans on August 5 (for this he was subsequently sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the troops of the North-Western Front beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive bogged down. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful grouping in the Sventsyan region (north of Vilna) and on August 27 attacked Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Because of the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilna. However, the Germans failed to capitalize on the success. Their path was blocked by the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which approached in time, which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Resolutely attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to the Sventsians. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this sector stabilized. The battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans are moving in the east to positional defense. The German plan to defeat the Russian armed forces and withdraw from the war failed. Thanks to the courage of their soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army escaped encirclement. "The Russians escaped from the pincers and achieved a frontal withdrawal in a direction favorable to them," Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, chief of the German General Staff, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the Riga-Baranovichi-Ternopil line. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here, the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the biggest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.

Campaign1915 Caucasian theater of operations

The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support the allied forces that landed in Gallipoli, fell through. Under the influence of the successes of the Germans, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.

Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the region of Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the onslaught of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky) defending this sector began a retreat to Russian border. This created a threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian Army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, who delivered a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish grouping. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes to seize the strategic initiative in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Hamadan operation (1915). On October 17 - December 3, 1915, Russian troops launched offensive operations in northern Iran to prevent a possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Having advanced to Hamadan, the Russians defeated the Turkish-Persian detachments (8 thousand people) and liquidated the German-Turkish agents in the country . Thus, a reliable barrier was created against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army was also eliminated.

Campaign of 1915 War at sea

Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for Russian fleet. Of the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can single out the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosporus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).

Campaign to the Bosphorus (1915). In the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915, a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet participated, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the area of ​​the Bosporus, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship "Rostislav" opened fire on the fortified area of ​​Iniady (northwest of the Bosporus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosporus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battlecruiser "Goeben" and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship "Evstafiy" distinguished himself, which put the "Goeben" out of action with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. This campaign to the Bosporus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. In the future, German submarines posed the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With Bulgaria's entry into the war, the zone of operations of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a large new area in the western part of the sea.

Gotland Fight (1915). This naval battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the skirmish, the Germans lost the Albatross mine layer. He was severely injured and thrown onto the Swedish coast, engulfed in flames. There his team was interned. Then there was a cruising battle. It was attended by: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lübeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant in that for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio intelligence data were used for firing.

Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) tried to break through the Irben Strait to the Gulf of Riga at the end of July to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga . Here the Germans were opposed by the ships of the Baltic Fleet, led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete the task due to minefields and the successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats ("Sivuch"> and "Korean"). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans failed to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. In the future, the serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.

Campaign 1916 Western Front

Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to the defense of private industry was expanding, the activities of which were coordinated by the military-industrial committees (MIC). Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the provision of the front improved by 1916. So, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various kinds guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew by 1.4 million people due to additional mobilizations. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to inflict the main blow on the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous "Verdun meat grinder" began to spin, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.

Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, on March 5-17, 1916, the Russian command launched an offensive by the forces of the troops of the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of ​​​​Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jakobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania, Belarus and pushing them back to the borders of East Prussia, but the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the Allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation near Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch region was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragoza). For 10 days, she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20,000 dead and 65,000 wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage of the Germans amounted to 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, the allies of Russia, since the Germans could not transfer a single division from the east near Verdun. " Russian offensive, - wrote the French General Joffre, - forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to put all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions taken from other sectors. "On the other hand, the defeat near Naroch and Yakobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western Fronts, who, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, were never able to carry out successful offensive operations in 1916.

Brusilovsky breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people) began, which was led by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that moment numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all the armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov applied a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted in alternating active and passive sections of the breakthrough. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate their forces in the threatened areas. The Brusilovsky breakthrough was distinguished by thorough preparation (up to training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: "Do not spare the shells!". Artillery preparation in various sectors lasted from 6 to 45 hours. By figurative expression historian N.N. Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, "the Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of serene sun rays death came from the east - thousands of shells turned habitable, heavily fortified positions into hell. "It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops managed to achieve the most coordinated actions of infantry and artillery.

Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilovsky method of "rolling attack" was then used by the Allies in breaking through the German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front was reduced to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group of Woyrsch. Going on the attack after many hours of artillery preparation, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, defense in depth (only at the forefront there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire). After the bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of the Woirsh group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.

The Stavka was unable to timely shift the task of delivering the main attack to the Southwestern Front, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans launched a counterattack against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front in the Kovel region, using the forces of the created group of General Lizingen. But she repulsed the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army, finally received as reinforcements, launched a new offensive against Kovel. In July, the main battles unfolded in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians brought reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.

During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke into the Austro-German defense along its entire length from the Pripyat marshes to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to ease the pressure on France and Italy. Under the influence of the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But stubborn attacks on the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. Reinforced by that time, the Austro-German units repelled the Russian onslaught. On the whole, despite tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not change the course of the war. They cost Russia huge sacrifices (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.

Campaign of 1916. Caucasian theater of operations

At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by carrying out the Erzrum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved the biggest success in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Erzrum and Trebizond operations (1916). The purpose of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzrum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive against Erzurum. The offensive took place in the snowy mountains with strong wind and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzrum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in the conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk, but Yudenich nevertheless decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its conduct. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzrum and then began to pursue the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzurum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced more than 150 km from their borders deep into Turkish territory. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of mountain snows. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.

Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbite). The damage of the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (captain of the 1st rank Rimsky-Korsakov). Sailors supported ground troops artillery fire, landings and reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky Detachment (15,000 men) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. On April 2, the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov were the first to cross the stormy cold river. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polatkhane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The capture of Eastern Turkey by the Russians was of great political importance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies regarding the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.

Kerind-Kasreshirinskaya operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to assist the English detachment, surrounded by the Turks in Kut-el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. The Baratov Corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Khanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison in Kut-el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut-el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which had been greatly thinned (from heat and disease). At Khaneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad) Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps left the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. East of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.

Erzrindzhan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzurum and Trebizond. On June 13, the 3rd Turkish army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people) went on the offensive from the Erzincan region. The most heated battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan regiment was stationed. With his fortitude, he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzrum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun, and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of the Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having suffered a defeat near Erzincan, the Turkish command assigned the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, she went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). Thus, a threat was created to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich delivered a counterattack to the Turks at Ognot by the forces of General Vorobyov's group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognot direction, which continued throughout August, the Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. The losses of the Turks amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. In the course of two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and stopped active operations against the Russians. Ognotskaya operation was the last major battle Russian Caucasian army in the First World War.

Campaign of 1916 War at sea

In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army, which was defending Riga, with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines were also quite successful in this. Of the response actions of the German fleet, one can name the shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This raid, based on insufficient ideas about Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 out of 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign blew up and sank. None of the fleets during the entire war knew such a case. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transport of troops, landings and fire support of the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to block the Bosphorus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy's sea lanes. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.

Campaign of 1917

By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained fairly stable. Its army firmly held its positions and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then only 120 km from Paris. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain harvest decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men were drafted into the army - 15 million people, and National economy lost huge number working hands. The scale of human losses has also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in the whole years of past wars. All this demanded from the people an unprecedented exertion of strength. However, not all of society bore the burden of the war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, placing military orders at private factories brought huge profits. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed to inflate prices. It was widely practiced to evade the front with the help of a device in the rear organizations. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war with lightning speed, World War I became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in terms of the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages to a large extent depended on the mood of the nation, firm and skillful leadership.

In this regard, Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere was there such an irresponsible split at the top of society. Representatives State Duma, the aristocracy, the generals, the left parties, the liberal intelligentsia and the circles of the bourgeoisie associated with it expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious end. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to restore proper order in the rear in wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, were helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which had become a hostage of this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus to the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived the officers of disciplinary power over the soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officer corps, which became the first victim of the soldiers' discontent, suffered greatly. The cleaning of the higher commanders carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position by successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.

June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The attack was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was propagandistic in nature and aimed to raise the prestige of the new government. At first, the Russians were successful, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). She broke through the front and moved forward 50 km, taking the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the larger troops of the Southwestern Front could not be reached. Their pressure quickly subsided under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. In early July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the South-Western Front were defeated and were driven back far to the east of their original lines, to state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Mareshtami, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jakobstadt completely failed. The total loss of the Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. A significant role in their failure was played by political events that had a corrupting effect on the troops. "These were no longer the former Russians," German General Ludendorff recalled those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.

Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Gutierre) in order to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, the German troops went on the offensive. By noon, they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where, on the occasion of this celebration, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat at Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.

Moonsund Operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy the Russians there. naval forces. To do this, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. For its implementation, they allocated the Marine Detachment special purpose, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing on the Moonsund Islands, which closed the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Caten (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the heroically fought battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an organized manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron's path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund Archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and adequately completed their participation in the First World War.

Brest-Litovsk truce (1917). Peace of Brest (1918)

In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who were in favor of an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, an armistice was concluded between the Bolshevik government and the German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of Finland and Ukraine that gained independence, as well as from the districts of Ardagan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pushed it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). Besides, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, establish favorable customs duties for Germany, and also pay the German side a significant indemnity (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks assumed historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Brest peace only fixed the situation in which the country found itself, brought to collapse by the war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. In World War I, the number of deaths in the Russian army amounted to 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.

Shefov N.A. Most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.