Caliph during the years of his reign. Abbasid caliphate - political history. Origin. Justification of claims to power

An empire that ruled between 750-1258. Founded by the descendants of Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) - the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)

Political history

Due to the fact that this caliphate takes its name from the uncle of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) - Abbas bin Abdulmuttalib bin Hashim (may Allah be pleased with him), this caliphate is also called Hashemite.

In the Islamic world, after the coming to power of the Abbasids to replace the Omeyads, there were many changes in the administrative, military, political and scientific fields. The year 750, the year of the accession to the throne of the Abbasids, was one of the most important turning points in Islamic history. The coming to power of the Abbasids became possible as a result of the actions of a large organized group and coordinated agitation by the leaders of these groups, among those segments of the population who were not satisfied with the rule of the Umayyads. The political views and laws by which the Umayyads lived for a hundred years gave rise to numerous masses dissatisfied with the authorities among the greatly expanded Islamic society, which ultimately contributed to the loss of power by the Umayyads.

The Islamic state established by the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was basically composed of Arabs and a small number of "non-Muslims" lived on the territory of this state. As a result of the conquests made during the time of the righteous caliphs, the territory of Islam spread to Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Iran. Conquest campaigns continued under the Umayyads and the borders of the Caliphate reached Andalusia and the hinterland of Central Asia. Arab conquerors recognized the right of local residents to practice their religion and then they paid jizya (a tax on "non-Muslims"), and local residents who converted to Islam became the owners of the same rights as the Arabs. This rule was taken directly from the "body of Islam" and was strictly observed during the time of the Righteous Caliphs. However, the Umeyads, instead of the supremacy of the state provided for by Islam, introduced a government based on a certain cohort of people - Arabs by nationality, thus, the Caliphate, which spread its borders widely, gradually became a state based on an ethnic group. During the time of the Umayyads, the Arabs became isolated social class, they were exempted from land tax and only Arabs were recruited into the army to found new frontier towns. Most of the military leaders are Arabs, and only they received all kinds of monetary allowance, monthly, annual salaries, shares of military trophies, etc.

In the conquered lands, non-Arab converts to Islam were a kind of second-class people in terms of social, economic and career opportunities. These people theoretically had the same rights as the Arabs, but in reality this was not the case. Despite the fact that they were Muslims, all kinds of taxes were collected from them to replenish the treasury, it came to the point that they were collecting "Jizya" - a tax that non-Muslims must pay. For the wars of conquest they were taken as soldiers, but their reward was less than that of the Arab warriors and the share in the trophies was also less. Such a policy towards non-Arab Muslims was pursued by the Umayyad caliphs and although it was canceled by the caliph Umar bin Abdulaziz, it was resumed after his death. This practice has led to the emergence of strong opposition to the current government.

As history has shown, the events that happened after the death of Caliph Osman (may Allah be pleased with him) caused unrest in the Islamic world for many centuries to come. The Umayyads, represented by the founder of this dynasty, the governor of Syria, Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan, refused to swear allegiance to Caliph Ali due to the fact that the killers of Osman (may Allah be pleased with him) had not yet been found and punished. But due to the events that began from that moment, the Battle of the Camels and the Battle of Siffin happened, where the Muslims fought among themselves and shed the blood of their brothers. After the death of Caliph Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) and the renunciation of the caliphate of his son Hasan (may Allah be pleased with him) in 661, the “caliphate” of Muawiyah (may Allah be pleased with him) became apparent. However, the supporters of Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) stood up in fierce opposition to the current government. The harsh actions of Muawiyah's governor in Iraq, Ziyad bin Abih, only increased tension in relations between the parties. The tragedy near Karbala, which led to the murder of xs. Hussein (may Allah be pleased with him) in 680, further intensified the struggle against power. Quite quickly, the Shia doctrine became widespread and Shia supporters appeared in large numbers in eastern regions Caliphate. Non-Arab Muslims favorably accepted the idea of a legitimate caliph from among the descendants of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), as required by the Shiites. Thus, non-Arab Muslims united with Shiites to fight against the Umayyads, who were in power. Among other things, the Kharijites, who appeared after the battle of Syffin, periodically raised riots, which gradually reduced the authority of the state.

One of the weaknesses of the Umayyads was that the constant struggle between the Arab tribes was not stopped and, moreover, the Umayyads themselves were involved in this struggle. This struggle consisted in the mutual enmity of the "northern" and "southern" Arabs. Tribal rivalries and wars ended with the adoption of Islam, but the political and economic gains after the conquests caused the old enmity to flare up with new force. The first conflicts (i.e. after the adoption of Islam) between the northern and southern tribes occurred during the reign of Muawiyah (may Allah be pleased with him). During periods of weakening the authority of the central government, these conflicts spilled over into bloody clashes.

After the death of Caliph Yazid, the question of a new Caliph arose. The "southern" Arabs from the Kelb tribe supported Marwan bin Hakam from the Umayyad family, the "northern" Arabs from the Qays tribe supported Abdullah bin Zubair. The bloody war of these two tribes in 684 under Marjahim ended with the victory of the Banu Kelb, i.e. the Umayyads. In this war, the Umeyads lost their neutrality and took a direct part in inter-tribal wars. Later, under Caliph Valid I (705-715), the position of the Qais tribe, which supported Hajjaj, strengthened, in contrast to him, the Yemenis supported Walid's brother, Suleiman. Yezid III, who became caliph after Walid II, played the most important role in the removal from the throne of his predecessor and did this, just enlisting the support of the Yemenis. The fact that the caliphs began to resort to such a method led to the fact that they became representatives of a limited handful of people, and not the caliphs of a single and integral Empire. This led to their rapid downfall.

Among the reasons for the weakening of the Umayyads, one should also mention the internal disagreements in the ruling family that arose after the overthrow of Walid II. Related to this is the division into two camps of Syria, in which the Umayyads ruled for many years. This confrontation led to the fact that the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, left Damascus and made Harran the capital of the caliphate. Also, do not forget that the last caliphs did not show great success in the development of the caliphate.

In addition to all this, another destructive force was the Abbasids. The Abbasids skillfully used all the conditions for gaining the Caliphate and took slow but sure steps towards their goal. Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the population, which spread throughout the territory of the Empire, the Abbasids in a short time found themselves at the helm of protest movements. Although the caliphate was later named after him, the uncle of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) and his son Abdullah did not participate in political maneuvers, but were engaged in the dissemination of knowledge. The son of Abdullah Ali also chose the path of his father and grandfather, however, under pressure from Walid I, he was forced to leave Damascus in 714 and settle in the town of Humayma, which was located on the route of pilgrims from Syria. It was from Humayma that agitation began, perhaps the oldest and most sophisticated in the political confrontation.

Even before the Abbasids did anything, the Shiites, who are the real power in Khorasan, were already in action. The Shiites wanted the caliph to be from the family of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). At that time, the Shiites rallied around Abu Hashim, the son of Muhammad bin Hanafi, who was the third son of the fourth righteous Caliph Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). Abu Hashim moved to Humaimah and came into contact with the Abbasids. According to one version, he bequeathed the "Imamat" after his death to Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah. Thus, the Abbasids enlisted the support of the Shiites at the very beginning of their actions.

The agitation of the Abbasids and their secret activities began in 718 from Kufa. Historical sources indicate that the movement began in 100 AH (718) and spread from Arabs to Arabs. However, it is very difficult to say something concrete on this issue. In addition, the data on the first actions are very confusing. In the early days, the Abbasids received heavy blows from the Umayyads, but did not give up their actions. The Abbasid movement proceeded secretly, having at its core 12 "naqibs" (head, elder) and 70 "dais" (preacher) standing under them.

The first success in Khorasan was achieved by a preacher-agitator named Khidash. Being a supporter of radical ideas, in a short time he gathered around him a lot of like-minded people. Shiites from Merv also joined him. Despite some successes, Khidash was caught and executed in 736. In the same year, even before the uprising of Khidash, Ali bin Abdullah bin Abbas died and his son Muhammad bin Ali headed the movement instead. Muhammad exerted even more force to strengthen the Abbasid movement. On the one hand, he did not recognize the merits of Khidash, and on the other hand, he attributed all the mistakes made by the protest movement to him, and thus ensured the stability of his authority. The elders and preachers of the Abbasids called themselves not so much the opposition of the caliph, striving for power, but called themselves the means by which Allah would bring about the desired changes. The Abbasids declared that they were the truth that fought against excesses and took the oath not in their own name, but in the name of that member of the Prophet's family who would join them and lead their movement a little later.

On August 26, 743, Imam Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah dies and, according to his will, his son Ibrahim takes his place. Ibrahim, having taken the reins of the revolutionary movement in Khorasan, sends Abu Muslim there in 745, calling him a representative of the "sacred family." The nationality of Abu Muslim is not known for certain, but it is more likely that he was an Arab. Before joining the Abbasids he lived in Kufa either as a slave or as a freedman. Despite his young age, he attracted the attention of the leaders of the movement and one of the elders advised Imam Ibrahim bin Muhammad to attract Abu Muslim to the ranks of the Abbasids. Ibrahim brought Abu Muslim closer to him, directed his thoughts in the right direction and sent him to Khorasan as his representative.

The arrival of Abu Muslim in Khorasan and the beginning of his leadership of the Abbasid movement was a turning point in the revolutionary movement. At this time, the confrontation of the Arab tribes in Khorasan reached the point of open war. Abu Muslim toured all the cities of Khorasan, engulfed in revolutionary moods, became the leader of the Shiites after the death of their chief imam, Suleiman bin Kasir al Khuzai, and maintained constant contact with Imam Ibrahim. Finally, in 747, a black flag sent by Imam Ibrahim was flown in Safisanj, a city where a large number of supporters of Suleiman bin Kathir lived. For some time Abu Muslim remained in Safisanj, from there he went to Alin, and then to Mahiyan. Abu Muslim, without giving the supporters of the Umayyads an opportunity to gather together, attacked and occupied Merv, at that time the capital of the province of Khorasan. The mayor of Merv - Nasr bin Sayar was forced to retreat to Nishapur. As a result, such cities as Merv, Mervuruz, Herat, Nasa and Abiverd were occupied by the Abbasids. At the same time, returning from Ibrahim, the newly appointed chief commander of the Abbasid forces, Qahtaba bin Shabib, defeated Nasr bin Sayyar near the town of Tus. Henceforth, the forces of the Umayyads in Khorasan were broken. In June 748, Nasr left Nishapur and Abu Muslim moved his center there.

Nasr and the Arab tribes that rallied around him tried to hold out in the city of Kumis. At this time, Caliph Marwan II ordered the governor of Iraq, Yezid bin Umar bin Hubair, to send additional forces to Khorasan to help Nasr, but the troops sent were defeated before they could connect with Nasr. Qahtaba and his son Hasan blocked Kumis, headed west and captured Ray and Hamadan. In the spring of 749, Nasr was defeated at Isfahan and the road to Iraq became open for Qahtaba. He sent his son Hassan ahead, and he himself followed him. Hasan bypassed Ibn Huber, who set up headquarters in Jelul, crossed the Tigris and went in the direction of Kufa. Qahtaba, on August 27, 749, made a lightning throw at the headquarters of Ibn Hubeyra and defeated it, Ibn Hubeyra was forced to retreat to the city of Vasyt. That night, Qahtaba, who brought the first military victories to the Abbasids, was killed, his son Hasan took command, and on September 2 he captured Kufa. From now on, the hidden Abbasid administration in Kufa could enter the operational space. Abu Salama al-Khallal, with the rank of vizier of the Prophet's family, stopped hiding and took control. The Abbasids decided that the time had come for an open struggle for the Caliphate. While revolutionary actions were actively going on in Khorasan, Caliph Marwan arrested Ibrahim and sent him to Harran. According to legend, Ibrahim bequeathed his mission to his brother, Abu Abbas. The Abbasid family arrived there after the capture of Kufa, but they were not warmly welcomed in Kufa.

Abu Salama tried to play for time as Ali was holding his son. Understanding this, the inhabitants of Khorasan swore allegiance to Abu Abbas. The oath was taken on November 28, 749, Friday, in the central mosque of Kufa. Abu Abbas, in his first sermon as caliph, tried to prove that the right to be caliphs belonged to the Abbasids, citing various proofs. From the first days of preparations for the coup, the Abbasids tried to show that they were at one with the Shiites and did not show their true intentions. But having gained power, the Abbasids turned their backs on them. Abu Abbas moved his headquarters to Hammam Ain, away from Kufa, where Shiites lived in large numbers, and with the help of Abu Muslim got rid of Abu Salama and Suleiman bin Kathir.

When Qahtaba and his son Hasan were advancing towards Kufa from the south, at the same time the second army under the command of Abu Abbas' uncle, Abdullah bin Ali, was advancing towards Syria from the north. Caliph Marwan II gathered a large army from the Arabs of Syria and al-Jazira and met Abdullah's troops at the Great Zab River. The battle began on October 16, 750 and lasted 10 days. Due to internal disagreements in the troops of Marwan, the warriors of Abdullah won. Marwan, having been defeated, retreated first to Harran, but realizing that he could not stay there for a long time, he went to Damascus, and from there to Abufutrus in Jordan. Abdullah bin Ali, without meeting any resistance, approached the walls of Damascus and after a short battle captured the city. (April 26, 750). The troops pursuing Marwan overtook him near the town of Busir in Upper Egypt, and during the battle in August 750, Marwan was killed. Toward the end of 750, when Ibn Hubayra, who lived in Vasyt, surrendered, the Umayyad Caliphate ceased to exist.

After the success of the coup and the coming to power of the Abbasids, representatives of the Umayyads were brutally executed in all parts of the Empire. It got to the point that they tried to "revenge the bones" of the former caliphs, the graves of all the caliphs were opened, except for the graves of Muawiyah and Umar bin Abdulaziz (may Allah be pleased with them). The biggest crime committed against the Umayyads took place in Syria, where Abdullah bin Ali was at the time. Abdullah invited representatives of the Umayyad family, who lived in Abufutrus, to visit. During dinner, Abdullah, unexpectedly angry at one of the lines of the verse he read, ordered the killing of 80 people from among the Umayyads.

Different opinions are expressed about the nature of the Abbasid coup and about the motives of its perpetrators. Some Western historians of the 19th century consider the struggle between the Abbasids and the Umayyads to be a struggle with a national background between the Arabs and Iranians. However, later studies have refuted this point of view, since. even though the revolutionary movement began in Khorasan, where the majority of the population is Iranians and the first successes were made there, however, the Arabs were at the head of this movement. Of the twelve elders, eight are Arabs, four are "non-Arabs." In addition, many Arabs lived in Khorasan and most of them took their places in the Abbasid troops. As mentioned above, the Abbasid coup succeeded thanks to the united movement of various parts of society - opponents of the Umayyad dynasty. The force that gave impetus to the movement and led it to success was based not on chauvinism, but on the combination of interests of different groups.

Having come to power, the Abbasids were met as conductors of the ideals and thoughts of a real caliphate, that is, a state based on religion, in spite of the Umayyads, who personified the “state-property”. The caliph on Friday prayers wore the “jubba” (cape) of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). In his entourage he kept connoisseurs of religion, with whom he consulted and whom he took under the protection of the state. Despite the fact that the Abbasids, like the Umayyads, thought in worldly categories, they did not forget to appear religious and ascetic to the people.

The Abbasids established the center of the Caliphate in Iraq instead of Syria. The first caliph, Abu Abbas al-Saffah, lived for some time in the small town of Hashimiya on the east bank of the Euphrates. But soon he moved the capital to Anbar. The second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty and the full founder of this dynasty, Abu Jafar al Mansur, founded a new city, which became the permanent capital of the Caliphate, near the ruins of the old capital of the Sassanids - the city of Madain at the mouth of the Tigris. New town was called Madinatussalam, but everyone began to call it the name of the ancient Iranian settlement, which was located there - Diyanbagdad. The transfer of the capital of the caliphate brought important results. With the transfer of the capital, the center of gravity of government shifted from Mediterranean Syria to the irrigated, fertile valley, the crossroads of many trade routes, which was Iraq, and the influence of Iran became stronger than that of Byzantium.

With the coming to power of the Abbasids, the era of the rule of the Arabs, and especially the Syrians, ended. The difference between Arabs and Muslims "non-Arabs" was erased and in some places "non-Arabs" even outnumbered the Arabs. The inhabitants of Khorasan, who carried the heavy burden of the coup on their shoulders, occupied high positions in the state. The leader of the movement, Abu Muslim, had great authority and great opportunities. The first Abbasid caliphs lived, as it were, in its shadow. Caliph Mansur, unable to endure the reign of Abu Muslim, ordered his death. However, this did not weaken the influence of the Iranians in the state. The vizier dynasty of the Barmakids was very influential for a long time, starting from the reign of Caliph Mansur. Now the Barmakids have become as powerful as the caliph himself. And only in 803 Harun al-Rashid found a reason to eliminate the Barmakids family. The struggle for the throne between the sons of Harun al-Rashid, Emin and Ma'mun, after the death of their father, was at the same time a struggle of power between the Arabs and the Iranians. The Arabs supported Emin, whose mother and father were Arabs, and the Iranians were in support of Ma'mun, since his mother was a concubine of Iranian origin. As a result of the coming to power of Ma'mun, the Arabs were completely removed from government.

Ma'mun, in the first years of his reign, was in Merv and, falling under the influence of Iranian leaders, made decisions that were harmful to himself. However, the outcome of events in a negative way for him, awakened the caliph and he was forced to change his policy. First of all, he moved to Baghdad and took control into his own hands. The events that took place while he was in Merv shook his confidence in the Arabs and Iranians, he needed new personnel and new forces on which he could rely. The Turks, whom he had the opportunity to meet during his stay in Khorasan, were the only force capable of resisting the influence of the Arabs and Iranians and, from the point of view of political experience and military skill, could become a balancing element in the empire. AT last years of his reign, Ma'mun began to recruit Turks into military units and made it part of the state policy. Historical sources indicate that in the last years of Ma'mun's reign, there were from 8,000 to 10,000 Turks in the troops of the Caliph, and the command staff of the army also consisted of Turks.

After the death of Caliph Ma'mun, his brother Mu'tasim ascended to the post of caliph thanks to the assistance of the Turks. He, like his older brother, continued to attract detachments of Turks from various countries and thus, in a short time, the troops of the caliph, for the most part, began to consist of Turks. In 836, he founded the city of Samarra and transferred the capital of the Caliphate and his troops there. Thus began the "age of Samarra" that lasted until 892. Turkic commanders gradually began to occupy responsible positions and have weight in government. Beginning with the caliph Mutawakkil, they appointed a caliph from among the applicants they liked, and removed those who were objectionable from this position. On the other hand, the caliphs tried to get rid of the oppression of the Turks and, at every opportunity, killed the commanders from among them. This confrontation between the Turks and Caliphs continued until the transfer of the capital back to Baghdad in 892. However, the transfer of the capital of the caliphate did not bring any changes to the institution of the caliphate, in terms of its authority and power. If the situation improved under Caliph Mutazid, then with his death everything returned to its former places. Only now, the Caliphate was also being destroyed by rivalry between government officials. Caliph Razi, in 936, to end internal rivalry, appointed Muhammad bin Raik al Khazari to the post of "amir ul-umara" (supreme commander), endowing him with great powers similar to those of a caliph. However, this move did not bring the expected result. By that time, the Empire had become fragmented and the Caliph's orders, in principle, extended only to part of Iraq. The worst for the Abbasids was the occupation of Baghdad in 945 by the Buyids (Buwayhids). The Buwayhids are a Shia family from Iran, by the middle of the 9th century they established rule in the territories of Persia, Khuzistan (a province in the southwest of Iran), Kirman (a province in the southeast of Iran) and Jibal. Under their pressure, the Abbasid caliph Mustakfi was forced to transfer the post of supreme commander Muezzidudawl to Ahmed from the Buwayhid family. Thus, the Abbasid Caliphate came under the influence of the Shiite family. The Buwayhids ruled Baghdad for a century, while the caliphs under them remained in the role of puppets who had lost all political and military authority. The Buwayhids, on the other hand, kept caliphs from among the Abbasids only to ensure the appearance of the legitimacy of the central government and spiritual power over the people. However, they appointed as caliphs those whom they themselves considered necessary, and those who were objectionable, without visible effort, could leave no inheritance. Now Baghdad was no longer the center of the Islamic world. In the middle of the 11th century, the Buweikhs lost their strength and at that time Arslan al Basasiri began to read the Friday sermon in Baghdad on behalf of the Fatimid Caliphate.

During the period of time when attempts were made to completely eradicate the Abbasid Caliphate, another force appeared in Iran. These were the Seljuk sultans who professed the Sunni faith. The recitation of the Friday sermon by Arslan al Basasiri on behalf of the Fatimid Caliph set the Seljukids into action. Sultan Tughrul in 1055 saved Baghdad from Arslan al Basasiri and restored religious respect to the Caliph. For another half century, the caliphs continued to exist under the political rule of the Seljuk sultans. The Seljukids cleared not only Baghdad of the Fatimids, but all of Iraq and Syria. At the same time, madrasahs are being established in Baghdad and other major cities, in which Shiite ideology is rebuffed. Later, when the Seljukids began an internal dispute for the throne of the Sultan and weakened their influence, the Abbasids began actions aimed at restoring physical power. However, the Abbasids, and in particular the governors of Caliph Nasyr, did not have enough strength to implement his policy, so the Abbasid Caliphate very soon returned to its previous level. In 1194 Tughrul, the Seljuk sultan of Iraq, was defeated by Kharezmshah Tekis and the territories under his possession passed to Harezmshah. The Abbasid caliphs were left face to face with the Kharezmshahs. According to some sources, Caliph Nasir decided that the new rival was more dangerous than the previous ones and turned to Genghis Khan for help, who by that time had captured all of Asia. And in fact, Harezmshah Muhammad, who came to power after Alaaddin Tekis, planned to wipe the Abbasid Caliphate from the face of the earth and only Mongol invasion prevented him from doing what he intended.

The Omayyad rulers expanded the borders of the Islamic Empire from the hinterland of Turkistan to the Pyrenees, from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean and the Sahara. With such borders, this Empire was the largest in the history of mankind. But if you look at the conditions of that era, it becomes clear that it is very difficult to manage such an Empire. So, with the coming to power of the Abbasids, splits began from the very first years of their reign. Having managed to escape from the massacre of the Abbasids, Abdurahman bin Muawiya, the grandson of Caliph Hisham, was able to go through Egypt and North Africa to Andalusia. Abdurakhman took advantage of the disorder that reigned in the territory of Andalusia and from 756 began to rule as a sovereign ruler. Caliph Mansur, although he gathered troops against Abdurahman, could not achieve success, and Andalusia, thus, completely separated from the Empire. After the independence of Andalusia, gradually the whole of North Africa broke up into independent and semi-independent states. So, we can mention the “Kharijites” of the Midrarites, who gained independence in 758, the Rustamids in Western Algeria broke away in 777, the Idrisids created a state in Morocco in 789 and the Aglebites, who created their state in Tunisia in 800.

Beginning in the middle of the 9th century, the influence of the Abbasids did not extend beyond Egypt. In addition, the Turkic tribes Tolunogullars from 868 to 905 and the Ikhshidites from 935 to 969 captured Egypt and Syria, thereby narrowing the western border of the Empire. The situation in the eastern provinces was not much different. Starting from 819, the Samanites in Khorasan and Mavarannahr, from 821, the Tahirites in Khorasan, although they were nominally under the rule of the caliph, in reality, they were free in matters of internal and foreign policy. Saffarites, having arisen in 867 in the region of Sistan, waged a long struggle with the Baghdat caliph. The Hamdanites of Syria and al-Jazeera gained independence in 905. Thus, closer to the middle of the 9th century, the administrative influence of the caliph was limited to Baghdad and its environs.

During the Abbasid era, there were frequent uprisings for political, economic and religious reasons. So in 752 there was an uprising in Syria, the rebels wanted to restore the rights of the Umayyad dynasty. The uprising was quickly suppressed, but the supporters of the Umayyads, who believe that the Umayyads would someday return and restore justice, raised riots from time to time, which, however, did not reach serious proportions. The Shiites could not come to terms with the coming to power of the Abbasids, since it was the Shiites who played a big role in the success of the coup, and therefore they openly declared their rights to the caliphate. So Muhammad an-Nafsu-zZakia and his brother Ibrahim, being the descendants of Hasan, the son of Hazrat Ali, began actions to seize power. For a long time they worked secretly and, fleeing the persecution of the caliph, often changed their place of residence, but unable to withstand the pressure on their family, they came out “from the shadows” and openly opposed the caliph Mansur. However, in 762, Muhammad, and a year later his brother Ibrahim, were caught and executed. The Shiite uprisings did not end there, at every opportunity they rebelled, but did not achieve results. But, more important than all this, there was a series of uprisings launched in Iran under the cause of the assassination of Abu Muslim in 755 by Caliph Mansur. To some extent, these riots were based on nationalist ideas. The religious and ideological component of these riots came from Iran. After the news of Abu Muslim's death reached Khorasan, presumably one of Abu Muslim's inner circle, a certain commander named Sunbaz captures Ray and heads for Hamedan. Sunbaz, in a battle with the forces of the caliph, somewhere between Ray and Hamedan, is defeated, flees to Tabaristan, but he is captured and executed. At the same time, Ishak at-Turki, also a man of Abu Muslim, raised a revolt in Mawarannahr, and for two years the Caliph's troops fought against him. In 757 there was a rebellion led by Ustazsis, Herat, Badghis and Sistan rebelled, the rebellion ended with the arrest of Ustazsis, a year after it began. The most dangerous rebellion of Khorasan is the rebellion of Mukanna. The ideology of Muqanna was similar to the ideology of modern communists, the rebellion under his leadership was suppressed only in 789. During the reign of Caliph Mahdi, many more riots took place with the aim of reviving the old religions of Iran. Due to these events, a new department, Divan-u zenadyk (Council for Atheists), was created, which dealt with the suppression of riots.

One of the most important rebellions in terms of coverage of territory, duration and equipment in the era of Abbasid rule is the revolt of Babek al-Khurrami. Supporters of Babek, who had respectable qualities in the political and military spheres, were mostly peasants. Babek promised them large plots of land and kept his promises. Babek raised a rebellion in 816 in Azerbaijan, for a long time defeated the forces of the caliph sent against him, thereby further strengthening his influence, and, in the end, was caught by the commander of the caliph Mutasim, Afshin, a Turk by origin, and executed in 837 .

On the other side. The Zenj Revolt, a black slave revolt in 869-883, happened for economic and social reasons. Slaves in the Basra region, employed in the fields and plantations, existed in very difficult conditions. Ali bin Muhammad, who claimed that he comes from the descendants of Hazrat Ali, raised them to rebellion, giving out all kinds of promises. This movement expanded very quickly, acquiring new groups. The black military movement was initially very successful. Capturing strategically important areas in southern Iraq and southwestern Iran, they entered Basra and Vasyt. Thus, they began to threaten Baghdad as well. This rebellion was suppressed with great effort and as a result of long battles.

The social crisis in which the empire arrived at the beginning of the 10th century reached its climax. Despite the fact that the rebellion of dark-skinned slaves was suppressed, the effect of it continued for a long time and, in addition, the ideology of the Ismailis was actively spreading. In 901-906, armed groups of Ismailis, known as "Qarmatians", flooded Syria, Palestine and al-Jazira. In Bahrain, the Karmat movement developed even more dangerously, it is known that about 20,000 armed sectarians lived in their center, the city of al-Ahsha. The Qarmatians quickly moved north and entered Kufa. In 929, they attacked Mecca and took "Hajar ul-Aswad" to al-Ahsha, and they managed to return the stone only after 20 years. In addition, they have caused unrest in Syria. The rule of the Qarmatians in Bahrain lasted until the end of the 11th century.

The Abbasids did not wage a large number of wars of conquest. The new dynasty, instead of expanding the already wide borders, took up the problems of internal well-being and succeeded in this. At the same time, after several years of calm after the overthrow of the previous dynasty, the Abbasids resumed campaigns against Byzantium. Under Caliph Mansur, small-scale actions were carried out in Anadolu. The third Abbasid caliph Mahdi, in order to teach a lesson to the Byzantine Empire, which wanted to take advantage of the internal confusion in the caliphate, equipped a big campaign against Istanbul in 782. The Islamic army under the command of Harun, the son of the caliph, reached Uskudar and, having made peace, and obliging Queen Irina to pay an annual tribute, returned back. Caliph Harun ar-Rashid fortified the border line from Tarsus to Malatya, repaired and equipped fortifications. Here he settled volunteers from various regions of the caliphate, and later these fortresses on the border were united into a separate province of Avasym. Caliph Ma'mun in the last years of his reign organized three campaigns against the Byzantine Empire in 830-833 and participated in them himself. Then the city of Tiana was captured in central Anatolia and Muslims were settled there. From these actions it becomes clear that in this way outposts were prepared for subsequent campaigns in Anatolia. In the era of the Abbasids, the largest campaign against the Byzantine Empire was carried out by Caliph Mu'tasim. Mu'tasim in 838 entered Anatolia with a large army, passed through Ankara to the very big city Anatolia of those times, Amorion, (near the present city of Afyon) surrounded and captured it. After Caliph Mu'tasim, military activity in the Byzantine direction began to decline. The weakening of the Abbasid Caliphate began in the middle of the 9th century, and wars were already fought between the Byzantine Empire and the new states of Syria and Al Jazeera. In particular, the campaigns of Sayfuddaulyat from the Hamdanite dynasty were of great importance. During this period, apart from a few skirmishes on the Turkestan and Khazar fronts, complete calm reigned. The Abbasids, in view of the fact that the Mediterranean was far from the center of the empire, did not pay close attention there. However, the newly formed states of Egypt and North Africa for several centuries controlled the Mediterranean Sea. An example of this is the Aglebites, who ruled Sicily from 825 to 878.

Friendly relations between the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid and King Charlemagne in the early 9th century were based on mutual benefit. Charlemagne considered Harun al-Rashid a possible ally in the war against Byzantium, and Harun al-Rashid wanted to use Charlemagne against the Umayyads of Andalusia, who were able to create a powerful and sovereign state in Spain. According to Western scholars, the relationship was reinforced by a bilateral exchange of gifts and delegations. Mention is made of the unusual and skillfully made clock that Harun al-Rashid presented to Charlemagne. However, in Islamic historical sources nothing is reported about those relationships in 797-806, which are pointed out by Western historians.

On the other side of the empire, the Mongols of Genghis Khan, after successful campaigns against China, headed west from 1218 and began to occupy the territory of the Islamic world. After the destruction of the Kharezmshahs in Iran and Iraq, there were no forces left capable of withstanding the Mongol invasion. The Mongols leveled Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent, Kharezm, Belkh and continued to move west. After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol invasion did not stop. One of his grandsons, Hulagu, broke last resistance in Iran, in January 1258 approached Baghdad and surrounded it. Baghdad did not have the strength to resist. After the peace proposals were rejected, the last Abbasid caliph, Musta'sym, was forced to surrender along with all state officials. Hulagu ordered the execution of all who surrendered, and Baghdad, which had served as the capital of the Islamic world for five centuries, was destroyed. As in other Islamic cities in Baghdad, the invaders committed indescribable atrocities, all state formations were destroyed. Mosques were reduced to ruins, libraries destroyed, books burned or thrown into the Tigris. The capture of Baghdad by the Mongols is regarded as one of the worst disasters in the history of Islam. This catastrophe caused harm, more than politically, in terms of civilization, and after this event, Islamic culture began to stagnate and fade.

The Abbasid dynasty, which ruled from 750 to 1258, was second only to Ottoman Empire by duration of government. Islamic culture experienced its heyday, just in the era of the Abbasids. The Abbasids held the political arena in their hands for a long time, and except for one or two periods of time, until the end of their days they were also the spiritual leaders of the Islamic world. The Abbasid Caliphate occupies a worthy place both in the history of Islam and in world history.

The reign of the caliphs from the Abbasid dynasty

Abu Abbas as-Saffah 132,750
Abu Ja'far al Mansur 136,754
Muhammad al Mahdi 158 775
Musa al Hadi 169 785
Harun al-Rashid 170 786
Al Amin 193 809
Al Ma'mun 198 813
Al Mu'tasim - Billah 218 833
Al Wasik - Billah 227 842
Al Mutawakkil - Allallah 232 847
Al Muntasyr - Billah 247 861
Al Musta'in - Billah 248 862
Al Mu'taz - Billah 252 866
Al Muhtadi Billah 255 869
Al Mu'tamid - Allallah 256 870
Al Mu'tazeed - Billah 279 892
Al Muqtafi - Billah 289 902
Al Muqtadir - Billah 295 908
Al Kahir - Billah 320 932
Ar-Razy - Billah 322 934
Al Muttaki-Lillah 329 940
Al Mustafi Billah 333 944
Al Muti-Lillah 334 946
At-Tai - Lillah 363 974
Al Qadeer Billah 381 991
Al Qaim-Biamrillah 422 1031
Al Muqtadi Biamrillah 467 1075
Al Muztashir Billah 487 1094
Al Mustarshid Billah 512 1118
Ar-Rashid Billah 529 1135
Al Muktafi-Liemrillah 530 1136
Al Mustanjid - Billah 555 1160
Al Mustazi-Biamrillah 566 1170
Al Nasyr-Lidinillah 575 1180
Az-Zahir-Biamrillah 622 1225
Al Musta'sim - Billah 640-656 1242-1258

The Mongol catastrophe was stopped at Ainijalut in 1260 by the Mamluk commander, Baibars. In the same year, Baybars kills the Mamlukid Sultan Qutuz and ascends the throne himself. Sultan Baybars brings to Cairo Ahmad, the son of the Abbasid caliph Zahir, who fled to Damascus when the Mongols were destroying Baghdad, declares Ahmad caliph with magnificent celebrations and swears allegiance to him. (9 Rajab 659 / 9 June 1261). Thus, the Abbasid Caliphate was created anew, after a three-year break in the five-century spiritual leadership of the Islamic world. Ahmad, who took the name Mustansir, went with Sultan Baibars to Damascus the same year for a liberation campaign against Baghdad, but Baibars was forced to return and Mustansir, left alone with the Mongol governor, was killed in the battle. Then Baybars declares another representative of the Abbasids, also named Ahmad, but called "Al Hakim" as caliph; thus, Baybars provided spiritual support for his political power. The Abbasid Caliphs of Egypt are descended from Hakim. The names of these caliphs were minted on coins and their names were pronounced at Friday prayers along with the names of the sultans, but the caliphs had no real power. Caliphs managed only property and funds intended for religious purposes and performed some rituals when new sultans ascended the throne.

The Abbasid caliphs from Cairo sent orders for their appointment to some Islamic rulers and, if possible, interfered in the political affairs of the empire. So, in 1412, after the death of Sultan Nasyr, Caliph Adil declared himself a sultan, but he was a sultan for only three days. Sultan Muayed Khan overthrew him from the throne and killed him. Some caliphs were removed because of their disagreement with the sultans. In the end, in 1517, the Ottoman ruler Yavuz Sultan Salim occupied Egypt, and upon his return to Istanbul, he took with him the last caliph Mutawakkil. Thus, the Egyptian Abbasid Caliphate ended its existence.

Abbasid Caliphs of Egypt

Al Mustansir Billah Abu Qasim Ahmad 659 1261
Al Hakim-Biamrillah Abu Abbas Ahmad I 660 1261
Al Mustaqfi Abu r-Rabi' Suleiman I 701 1302
Al Wasik Billah Abu Ishaq Ibrahim 740 1340
Al Hakim Byamrillah Abu Abbas Ahmad II 741 1341
Al Mu'tazeed Billah Abu Fath Abu Bakr 753 1352
Al Mutawakkil-Allallah Abu Abdullah (1st reign) 763 1362
Al Mu'tasim-Billah Abu Yahya Zakariya (1st reign) 779 1377
Al Mutawakkil-Alyallah Abu Abdullah (2nd reign) 779 1377
Al Wasik-Billa Abu Hafs Umar 785 1383
Al Mu'tasim-Billah Abu Yahya Zakariya (2nd reign) 788 1386
Al Mutawakkil-Allallah Abu Abdullah (3rd reign) 791 1389
Al Musta'in Billah Abul Fazl Abbas 808 1406
Al Mu'tazeed Billah Abu Fath Dawud 816 1414
Al Mustaqfi-Billah Abu r-Rabi’ Suleiman II 845 1441
Al-Qaim-Biamrillah Abul Beqa Hamza 855 1451
Al Mustanjid Billah Abul Mahasin Yusuf 859 1455
Al Mutawakkil-Alyallah Abul-Iz Abdulziz 884 1479
Al Mustamsik-Billah Abu s Sabr Yaqub (1st reign) 903 1497
Al Mutawakkil-Allallah Muhammad (1st reign) 914 1508
Al Mustamsik-Billah Abu s Sabr Yaqub (2nd reign) 922 1516

Al Mutawakkil-Allallah Muhammad (2nd reign) 923 1517

To be continued...

Islamic Encyclopedia

Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz (682 - February 720, Arab. عمر بن عبد العزيز‎‎) - Umayyad caliph, who ruled from 717 to 720. The cousin of his predecessor Suleiman, the son of Abdul-Aziz, the younger brother of Caliph Abdal-Malik. He was distinguished by piety and unusual honesty. He left the best memory of himself among both Sunnis and Shiites.

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was born in 680 in Medina. He belonged to the Quraysh family of the Umayyads, who at that time were in the power of the Caliphate. Studying from childhood with the most famous scientists, he receives a brilliant education for those times. Despite his huge fortune (his annual income was 40,000 dinars, which is about 180 kg of pure gold), Umar was famous for his modesty and piety. At the age of 26, he was appointed governor of Medina, Mecca and Taif. During the 6 years of his reign, Umar did a gigantic job: roads were laid, channels and wells for agricultural work were created. Having left the post of governor, Umar, as a simple soldier, goes to the war with Byzantium as part of the army of the Caliphate. At this time, his uncle Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik, the ruler of the caliphate, sensing the approach of death, intends to bequeath power to his beloved nephew. Fearing that Umar would relinquish power, the Caliph hides his will from him. Approximate Caliph kept their secret, having given a vow of silence. When, after the death of Caliph Suleiman, with a large gathering of people, a will was announced, Umar publicly renounces power. However, all those present unanimously swear allegiance to the new caliph.
So unexpectedly, Umar becomes the ruler of a huge power that includes the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, India, Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Northern China, Transcaucasia and North Caucasus, Egypt, Spain, South of France.
After becoming caliph, Umar completely abandoned his former luxurious lifestyle. He leaves the magnificent palace of the Umayyads and donates his entire fortune to the treasury of the Caliphate. The Caliph's wife Fatima, following the example of her husband, handed over even her jewelry to the treasury. His only income is land plot in Suwayda, which brings in only 200 dinars a year.
Despite the receipt of huge funds at that time in the treasury, he did not take a single dirham. It got to the point that those close to him decided to remind him that even righteous caliph Umar, revered as a model of piety and sincere faith, received a small allowance from the state treasury, to which he objected that Umar ibn al-Khattab did not have any property at the time he had it.
The rich and pampered relatives of the caliph had to tie their belts tighter. Access to the treasury was already walled up for them forever. The caliph abandoned the numerous unnecessary court army of servants and panegyrists. Umar himself leaves one change of clothes, which from prolonged wear is soon covered with patches, and settles in a simple house.
Sometimes the Caliph stayed for the Friday sermon, waiting for the washed clothes to dry. Umar's strict ascetic attitude to life was influenced by his close relationship with the famous scholar and ascetic of that time, Hassan al-Basri. They often talked and corresponded. Historians cite a case when Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was entrusted with the government of the state, he invited three scientists to him: Salim ibn Abdullah, Muhammad ibn Kaab and Raja ibn Haiva and said: "Verily, I am experiencing this misfortune. Give me advice ". One of those gathered at Umar, a scholar named Salim said: "If you want salvation, then be fasting in relation to dunya (worldly charms and beauties). And let your iftar (breaking the fast) be death." The second scholar named Ibn Kaab gave the following advice: "If you want to be saved from the punishment of Allah Almighty, then let the oldest Muslim be your father, the middle one your brother, and the youngest your child. Honor your father, respect your brother and be pity for your child." The third, named Raja, said: “If you want to avoid God’s punishment, then love for people what you love for yourself. And don’t wish for them what you don’t want for yourself. And then you can die. These are my words and my advice. Verily, I am greatly alarmed for you regarding the day when it will be hard to resist."
Having come to power, Umar radically transformed social organization society. He granted his subjects the right to free movement, built inns for travelers, dug many wells, and built roads.
As a result of the economic reforms he carried out, the standard of living of the population increased - there were practically no beggars left in the caliphate. People lived so well that it was difficult to find those who needed to pay zakat. To eradicate bureaucratic arbitrariness, he raised the salaries of all government officials. In addition, Umar's decree was sent to all the provinces of the Caliphate: "Whoever is oppressed, let him enter me without permission." Interestingly, the law provided for the payment of travel expenses in the amount of 100 to 300 dinars (approximately from 3 to 10 thousand dollars) depending on the distance.
Scientists and researchers were placed on full material support. "Scientific research should not distract financial problems," the caliph believed. Umar dismissed governors and government officials, those who ruled unjustly and squandered public funds. Every inhabitant of the caliphate, burdened with debts, regardless of religion, received a guarantee of debt repayment at the expense of specially established state funds. Everyone who wanted to start a family and did not have the funds for this received the necessary amount from the treasury of the Caliphate.

The main feature that distinguished Caliph Umar from his predecessors was his careful attitude to the treasury of the Caliphate, which reached the point of scrupulousness. In this, the caliph was similar to his great-grandfather, the famous Umar ibn al-Khattab, the closest associate of the Prophet Muhammad.

When Umar was asked to allocate a huge amount for the decoration of the Kaaba (the main Muslim temple), he exclaimed: "Hungry Muslims are more in need than the Kaaba." The inhabitants of the caliphate loved Umar for his meekness of character and just rule.
Once the ruler of Khorasan asked for permission to use force against the local population, saying that only a sword and a whip would correct them. The enraged caliph exclaimed: "You are lying. Only justice and truth will correct them. Do not forget, Allah will destroy those who are outrageous."
The reign of Umar is called the era of the greatest spread of Islam. The inhabitants of the provinces of the caliphate converted to Islam en masse. The governors of these lands, fearing a decrease in tax revenues to the budget, suggested that Umar keep the jizya (annual tax on non-Muslims) for new converts. The indignant Caliph vehemently objected: "Allah sent Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) as a guide to the straight path, and not a tax collector!" The results achieved by Umar in a short time were amazing. In the caliphate came general prosperity and prosperity. According to legend, Umar ordered to pour wheat on the tops of the hills, so that even the birds would not know the need for a caliphate.
He pursued an active preaching policy, encouraged and revered Muslim theologians. During his reign, as we have already said, many subjects of the caliphate accepted Islam. But after only two years, the era of just government was suddenly interrupted. At the age of 40, Umar suddenly dies. According to one of the main versions, the caliph was poisoned by his confidants from the Umayyad clan. The caliph's strict puritanical way of life, his scrupulous attitude to the treasury and fair reforms clearly disgusted their irrepressible and greedy desires.
The reign of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, known as one of the most pious and just rulers in the history of Islam, is sometimes compared with the era of the righteous caliphs - the four closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad, whose reign was fully consistent with the Divine order.
Before his death, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz asked those present to sit next to him. They sat down. Then he turned to Allah: "You ordered me, but I was negligent. You forbade me, but I disobeyed. But I testify that there is no deity but Allah." Then he raised his eyes and stared at something intently. The people said to him: "O Commander of the Faithful, your gaze is severe." "I see those present here, but they are not people and not jinn," - and with these words he expired. The people heard someone read: "This house in the future life We give only to those who do not aspire to a high position on earth, as well as to wickedness. A happy outcome is prepared only for the God-fearing."
Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz died in Damascus, in the month of Rajab, 101 AH, which corresponds to 720 according to the Christian calendar.

Baghdad Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty

The Abbasids were the descendants of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim, who was the uncle of the Prophet. They believed that they were also close relatives to the Prophet, like the clan of Ali. Their claims to power first came to light under Omar II. The Abbasids created secret societies in Kufa and Khorasan and, taking advantage of the strife between the Omeids, began an armed struggle. In 749, they seized power in the city of Kufa, and then in many other lands of the Muslim state. In the autumn of 749, Muslims swore allegiance to the first caliph in Kufa new dynasty Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah. His successor Caliph al-Mansur, who reigned from 754 to 775, founded a new capital, the City of Peace, or Baghdad. Baghdad was built on the Tigris River in 762.

At the beginning of the reign of this dynasty in 751, in a battle near the Central Asian river Talas, the Muslims defeated a huge Chinese army, after which Islam was finally consolidated in Central Asia and the limits of the Caliphate did not expand further. Iran became the main province of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids followed the example of the Sasanian kings in the organization of administration, finances, mail. Approximate Abbasids were predominantly from the Iranians.

The Arabs in the Baghdad Caliphate, except for the descendants of the Prophet, lost their exclusive position in society. They were given equal rights with all Muslims, among whom the majority were Turks and Iranians. The Abbasid dynasty ruled for almost five hundred years, three hundred years of which were marked by the flourishing of Muslim culture and science.

This text is an introductory piece.

Early period Abbasid rule In 750, an Arab faction destroyed the Umayyad Caliphate and established the Abbasid dynasty. They maintained control over northern Bactria. The Abbasids not only continued the policy of granting the status of dhimmi to local Buddhists, but also showed

Revolts against the Abbasids The early Abbasids were plagued by revolts. Caliph al-Rashid died in 808 on his way to Samarkand, the capital of Sogdiana, where he went to put down a rebellion. Before his death, he divided the empire between his two sons. Al-Mamun, who accompanied his father on a campaign in

4. THE BAGHDAD PACT AND THE ARAB LEAGUE A. The Baghdad Pact The Baghdad Pact plays a large role in the politics of the Middle East. It was conceived by England, which, having cleared its possessions or mandated countries, nevertheless intended to play a role in the Middle. East, considering itself a power

RELIGIOUS STRUGGLE IN THE ABBASID CALIFATE F. Engels gave the following description of the social foundations of the internal struggle that took place in Islam over the centuries: “Islam is a religion adapted for the inhabitants of the East, especially for the Arabs, therefore,

Victorious Caliphate "Farewell, Syria, forever! - said the emperor, sailing from Byzantium. - And this beautiful land should belong to my enemy ... "Mourn the Sassanid dynasty, power and glory, the throne of so many sovereigns! Omar's time has come, faith has come,

Caliphate of Hisham Rebellion of the house of Ali. Conspiracies of the house of Abbas Hisham, the fourth of the sons of Abd al-Malik, who became Caliph, was stern, stingy and uncompromising. He accumulated wealth, closely followed the cultivation of land and the cultivation of thoroughbred horses. In the races he

The Emergence of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Founding of Baghdad “The more power, the less nobility,” said Abu Abbas. The Abbasid dynasty became famous for its deceit and betrayal. Intrigue and cunning came in this family to replace strength and courage, which is especially

The Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad The Abbasids were descendants of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim, who was the uncle of the Prophet. They believed that they were also close relatives to the Prophet, like the clan of Ali. Their claim to power first came to light under Omar

The Caliphate of Cordoba The Caliphate of Cordoba lasted the longest in the West, where the Umayyad dynasty ruled from the middle of the 8th century. The founder of this dynasty was Abderrahman I, who escaped from the Abbasid assassins and fled to the south of Spain to Cordoba. greatest flourishing

Baghdad thief An old Baghdad thief, sharing a meal with his son, taught him, asking: - Do you know how to steal gold from the treasury so that the walls of Baghdad do not collapse? I will teach you.” He gathered the bread crumbs from the table into a pile and, pointing to it, continued: “Here is the treasury of the city of Baghdad. Take from

1230 years ago, on September 14, 786, Harun al-Rashid (Garun al-Rashid), or the Just (766-809), the fifth Baghdad caliph from the Abbasid dynasty, became the ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate.
Harun turned Baghdad into a brilliant and intellectual capital of the East. He built for himself a magnificent palace, founded a large university and a library in Baghdad. The caliph built schools and hospitals, patronized the sciences and arts, encouraged music lessons, attracted scientists, poets, doctors and musicians, including foreigners, to the court. He himself was fond of science and wrote poetry. Under him, significant development was achieved in the Caliphate Agriculture, crafts, trade and culture. It is believed that the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid was marked by economic and cultural flourishing and is preserved in the memory of Muslims as the "golden age" of the Baghdad Caliphate.

As a result, the figure of Harun al-Rashid was idealized in Arabic folklore. He became one of the heroes of the Thousand and One Nights fairy tales, where he appears as a kind, wise and fair ruler who protects ordinary people from dishonest officials and judges. Pretending to be a merchant, he wandered the night streets of Baghdad so that he could communicate with ordinary people and learn about the true state of affairs in the country and the needs of his subjects.

True, already in the reign of Harun there were signs of a crisis in the caliphate: there were large anti-government uprisings in North Africa, Deylem, Syria, Central Asia and other areas. The caliph sought to strengthen the unity of the state on the basis of official Islam, relying on the clergy and the Sunni majority of the population, and carried out repressions against opposition movements in Islam and pursued a policy of restricting the rights of the non-Muslim population in the caliphate.

From the history of the Arab Caliphate

Arab statehood originated in the Arabian Peninsula. The most developed region was Yemen. Earlier than the rest of Arabia, the development of Yemen was due to the intermediary role it played in the trade of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, and then the entire Mediterranean, with Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and India. In addition, there were two more large centers in Arabia. In the west of Arabia, Mecca was located - an important transit point on the caravan route from Yemen to Syria, which flourished due to transit trade. Other major city Arabia was Medina (Yathrib), which was the center of an agricultural oasis, but there were also merchants and artisans. So, if by the beginning of the 7th century. most of the Arabs who lived in the central and northern regions remained nomads (Bedouins-steppes); then in this part of Arabia there was an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system and early feudal relations began to take shape.

In addition, the old religious ideology (polytheism) was in crisis. Christianity (from Syria and Ethiopia) and Judaism penetrated into Arabia. In the VI century. in Arabia, a movement of hanifs arose, recognizing only one god and borrowing some attitudes and rituals from Christianity and Judaism. This movement was directed against tribal and urban cults, for the creation of a single religion that recognizes a single god (Allah, Arabic al - ilah). The new teaching arose in the most developed centers of the peninsula, where feudal relations were more developed - in Yemen and the city of Yathrib. Mecca was also captured by the movement. One of its representatives was the merchant Mohammed, who became the founder of a new religion - Islam (from the word "submission").

In Mecca, this teaching met with opposition from the nobility, as a result of which Muhammad and his followers were forced to flee to Yathrib in 622. From this year Muslim chronology is conducted. Yathrib received the name of Medina, i.e. the city of the Prophet (so they began to call Muhammad). A Muslim community was founded here as a religious and military organization, which soon turned into a major military and political force and became the center of the unification of Arab tribes into a single state. Islam, with its preaching of the brotherhood of all Muslims, regardless of tribal division, was adopted primarily by ordinary people who suffered from the oppression of the tribal nobility and had long lost faith in the power of tribal gods who did not protect them from bloody tribal massacres, disasters and poverty. At first, the tribal nobility and wealthy merchants opposed Islam, but then recognized its benefits. Islam recognized slavery and protected private property. In addition, the creation of a strong state was in the interests of the nobility, it was possible to start external expansion.

In 630, an agreement was reached between the opposing forces, according to which Muhammad was recognized as the prophet and head of Arabia, and Islam as a new religion. By the end of 630, a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula recognized the authority of Muhammad, which meant the formation of an Arab state (caliphate). Thus, conditions were created for the unification of settled and nomadic Arab tribes, and the beginning of external expansion against neighbors who were mired in internal problems and did not expect the emergence of a new strong and united enemy.

After the death of Muhammad in 632, the system of government of caliphs (deputies of the prophet) was established. The first caliphs were the companions of the prophet and under them a wide external expansion began. By 640, the Arabs had conquered almost all of Palestine and Syria. At the same time, many cities were so tired of the repressions and tax oppression of the Romans (Byzantines) that they practically did not resist. Arabs in the first period were quite tolerant of other religions and foreigners. Thus, such major centers as Antioch, Damascus and others surrendered to the conquerors only on the condition of maintaining personal freedom, freedom for Christians and Jews of their religion. Soon the Arabs conquered Egypt and Iran. As a result of these and further conquests, a huge state was created. Further feudalization, accompanied by the growth of the power of large feudal lords in their possessions, and the weakening of the central government, led to the disintegration of the caliphate. The governors of the caliphs, the emirs, gradually achieved complete independence from the central government and turned into sovereign rulers.

The history of the Arab state is divided into three periods according to the name of the ruling dynasties or the location of the capital: 1) the Meccan period (622-661) is the time of the reign of Muhammad and his close associates; 2) Damascus (661-750) - the reign of the Umayyads; 3) Baghdad (750 - 1055) - the reign of the Abbasid dynasty. Abbas is the uncle of the Prophet Mohammed. His son Abdullah became the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, which, in the person of Abdullah's grandson, Abul-Abbas, took the throne of the Baghdad caliphs in 750.

Arab Caliphate under Harun

Reign of Harun al-Rashid

Harun al-Rashid was born in 763 and was the third son of Caliph al-Mahdi (775-785). His father was more inclined towards the pleasures of life than the affairs of state. The caliph was a great lover of poetry and music. It was during his reign that the image of the court of the Arab caliph began to take shape, glorious for its luxury, sophistication and high culture, which later became famous in the world according to the tales of the Thousand and One Nights.

In 785, the throne was taken by Musa al-Hadi, the son of Caliph al-Mahdi, the elder brother of Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. However, he ruled for only a little over a year. Apparently, he was poisoned by his own mother, Khayzuran. She supported the younger son Harun al-Rashid, as the eldest son tried to pursue an independent policy. With the accession to the throne of Harun ar-Rashid, Khayzuran became almost a sovereign ruler. Its main support was the Persian clan of the Barmakids.

Khalid of the Barmakid dynasty was an adviser to the Caliph al-Mahdi, and his son Yahya ibn Khalid was the head of the divan (government) of Prince Harun, who at that time was the governor of the west (of all the provinces west of the Euphrates) with Syria, Armenia and Azerbaijan. After the accession to the throne of Harun ar-Rashid Yahya (Yahya), Barmakid, whom the caliph called "father", was appointed vizier with unlimited powers and ruled the state for 17 years (786-803) with the help of his sons Fadl and Jafar. However, after the death of Khaizuran, the Barmakids clan began to gradually lose its former power. Freed from his mother's guardianship, the ambitious and cunning caliph sought to concentrate all power in his hands. At the same time, he tried to rely on such freedmen (mawali) who would not show independence, would be completely dependent on his will and, naturally, were completely devoted to him. In 803, Harun overthrew a powerful family. Ja'far was killed on the orders of the caliph. And Yahya with his other three sons was arrested, their estates were confiscated.

Thus, in the first years of his reign, Harun relied in everything on Yahya, whom he appointed as his vizier, as well as on his mother. The caliph was predominantly engaged in the arts, especially poetry and music. The court of Harun ar-Rashid was the center of traditional Arab arts, and about luxury court life there were legends. According to one of them, Harun's wedding alone cost the treasury 50 million dirhams.

The general situation in the caliphate gradually worsened. The Arab Empire began the path to its decline. The years of Harun's reign were marked by numerous unrest and rebellions that broke out in different areas of the empire.

The process of collapse began in the most remote, western regions empire since the establishment of the power of the Umayyads in Spain (Andalusia) in 756. Twice, in 788 and in 794, uprisings broke out in Egypt. The people were dissatisfied with the consequence of high taxes and numerous duties with which this richest province of the Arab Caliphate was burdened. She was obliged to supply the Abbasid army sent to Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) with everything necessary. The commander and governor of the Abbasids, Harsama ibn Ayan, brutally suppressed the uprisings and forced the Egyptians into obedience. The situation with the separatist aspirations of the Berber population of North Africa turned out to be more complicated. These areas were remote from the center of the empire, and because of the conditions of the terrain, it was difficult for the Abbasid army to cope with the rebels. In 789, the power of the local Idrisid dynasty was established in Morocco, and a year later, in Ifriqiya and Algeria, the Aghlabids. Harsama managed to suppress the rebellion of Abdallah ibn Jarud in Qairavan in 794-795. But in 797 an uprising broke out again in North Africa. Harun was forced to come to terms with the partial loss of power in this region and entrust the rule of Ifriqiya to the local emir Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab in exchange for an annual tribute of 40 thousand dinars.

Far from the centers of the empire, Yemen was also restless. The cruel policy of the governor Hammad al-Barbari led to an uprising in 795 under the leadership of Haytham al-Hamdani. The uprising lasted nine years and ended with the expulsion of its leaders to Baghdad and their execution. Syria, populated by recalcitrant, warring Arab tribes that were in favor of the Umayyads, was in a state of almost continuous rebellion. In 796, the situation in Syria turned out to be so serious that the caliph had to send an army into it, led by his favorite Jafar from the Barmakids. The government army managed to suppress the rebellion. It is possible that the unrest in Syria was one of the reasons for Harun's move from Baghdad to Raqqa on the Euphrates, where he spent most of his time and from where he went on campaigns against Byzantium and on a pilgrimage to Mecca.

In addition, Harun did not like the capital of the empire, he was afraid of the inhabitants of the city and preferred to appear in Baghdad not too often. Perhaps this was due to the fact that, when it came to court entertainment, the Caliph was very tight-fisted and merciless in collecting taxes, and therefore did not enjoy sympathy among the inhabitants of Baghdad and other cities. In 800, the Caliph specially came from his residence to Baghdad to collect arrears in the payment of taxes, and the arrears were mercilessly beaten and imprisoned.

In the east of the empire, the situation was also unstable. Moreover, the constant unrest in the east of the Arab Caliphate was associated not so much with economic prerequisites, but with the peculiarities of the cultural and religious traditions of the local population (mainly Persians-Iranians). The inhabitants of the eastern provinces were more attached to their own ancient beliefs and traditions than to Islam, and sometimes, as was the case in the provinces of Daylam and Tabaristan, they were completely alien to it. In addition, the conversion of the inhabitants of these provinces to Islam by the VIII century. has not yet been fully completed, and Harun personally engaged in Islamization in Tabaristan. As a result, the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants of the eastern provinces with the actions of the central government led to unrest.

Sometimes the locals advocated for the Alid dynasty. The Alids are the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, the husband of the daughter of the Prophet Fatima. They considered themselves the only legitimate successors of the prophet and claimed political power in the empire. According to the religious and political concept of the Shiites (the party of Ali's supporters), the supreme power (imamate), like a prophecy, is regarded as "divine grace." By virtue of the “divine decree”, the right to imamate belongs only to Ali and his descendants and must be inherited. From the point of view of the Shiites, the Abbasids were usurpers, and the Alids waged a constant struggle for power with them. So, in 792, one of the alids, Yahya ibn Abdallah, raised an uprising in Daylam and received support from local feudal lords. Harun sent al-Fadl to Daylam, who, with the help of diplomacy and promises of amnesty to the participants in the uprising, achieved the surrender of Yahya. Harun cunningly broke his word and found an excuse to cancel the amnesty and throw the leader of the rebels in prison.

Sometimes these were uprisings of the Kharijites, a religious and political group that separated itself from the main part of the Muslims. The Kharijites recognized only the first two caliphs as legitimate and advocated the equality of all Muslims (Arabs and non-Arabs) within the community. It was believed that the caliph should be elected and have only executive power, while the council (shura) should have judicial and legislative power. The Kharijites had a strong social base in Iraq, Iran, Arabia, and even North Africa. In addition, there were various Persian sects of radical directions.

The most dangerous for the unity of the empire during the time of Caliph Harun ar-Rashid were the actions of the Kharijites in the provinces of North Africa, North Mesopotamia and in Sijistan. The leader of the uprising in Mesopotamia, al-Walid ash-Shari, in 794 seized power in Nisibin, attracted the tribes of al-Jazira to his side. Harun had to send an army against the rebels, led by Iazid al-Shaybani, who managed to suppress the uprising. Another rebellion broke out in Sijistan. Its leader, Hamza ash-Shari, captured Harat in 795 and extended his power to the Iranian provinces of Kirman and Fars. Harun did not manage to cope with the Kharijites until the very end of his reign. In the last years of the VIII and at the beginning of the IX century. Khorasan and certain regions of Central Asia were also engulfed in unrest. 807-808 Khorasan actually ceased to obey Baghdad.

At the same time, Harun pursued a tough religious policy. He constantly emphasized the religious nature of his power and severely punished any manifestation of heresy. In relation to the Gentiles, Harun's policy was also distinguished by extreme intolerance. In 806 he ordered the destruction of all churches along the Byzantine frontier. In 807, Harun ordered the renewal of the ancient restrictions on dress and behavior for non-Christians. Gentiles had to gird themselves with ropes, cover their heads with quilted hats, wear shoes that were not the same as those worn by the faithful, ride not on horses, but on donkeys, etc.

Despite the constant internal rebellions, unrest, uprisings of disobedience of the emirs of certain regions, the Arab Caliphate continued the war with Byzantium. Border raids by Arab and Byzantine detachments took place almost annually, and Harun personally took part in many military expeditions. Under him, a special border area was allocated administratively with fortified city-fortresses, which played an important role in the wars of subsequent centuries. In 797, taking advantage of the internal problems of the Byzantine Empire and its war with the Bulgarians, Harun penetrated far into the depths of Byzantium with an army. Empress Irina, the regent of her young son (later an independent ruler), was forced to conclude a peace treaty with the Arabs. However, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros, who replaced her in 802, resumed hostilities. Harun sent his son Kasim with an army against Byzantium, and later personally led the campaign. In 803-806. The Arab army captured many cities and villages in Byzantium, including Hercules and Tiana. Attacked by the Bulgarians from the Balkans and defeated in the war with the Arabs, Nicephorus was forced to conclude a humiliating peace and pledged to pay tribute to Baghdad.

In addition, Harun drew attention to the Mediterranean Sea. In 805 the Arabs launched a successful sea campaign against Cyprus. And in 807, on the orders of Harun, the Arab commander Humaid raided the island of Rhodes.

The figure of Harun al-Rashid has been idealized in Arabic folklore. The opinions of contemporaries and researchers about his role are very different. Some believe that the reign of Caliph Harun ar-Rashid led to the economic and cultural flourishing of the Arab Empire and was the "golden age" of the Baghdad Caliphate. Harun is called a pious person. Others, on the contrary, criticize Harun, call him a dissolute and incompetent ruler. It is believed that everything useful in the empire was done under the Barmakids. The historian al-Masudi wrote that "the prosperity of the empire declined after the fall of the Barmakids, and everyone was convinced how imperfect the actions and decisions of Harun al-Rashid were and how bad his rule was."

The last period of Harun's reign does not really testify to his foresight, and some of his decisions eventually contributed to the strengthening of internal confrontation and the subsequent collapse of the empire. So, at the end of his life, Harun made a big mistake when he divided the empire between heirs, sons from different wives - Mamun and Amin. This led after Harun's death to civil war, during which the central provinces of the Caliphate and especially Baghdad suffered greatly. Caliphate ceased to be single state, dynasties of local large feudal lords began to arise in different areas, only nominally recognizing the power of the “commander of the faithful”.

On the planet, she has a very interesting story filled with bright events and facts. Many experts believe that the once powerful and influential Arab Caliphate owes its appearance to the successful work of the Prophet, who managed to unite a large number of previously disparate tribes in a single faith. The best period of this theocratic state can be considered the decades when the righteous caliphs were at the head. All of them were the closest associates and followers of Muhammad, who were related to him by blood. This period of formation and development of the caliphate is considered by historians to be the most interesting, often it is even called the “golden era”. Today we will talk in detail about all four righteous caliphs and their most significant achievements at the head of the Muslim community.

The concept of "caliphate": a brief description

At the beginning of the seventh century, the Prophet created a small community of fellow believers, spread over the territory of Western Arabia. It was called umma. Initially, no one imagined that thanks to the military campaigns and conquests of the Muslims, it would noticeably expand its borders and become one of the most powerful associations for several centuries.

The words "caliphate" and "caliph" in Arabic mean about the same thing - "heir". All rulers were considered the successors of the Prophet himself and were very revered among ordinary Muslims.

Among historians, the period of the existence of the Arab Caliphate is usually called the "golden age of Islam", and the first thirty years after the death of Muhammad were the era of the righteous caliphs, which we will tell readers about today. After all, it was these people who did a lot to strengthen the position of Islam and the Muslim state.

Righteous caliphs: names and dates of reign

The first caliphs accepted Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet. They were well aware of all the nuances of life in the community, because they always helped Muhammad in managing the Ummah and were directly involved in military campaigns.

The four righteous caliphs were so respected by the people during their lifetime and after death that later a special title was coined for them, literally meaning "walking the righteous path." This phrase fully reflects the attitude of Muslims towards their first rulers. Further caliphs of this title were not awarded, as they did not always come to power in an honest way and were not close relatives of the Prophet.

By year of reign, the list of caliphs is as follows:

Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (632-634).
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Farouk (634-644).
Usman ibn Affan (644-656).
Ali ibn Abu Talib (656-661).

During his reign as a caliphate, each of the Muslims listed above did everything possible for the prosperity of the state. Therefore, I would like to tell you more about them.

The first righteous caliph: the path to the heights of power

Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was one of the first who believed the Prophet with all his heart and followed him. Before meeting Muhammad, he lived in Mecca and was quite rich. His main activity was trade, which he continued to engage in after the adoption of Islam.

Even in Mecca, he began active work on the development of the Muslim community. The righteous caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq spent huge sums of money on this and was engaged in the ransom of slaves. It is noteworthy that each of the slaves received freedom, but in exchange he had to become orthodox. We think it is not necessary to say that this deal was very beneficial for the slaves. Therefore, the number of Muslims in Mecca grew rapidly.

After the Prophet decided to move to Medina, the future caliph followed him and even accompanied Muhammad when he hid in a cave from sent assassins.

Later, the Prophet married the daughter of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, which made them blood relatives. After that, he went on military campaigns with Muhammad more than once, performed Friday prayers and led pilgrims.

In the year 632, the Prophet died without heirs and without appointing a new successor, and the Muslim community faced the choice of a new leader.

The reign of Abu Bakr

The companions of Muhammad could not agree on the candidacy of the caliph, and only after they remembered the numerous merits of Abu Bakr before the Muslim community, the choice was made.

It is worth noting that the righteous caliph was a very kind and absolutely not conceited person, therefore he attracted other followers of the Prophet to the management, distributing the circle of duties between them.

Abu Bakr al-Siddiq came to power at a very difficult time. After the death of Muhammad, many people and tribes turned away from Islam, who felt that now they could return to their former lives. They tore up their treaty obligations to the caliphate and stopped paying taxes.

For twelve years, Abu Bakr took action to maintain and expand the boundaries of the Caliphate. Under him, a regular army was formed, which managed to advance to the borders of Iran. At the same time, the caliph himself always admonished his soldiers, forbidding them to kill women, babies and the elderly, as well as to mock enemies.

In the thirty-fourth year of the seventh century, the army of the caliphate began to conquer Syria, but the ruler of the state at that time was dying. In order to prevent conflicts in the caliphate, he himself chose a successor among his closest associates.

Second caliph

Umar ibn ruled the Muslim country for ten years. Initially, he was very skeptical against Islam, but one day he happened to read a sura, and he became interested in the personality of the Prophet. After meeting him, he was imbued with faith and was ready to follow Muhammad to anywhere in the world.

Contemporaries of the second righteous caliph wrote that he was distinguished by incredible courage, honesty and disinterestedness. He was also very humble and pious. Very large sums of money passed through his hands as the Prophet's chief adviser, yet he never succumbed to the temptation to get rich.

Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Farouk often took part in military battles and even married his beloved daughter to Muhammad. Therefore, it is not surprising that on his deathbed, the first caliph named Umar as his successor.

Achievements of Umar ibn al-Khattab

The second righteous caliph did a lot for the development of the administrative system of the Muslim state. He created a list of individuals who received an annual allowance from the state. This register included the companions of the Prophet, warriors and members of their families.

Umar also laid the foundations of the tax system. Interestingly, it concerned not only monetary payments, but also regulated relations between different citizens of the caliphate. For example, Christians did not have the right to build their dwellings higher than Muslim houses, have weapons and publicly display their creeds. Naturally, the faithful paid taxes in a smaller amount than the conquered peoples.

The merits of the second caliph include the introduction new system calculus, the legal system and the construction of military camps in the conquered territories in order to prevent uprisings.

Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk paid great attention to construction. He managed to fix the rules of urban planning at the legislative level. The example of Byzantium was taken as a basis, and most of the cities of that time were distinguished by slender and wide streets with beautiful houses.

During the ten years of his reign, the caliph laid the foundations of national and religious unity. He was merciless to his enemies, but at the same time he was remembered as a just and active ruler. Many historians believe that it was during this period of time that Islam declared itself as a strong and fully formed religious movement.

Third ruler of the Caliphate

During his lifetime, Umar created a council of six of his closest associates. It was they who had to choose a new ruler of the state, who would continue the victorious march of Islam.

They became Usman ibn Affan, who had been in power for about twelve years. The third righteous caliph was not as active as his predecessor, but he belonged to a very ancient and noble family.

Uthman's family converted to Islam even before the Prophet moved to Medina. But relations between the aristocratic family and Muhammad were rather tense. Despite this, Usman ibn Affan would have been married to the daughter of the Prophet, and after her death he received an offer to marry his other daughter.

Many believe that Uthman's numerous connections made it possible to spread and strengthen Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. The future caliph knew many noble families and thanks to his active work, Islam was accepted by a large number of people.

This strengthened the position of the then small community and gave a powerful impetus to the creation of a religious state.

Reign of Caliph Uthman

Briefly describing these years, we can say that the third Caliph deviated from the principles that his predecessors adhered to. He put family ties above all else, thus throwing the caliphate back in the days of the proto-state.

Uthman's relatives and close associates had a penchant for acquisitiveness and sought to enrich themselves at the expense of other residents of the Caliphate. Naturally, this led to increased material inequality and unrest.

Surprisingly, during this difficult period, the boundaries of the Caliphate continued to expand. This was facilitated by military conquests, but it was extremely difficult to keep the conquered peoples in obedience to the caliph.

As a result, this led to an uprising, as a result of which the caliph was killed. After his death, a bloody period of civil strife began in the state.

Fourth Caliph

The Righteous Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib, who became the fourth ruler of the "golden era", belonged to very unusual people. Of the entire galaxy of caliphs, he was the only blood relative of Muhammad. He was his cousin and the second person to convert to Islam.

It so happened that Ali and the Prophet were brought up together. Therefore, it is not surprising that the caliph married the daughter of Muhammad. Later, from their union, two boys were born, to whom the Prophet was very attached. He had long conversations with his grandchildren and was a frequent visitor to his daughter's family.

Ali often took part in military campaigns and was distinguished by simply legendary courage. However, until his election as caliph, he did not hold important government posts.

Ali ibn Abu Talib as caliph: an assessment of historians

Ali's personality seems to be extremely controversial to experts. On the one hand, he did not possess organizational skills, political talents and a flexible mind. It was under him that the prerequisites for the collapse of the caliphate were outlined, and the Muslims were divided into Shiites and Sunnis. However, no one can deny his fanatical devotion to the cause of Muhammad and loyalty to the chosen path. In addition, untimely death elevated him to the rank of a martyr. Many feats and deeds worthy of a saint are attributed to him.

Based on the foregoing, historians conclude that Ali turned out to be a true Muslim, but he could not contain the separatist mood in the caliphate.