Pendleton R.L. Geography of Thailand. Abbreviated translation from English IN AND. Iskoldsky. M: Progress, 1966. Chapters 1-3 - physical geography essay.
Chapter I
Relief and geological structure
PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
Between the plains of Assam in the west and Sichuan in the east, where the mountain ranges of Southeast Asia converge in a tight knot, rises the Minya Konka massif, exceeding 20,000 feet. To the south, the massif descends, and four mountain systems branch off from it, like giant tentacles: the Arakan-Yoma mountains, stretching along the western outskirts of Burma, the Central Cordillera - on the Malay Peninsula, the Annam Cordillera and the mountains of South China. Between these mountain systems are three lowlands. The westernmost of them covers the Irrawaddy River basin, the easternmost one adjoins the Gulf of Tonkin and the plains of southern Bacbo (Northern Vietnam). Between them lies, in general terms, similar to the first two lowlands, but wider and deeper depression, bounded on one side by the Annam, and on the other by the Central Cordillera. Here are two of the most important physical and geographical regions of Thailand - the alluvial plain of Chaoprayi (Menam) and the vast Korat plateau.
The lower part of the Chao Phraya Basin, or the vast Central Valley of Thailand, includes the Bangkok Plain, which lies only slightly above sea level, washed by the waters of the Gulf of Thailand. It is adjoined on the east by the region of the Korat Plateau, the average height of which does not exceed 300-500 feet. The mountain ranges rising in the west and east of the Bangkok Plain merge in the north of Thailand and, gradually rising, connect with the mountainous region of Yunnan. The Central Cordillera, or the Western Mountains of Thailand, bordering the Central Valley in the west, stretches to the south of the Peninsula and ends in the territory of the Malaysian Federation.
Despite the variety of landforms in Thailand, in general they can be divided into three types: highlands, plains with a thin cover of sediment on a rocky base, and alluvial lowlands. The highlands stretch along the western outlying regions of the country and occupy a significant part of the territory in the north. To the south of the Peninsula, the mountains stretch out in echelon chains, with their number increasing in the southeast. In most of the Korat Plateau, bedrock is overlain by a thin layer of alluvium. The central valley is composed of alluvium accumulating in the delta. Similar sediments cover a narrow strip of plain that runs along the entire coast of the Peninsula, and in the southeast extends between the sea and the mountains.
There are five physical-geographic regions in Thailand:
1) the Central Valley, subdivided into the Bangkok Plain, the Upper Plain and the Marginal Plains;
2) Continental highlands, including the region of the Northern mountains and valleys and the Western mountains;
3) Korat plateau;
4) South East Coast and
5) Peninsula with East and West coasts.
CENTRAL VALLEY
The region of the vast Central Valley of Thailand is formed by the alluvial plains of the Chao Phraya, its tributaries and branches, as well as the foothill belt adjacent to them. The soils of the Central Plain are easily cultivated, a significant part of the population and agricultural land is concentrated here, and there is a well-developed transport network. Without a doubt, the Central Valley is the heart of Thailand.
From the mountains of Northern Thailand to the Gulf of Thailand, the Central Valley stretches for about 300 miles. From west to east it extends for 100-150 miles, and to the south its width increases. According to natural and cultural features, three sub-regions can be distinguished in the Central Valley.
Bangkok plain
The Bangkok Plain begins north of Nakhon Sawan, where the Ping and Nan rivers merge to form the Chao Phraya. Near Ayutthaya, the Pasak River enters the Bangkok plain, originating on the western slopes of the mountains that stretch along the outskirts of the Korat plateau. The Bangkok Plain is also drained by two other rivers, the Meklon-gom and the Prachinburi (Ban Pakong). The average width of the plain is about 75 miles, the length is about 200 miles, the total area is 11,950 square meters. miles.
The true Chaopraya Delta begins near Wat Sing (approximately 15°15′ N), where the river begins to branch into branches.
Above Wat Sing, individual low hills and mountains approach the very shore. To the east of this point rises Khao Baoklam, a remnant hill about 800 feet above sea level. To the south, the hills move farther and farther away from the rivers. Near Wat Sing, 125 miles from the sea, a wide branch of the Nakon Chaisi (Supan-buri, or Tachin) separates from Chaopraya, independently flowing into the Gulf of Thailand. This branch, much less full-flowing than the main branch of the Chao Phraya, flows south without forming additional tributaries. Meanwhile, another branch soon separates from the main channel of the Chaopraya below Wat Sing - Noi ("small river"), and then somewhat to the south - Lopburi, whose waters flow to the east and into which the Pasak River flows. Both branches - both Noi and Lopburi - then return to the main channel of the Chaopraya.
Physiographic regions
The Bangkok Plain is the only typical alluvial plain in Thailand, formed as a result of the accumulation of river sediments. The deposits cover the erosive surface with a thick layer, and every year the mature delta plain is covered with new thick layers of silt. This truly alluvial plain, which is 60 miles wide at the coast of the bay between the mouths of the Prachinburi and Meklong, extends 85 miles inland. The plain continuously advances on the sea as large rivers fill the Gulf of Thailand with their sediments. Seaward, the delta grows at 15 to 20 feet per year. It is obvious that the process of accumulation of precipitation has been going on here for a long time. About a mile from the modern coastline stretches a flat sand bar of several rows of sand ridges, washed by the surf during the summer southwest monsoon blowing from the sea. The material with which these ridges are composed is carried into the bay by large rivers, the speed of which is especially high at low tide. The surf washed up several successive bars, and behind each of them well-protected lagoons were formed, where fresh river water mixes with sea from the bay. In the lagoons, finer clastic material is deposited, gradually filling them. Elongated sandy ridges, interspersed with stripes of water, stretch parallel to the coast south of Chonburi, as well as along the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, north of Sonkla and east of Chumpon. On the Bangkok plain itself, sandy ridges and lagoons are already covered by sandy deposits, but can be traced during excavations.
Inland, the level of the plain gradually rises. The streets of Bangkok (20 miles from the coast of the gulf) rise only about 6 feet above the level of the Gulf of Thailand; at Ayutthaya (60 miles from the coast) the plain rises to 13 feet, and at Paknampo (150 miles from the coast) it rises to 77 feet above sea level. The very gradual rise in the level of the Bangkok Plain (1:10,000) contributes to the fact that it is all flooded with flood waters. Up to Ayutthaya, the influence of the tides greatly affects the water level in the rivers and their tributaries.
Soil samples taken during drilling showed that the alluvial strata consist of alternating layers of silt, sand and clay. When drilling to a depth of 400 feet, the bedrock was not exposed. This plain of purely accumulative origin was formed in a distinctly pronounced synclinal depression, which extends in the meridional direction and is a continuation of the Gulf of Thailand.
Low hills rise to the very edges of the plain, behind which steep mountains rise at a short distance. To the east of the plain, near Kengkoy, the first limestone mountains appear. A railroad runs along this hilly foothill, leading to the Korat Plateau. Limestones extend to Puttabat and Lopburi. To the west of the plain, near the right bank of the Supanburi River, low hills stretch, separated by wide erosional plains lined with young sediments. Every year during high water, numerous rivers and streams cover the plain with a new layer of silt. At least once a year, most often in October-November, if the heavy rainfall that began in September does not stop, almost the entire Bangkok plain is hidden under water, turning into a huge freshwater lake, above the surface of which the trunks of sugar palms rise here and there. , scattered among the fields, and occasionally, like islands, the piled buildings of villages rise, surrounded by coconut and areca palms or groves of bamboo.
Upper Plain and Marginal Plains
A narrow belt of foothills borders the Bangkok Plain in the north, west and east. The monotony of the plain along its edges is broken by numerous rock outcrops, low hills and mountains, which indicates the insignificant thickness of the deposits overlying the bedrock. A significant part of the region surrounding the plain was formed as a result of movements earth's crust. The Marginal and Upper Plains can be attributed only to the part where low-lying relief with alluvial deposits prevails. This may also include the coast of the Gulf of Thailand, especially the area south of Petburi.
The marginal plains stretch in a narrow strip along the western side of the Bangkok plain up to the bay, capturing the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. West of Supanburi and Maeklong, this area extends for about 35 miles, adjoining the Cordillera Central. In the east, the Marginal Plains include most of the valleys of the upper Supanburi and its tributaries.
To the north and northeast of the Bangkok Plain, the marginal zone includes a narrow, elongated valley of the Pasak River and a large triangle formed by the valleys of the Ping, Yom, and Nan rivers. Together they belong to the Upper Plain (Central Valley region).
Each of these regions is characterized by the presence of three interrelated landforms: narrow alluvial plains stretched along rivers; low uplifts, due to the outcrop of bedrocks of the hilly foothills, cutting here and there alluvial strata on the plains, and more significant elevations in the form of individual mountains and mountain ranges.
In the western part of the Marginal and Upper Plains, as well as in the interior of the Malay Peninsula, individual mountains or groups of mountains are found on the plain. In their structure, they resemble remnants, but many geologists who have conducted research on the Peninsula consider them to be ancient islands, the steep slopes of which have been worked out by marine abrasion. Such steeply rising mountains above the plains are usually composed of Permo-Carboniferous limestones. The mountains, composed of granites and quartzites, have more gentle slopes, but they are often scattered across the alluvial plain in the form of remnants. This area is also very typical of numerous isolated hills and mountain ranges, rising along the outskirts of closed mountain ranges. Limestones that have undergone recrystallization and have risen above the level of the plain are characterized by great resistance to weathering.
On the slopes of hills at different heights, there are voids associated with the dissolution of limestone in the form of funnels and channels. They testify to activity. groundwater in those days when these remnant mountains were part of the limestone massifs that have now disappeared.
Alluvial deposits on the plains surrounding the mountains overlap an almost horizontal limestone surface, dotted with sharp thin peaks, between which deep narrow gaps have formed. Such buried surfaces with peaked peaks formed as a result of weathering were discovered during the mining of tin ores on the Peninsula. But no evidence of the destructive activity of the sea, and the remains of marine fauna in the rocks of the peaked hills were found. The sedimentary deposits of these places are no different from those that are found at different levels hundreds of miles from the coast, inland. The sharp contrast between the plain and the sheer limestone outcrops is entirely due to subaerial processes.
CONTINENTAL HIGHLANDS
The Continental Highlands comprise all of the mountainous country north, northwest, and west of the Central Valley, all the way to the borders of Burma and Laos. This region can be divided into two sub-regions:
1) Northern mountains and valleys, or Northern Thailand, including all the territory north of the Central Valley, starting from 18 ° N. sh., that is, from Mekhongson to the province (changwata) of Nan, and
2) Western mountains, that is, the entire territory to the west of the Central Valley, south of 18 ° N. sh., including the provinces of Tak, Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi, as well as the western parts of several provinces of the Central Valley.
Northern mountains and valleys, or Northern Thailand
This subregion consists of mountain ranges running parallel to each other, which are separated by the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan rivers flowing south into the Chao Phraya. These rivers, forming deep bends, flow through elongated basins with a leveled bottom. The basins are separated by gorges, which suggests that the runoff system developed on the ancient leveling surface. The basins located north of the Pipannam watershed are wide and often swampy. They are drained by rivers flowing north and flowing into the Mekong.
Numerous intermountain basins are located at different heights. In the east, in the basin of the Nan River, starting from its source, the largest basins are: Muangle (1000 feet above sea level), Muangpua (750 feet), Muangrim (700 feet) and the wider Muangnan Basin (650 feet), extending in the meridional direction for more than 20 miles. In the basin of the Yom River, which flows west of Nan, are the basins of Banoi, Muangpong (1150 feet), Muang Ngao (950 feet) and Muang Pre (525 feet). There are a number of basins in the basin of the Vang River, but above Lampang the valley of this river expands slightly, and there are only a few towns and trading settlements. In the basin of the Ping and its tributaries are the Chieng Dao Basin, the Muang Prao Basin, and the larger Chieng Mai Basin (1,000 feet above sea level).
Along the rivers flowing north into the Mekong are the intermountain basins of Muangpan, Muangpayao (about 1500 feet), Muangtheng (1150 feet), Chiengkam in the Ing river basin, as well as the Muangfang basin (1475 feet) and Chien Rai (1150 feet) in the river basin Mecoc.
Physiographic regions
In all these basins, the bedrock occurs close to the alluvium-lined surface and is often exposed in stream beds. The shallow occurrence of bedrock is also confirmed by numerous low hills scattered not only along the outskirts, but also in the middle of the plain. On some alluvial plains, stony rapids have formed at the outcrops of bedrock. Obviously, stable rocks protect such plains from erosion and are the local basis for erosion.
The mountainous relief of Northern Thailand develops under the influence of two different bases of erosion. For the northernmost part of the area, the erosion base is the Mekong, while in the south it is the Chao Phraya drainage basin.
In the north, two main tributaries flow into the Mekong. The first of these is the Mekok, whose sources lie to the north, in the territory of the Shan principalities (Burma), where it cuts through the Denlao ridge. Not far from the crossing of the Thai border, the Fang River flows into the Mekok on the right side, and below the city of Chien Rai - Lao. In the Fang Basin is the particularly large Muangfang Basin, which stretches from north to south for almost 30 miles. The second of the major tributaries of the Mekong, the Ing, flows first south through the wide valleys of the Muangpan and Banmechai, then into eastbound- through the Muangpayao valley and finally turns north towards the Mekong through the Muangsan and Teng valleys. Each of these rivers has its own characteristics: they flow along wide
valleys, forming meanders, then along narrow deep gorges. The Mekong serves as the basis for the erosion of the Mekok and Inga river systems. Between the rivers that flow into the Mekong rise hard-to-reach mountain ranges, the peaks of which often exceed 5,000 feet, and sometimes 6,000 feet. One of the peaks west of the Fang River, near the border with Burma, reaches 7532 feet.
Most of the Northern Mountains and Valleys subregion is irrigated by the four main tributaries of the Chao Phraya and the rivers that flow into them. These are Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan. Between the systems of valleys with their intermountain basins, mountain ranges stretch, as a rule, in a meridional direction. A high, continuous ridge, reaching 6,601 feet northeast of Chieng Mai, separates the Wang and Ping basins. The same ridge separates the basin of the Ping and its tributary, the Chema. The main peak of this range, Doi Inthanon (8542 feet), is the highest mountain in Thailand. To the east - in the Vanga and Yoma basins - the height of the mountains decreases. There are no endless mountain ranges composed of stable granites, and even the highest peaks are composed of Permian Carboniferous limestones. The limestone peaks, characterized by the steepness of their slopes, dominate other uplifts composed of less hard rocks. These formidable peaks rarely exceed 3,500 feet. A typical example of such peaks is Mount Kaopadung east of Pre, 3556 feet high.
The whole mountainous country of the Chaopraya basin with wedged intermountain valleys is called Pipannam, which means "the spirit of a thousand rivers."
Even further east along the watershed between the Nan and Mekong rivers, significant elevations reappear. The peaks northeast of Muangnan reach 5500 feet. The ridge on the border between Thailand and Laos exceeds 6500 feet. Its highest peak reaches 7546 feet. There is not a single intermountain basin in the northeastern part of the subregion under consideration. This is a young mountainous landscape with sharply defined landforms, in which larger streams cut narrow, steep-sided gorges from 1300 to 1475 feet deep.
Compared with the well-explored complex of the Cordillera Central, whose echelon chains reach far south of the Malay Peninsula, the mountain ranges of Northern Thailand are much less studied. Northern Thailand forms part of the Salween drainage basin. The sub-area under consideration is mainly included in the province of Mae Hong Son and includes the valleys of the Meprai, Yuam, Taungyin rivers, small tributaries of the Salween. Part of the border with Burma runs along the Taungyin River and the Salween. The valleys of these rivers, cutting into the Central Cordillera, are usually narrow, with steep slopes. Intermontane basins do not occur. This site is more or less isolated from the rest of Northern Thailand.
Western mountains
This area includes a sparsely populated strip of the Central Cordillera along the border with Burma, west of the Chao Phraya valley, and extends approximately between 12° and 18° N. sh. There are many high dissected mountains, in which turbulent streams have cut deep canyons and narrow valleys. The Tanon-Thongchai range extending from the region of the Northern mountains and valleys ends at approximately 16°N. sh., branching into three almost parallel chains. The westernmost of them - Tanaosi, or Tenas-serim - begins at the Three Pagoda Pass (15 ° 18 ′ N), on the border with Burma, and stretches along the western border of Thailand, up to the Malay Peninsula. The second chain of bare limestone cliffs - the Meklong Mountains - stretches between the valleys of the Kwenoy and Kweyay rivers. The third chain separates Kweyai from the Central Valley. Its peaks sometimes exceed 5,000 feet, less often 6,000 feet.
AT Western mountains ah, some tributaries of the Chaopraya, Salween and Mekong originate. Mountain rivers, as a rule, flow through steep gorges or valleys squeezed by mountains, the width of which rarely exceeds one to a mile and a half. The only exception is the Mesot Basin, a significant extension of the Moya Valley, a tributary of the Salwen. The other two major rivers of the Western Mountains, the Kwenoi and Kweyai, merge at Kanchanaburi in the Central Valley to form the Maeklong River.
The Maeklong Mountains clearly demonstrate the morphological relationship between the Western Mountains and their eastern foothills, which form the marginal zone of the Central Valley. Where the rivers Kveyay and Kvenoy merge, the mountains completely disappear; here the highlands recede before the expanding plains of purely alluvial origin. On these plains, the strike of mountain ranges and individual mountains of the remnant type follows the lines of tectonic folds. Upstream of the Kveyay and Kvenoy rivers, the alluvial plains narrow. The valley of the river Kveyay is wider than the valley of Kvenoya and has a large slope. This difference is due to the fact that the Tanaoshi range rises to the west, where its highest peak reaches 4300 feet. In the Meklong Mountains between Sisawat and Sanklaburi, a section of an ancient leveled surface with slight elevations has been preserved. The older and more mature mid-mountain country at 2,000 feet is surrounded by mountains 3,000 feet high, composed mostly of limestone.
Farther west, in the shale zone of Tanaosi and other mountain systems, along the border with Burma, no ancient mature relief has been found. There are no permeable limestones here either. The western slopes of the range, exposed to the heavy rainfall southwest monsoons, are heavily eroded and denuded. In addition, the full-flowing tributaries of the Kvenoy, flowing from steep slopes, are characterized by vigorous incision of their channels in the upper reaches. As a result, only young landforms and rows of high peaks are found in the most elevated parts of the range, which is a typical feature of the mountains located along the border with Burma.
KOPAT
The Korata region is a low saucer-shaped plateau with an area of 60 thousand square meters. miles drained by rivers flowing southeast. There are many lakes in the north of the region, in the south - areas flooded during the rainy season. From the north and east, Korat is bounded by the Mekong River and the mountains of Laos, from the west by the mountains of Petchabun and Dong Prayen, and from the south by the Sankampeng and Dong Rek ledges. The undulating surface of the inner part of the Korat plateau is dotted with low hills and small lakes. During the rainy season, significant areas are flooded here, but in the dry season this region suffers from a lack of moisture. The soil horizon is insignificant almost everywhere, the soils are poor.
The northern and western fringes of the plateau reach a height of 400-700 feet, while Ubon, located in the southeastern part of Korat, is located at a level barely exceeding 200 feet. Most of the area is at an altitude of 300-650 feet above sea level. In the north and east of Korat, a group of hills rises above the plain, several hundred feet high, and near the Mekong, the height of several flat-topped mountains exceeds 1600 feet.
Almost all of the Korat is drained by a single river system, the Nammun River, which flows into the Mekong. Only on the northern and eastern outskirts of Korat there are several small rivers flowing into the Mekong. The rivers of the area under consideration usually flow in wide flat valleys, but their channels are usually strongly incised. During the rainy season, the rivers quickly overflow and flood wide floodplains. Due to the low relief, the decline in water is very slow, and therefore the lowest parts of the plateau are unsuitable for growing rice. In the lower reaches of the rivers flowing into the Mekong, floods occur annually. The flood waters of the Mekong itself inundate the lower reaches of its tributaries, mostly in the northeast of Korat, forming chains of lakes. The emergence of such lakes is explained by the damming of tributaries by silt, which precipitates with a decrease in the flow velocity. Every year during the dry period, these lakes almost dry up and refill with water during the Mekong summer flood.
Numerous flat swamps are typical for the surface of the Korat. Their origin is apparently associated with the dissolution of salt lenses, which are believed to occur in the red sandstone. Otherwise, it would be difficult to explain the high salinity of Korat soils, especially around such reservoirs. Groundwater rising during the summer rains dissolves salt and carries it to the upper horizons. Thus, during the dry period, accumulations of salts appear on the surface due to evaporation and the rise of soil moisture through capillaries from the lower horizons. Salt crusts develop on the surface in many places.
The marginal regions of Korat are of particular interest to geomorphologists. In the west and south of the region, a mountainous zone 20-25 miles wide stretches to a considerable height. On the western edge of the plateau, the summit of Kaopangey (15°38'N) rises to 3,000 feet, while the floor of the Pasak River valley at the foot of this summit on the west lies only about 300 feet above sea level. In the southwest corner of the plateau, at the junction of the western and southern escarpments, Mount Kaolem rises 4,300 feet and Mount Kaokampeng rises to more than 3,300 feet. Farther east, along the ledge that separates the Korat from the plains of Cambodia, the height of the plateau reaches 2,300 feet, and the Pupasak Mountains on the left bank of the Mekong below the mouth of the Nammun River, 4,600 feet.
SOUTH EAST COAST
This area covers the provinces of Trat, Chanthaburi, Rayong and South Chonburi. In the north it reaches the hills and mountains stretching along the southern edge of the Prachinburi (Ban Pakong) river valley, in the west and south it reaches the Gulf of Thailand and in the east it reaches the flat-topped hills of the Bantat ridge, along which the border between Thailand and Cambodia passes. The region of the South-Eastern coast includes an intensely dissected upland - in the north and in the central part, as well as a coastal plain in the south and west. Numerous rivers in this area flow mainly to the south. The main rivers are Chanthaburi, Prase, Ven and Trat. A number of mountain peaks in the area range in height from 2,500 to 5,000 feet.
The heavily indented coast of the bay is bordered by rocky islands overgrown with forests. Sichang Island, located in the north-east of the bay, opposite the port of Si Racha, forms a natural closed anchorage for large ships that cannot overcome the bar at the mouth of the Chaophraya. The largest island off the coast is Chang Island. It lies between Chanthaburi and Trat. Its area is about 70 sq. miles, and the summit rises nearly 3,000 feet. To the southeast of it is another large hilly island - Kut. Near the silty estuaries of the Prase and Ven rivers, there are many mangrove swamps. White sand beaches stretch along the coast.
Two main tectonic structures can be clearly seen in this area. One extends in a meridional direction along the coast facing Bangkok Bay (to the north of Cape Lant), parallel to the depression in the Chaopraya valley, the western fault of the Korat plateau and the strike of the Central Cordillera chain. The other, extending from the northwest to the southeast, along the coast facing southwest, is more or less parallel to the fold system of the southwestern extremity of Korat and Cambodia. From the southeast to the northwest stretch the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, whose peaks reach 3300-4500 feet, as well as the Bantat Range, which now separates the territories of Cambodia and Thailand, and the Chanthaburi Mountains, reaching 5400 feet in height.
In many places, both individual mountains and ranges reflect the geological structure of the area. In the Chanthaburi region, relatively high peaks such as Khao Saban and Khao Krat are granite batholiths. To the west of these mountains stretches a wide plain, on which, like islands, individual hills rise. The structure of the Khao Saban and Khao Krat mountains indicates that here the granites are covered by sedimentary deposits. The most characteristic structural feature of this zone is a low anticline with granite cores. The alluvial plain east of Rayong is broken by highlands, the highest of which, Khao Kyu, reaches 2,300 feet. The peak, visible for many miles, serves as a coastal landmark for ships crossing the interior of the Gulf of Thailand; it is also one of the places of interest visited by tourists when traveling to Sichang Island. As a result of the subsidence of the coast, numerous coastal islands are the heights of the flooded strip. In their structure, they resemble the continental uplands of this region.
PENINSULA
The peninsular part of Thailand lies south of 12°50′ N. sh. The length of the crescent-shaped coastline from this parallel to the Malay border is almost 600 miles by air. The width of the Peninsula ranges from 10 to 135 miles. Plains form the coastal zone of the Peninsula, and its axial part is represented by mountains - a series of echelon-shaped mountain ranges and their branches. Between the mountains are small, heavily dissected plains or valleys. According to the features of the relief, climate, as well as to ethnic composition The population and economy of the Peninsula's East Coast sub-district is very different from that of the West Coast.
For their comparison, both subareas are considered together.
Along the western edge of the Peninsula stretches the Tanaoshi Range (Tenas-serim), starting in the Western Mountains. The border between Burma and Thailand runs along this ridge. South of Prachuap Kirikan, where the width of the Peninsula in its Thai part is less than 20 miles, the Tanaosi range breaks abruptly into a narrow coastal plain. However, almost immediately the next ridge begins (perhaps this is a continuation of the Tanaoshi ridge), extending in the direction from north-northeast to south-southwest. The ridge reaches its greatest height in the north (4040 feet), but south of the ridge falls - in the vicinity of Chumpon it barely reaches 300 feet. The basin of the river Kra, or Pakchan, the ridge is divided into two branches; western - Burmese and eastern - Thai. The eastern branch, the so-called Phuket Range, runs south from the Kra Isthmus and continues into Phuket Island. This range is replete with granite batholiths, many of which exceed 3,300 feet. Rich placer deposits of tin have been discovered here. This is the most important tin mining area in Thailand.
East of the Phuket Ridge at approximately 8°20'N. sh. the second ridge of the Peninsula originates. It extends south from Khao Panom Bencha, 4583 feet high, through the province of Krabi, ending at Koh Lanta with a peak reaching 1614 feet.
The eastern, main ridge of the Peninsula begins at Tao Island, off the East Coast, at 10°05′N. sh. Continuing on the islands of Koh Phangan and Samui, it reaches the coast of the Peninsula east of Bandon and stretches along it until the territory of Malaya. It is commonly referred to as the Nakhon Srithamarat Range. The northern part of this granite range is especially high. The peaks on Koh Phangan and Koh Samui reach 2057 and 2086 feet respectively. The summit southeast of Bandon reaches 4,396 feet, while the majestic Mount Khaoluang, west of Nakhon Srithamarat, reaches 5,860 feet. As in the high part of the Phuket Range, the main alluvial deposits of tin are concentrated in these mountains. Most of the peaks in the southern part of the range do not reach 3300 feet, and in places the range disappears completely under the sediments of the alluvial plains. Its southern tip is a chain of separate low ridges and peaks. The southernmost peaks of the range reach heights of 2000-2300 feet.
Between the ridges of Nakhon-Sritamarat and Phuket there are lowlands with separate hills. One of them, Khao Panom Bencha, reaches an altitude of 4500 feet, but most are much lower.
To the east of the southern part of the Nakhon-Sritamarat ridge, three parallel ridges stretch in the meridional direction. The fourth, separated by a wide alluvial plain in the Sonkla region, crosses the Thai border and continues into the territory of Kedah in Malaya. The fifth, the Pattani Ridge, lies further east. Its southern part separates the territory of Kedah (Federation of Malaysia) and the province of Pattani. Farther east is the sixth range, sometimes referred to as the Taluban Range, after a river in southern Pattani Province. This is the main range of Malaya. It stretches south towards Malacca and reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet. Several peaks in the ranges of southern Thailand - Pattani and Taluban - rise almost 5,000 feet.
Along the saddle of the ridge on the Thai-Burmese border runs an ancient trade route along the Peninsula, through the isthmus of Kra. This isthmus is only about 15 miles wide from the Pak Chan River in the west to a small coastal stream in the east (neither of these rivers is accessible to modern oceanic
x ships). The height of the pass in the central part of the isthmus is approximately 230 feet. The construction of a canal across the isthmus (this project has been put forward repeatedly) would significantly reduce the duration of the journey and the cost of freight on lines between Europe and Far East, but at the same time, the construction of such a canal would undermine Singapore's trade position. In this regard, the isthmus has long been of great political and geographical importance.
In general, the East Coast of the Peninsula is flat and regular. There are only a few bays here, but there are many beaches stretching for long distances, especially at Nakhon Sritamarat, Sonkla, Pattani. The coastal plain is 3 to 22 miles wide. In addition, the valleys and basins of several rivers protrude far into the depths of the Peninsula. To the north of Sonkla there is a large inland sea-Lake Tale Sap.
The West Coast coastline is less regular and heavily indented by estuaries. Like Phuket Bay, the West Coast is teeming with islands but few beaches. The mountains approach the sea in many places, and the coastal plain is generally very narrow. There are many mangrove swamps. The coast of the Pakchan River resembles a flooded valley. During the hydraulic mining of alluvial tin deposits in Takuap and Phuket, the remains of buried mangrove trees were found. The wide sandy belt that borders the land on both the East and West coasts does not feature sand dunes. This is probably due to the fact that the period of strong winds blowing from the sea is also a period of heavy rains. Sand, daily soaked with rainwater, becomes wet and is not blown away by the winds.
The plains of the Peninsula are composed of sediments from rivers and streams flowing through them. The strata located directly on the bedrock are rich in tin. This indicates a re-displacement of sediments.
A similar process occurs at a relatively high rate during the rainy season. At this time of the year, rainwater flows into the valleys, overflowing deeply incised stream beds and flooding the plains. The layers of alluvium saturated with water easily set in motion, and thus the rivers lay their channels in completely different parts of the plain.
The thickness of sediments in the valley depends on the size of the flood. As a result of the repeated rise in the water level in the rivers during the rainy season, they overflow their banks, flooding the plain and covering it with sediment. In the dry season, the water subsides so much that it does not even completely fill the riverbeds. Thus, during the period of high water, the channels of the streams are strongly eroded. As a result of the constant wandering of the rivers along the plain, the decrease in the general level of the plain is very small. This, in turn, leads to deep erosion of bedrock overlain by alluvial sediments. This process of formation of plains is typical not only for the alluvial plains of the Peninsula, but also for the plains of the whole of Thailand, formed in conditions of low hilly relief.
LANDSCAPE AND HYDROGRAPHIC NETWORK
Various rocks are found in Thailand: sedimentary rocks, metamorphosed in places; metamorphic and sedimentary rocks with embedded batholiths and stocks; relatively young medium volcanic rocks and, in places, solidified flows and domes of basalt. Many of the strata, composed of relatively ancient rocks, have been subjected to the process of folding to one degree or another or have been disturbed by faults.
important role in education modern relief plays the physical and chemical weathering that various rocks undergo in the humid tropics.
Granites and limestones tend to be more resistant to erosion than other sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Many mountain ranges and individual mountains are composed of granite, the slopes of which are much steeper than those of the same type of elevations in the temperate zone. In a tropical climate, granites are strongly weathered. Typically, young rock is overlain by a layer of soil or weathered rock that is 50 feet or more thick. Landforms developed on limestones are the most remarkable feature of the Thai landscape. Karst phenomena are observed wherever there are limestone outcrops.
The most typical clastic rocks in Thailand are sandstone, shale and their metamorphic forms. They differ from each other in their resistance to erosion. In vast coastal areas, these rocks are heavily eroded by river and sea erosion.
HYDROGRAPHIC NETWORK
The modern hydrographic network of Northern and Western Thailand was apparently laid down at the end of the Tertiary period. Perhaps, by that time, an extensive peneplain had already formed, leveling the ancient folding. Then, at the end of the Tertiary period, due to the movements of the earth's crust, the channels of the main rivers were blocked by the formed folds, and the resulting basins were flooded. This picture gradually changed. With the deposition of sediments, the hydrographic network more and more acquired modern outlines. The uplift of the area towards the end of the Tertiary rejuvenated the rivers of Northern Thailand. Now the channels of the main rivers deeply cut the surface of the ancient peneplain. Where the riverbeds were worked out in soft rocks, gently sloping lowlands formed. In other places, where rivers cut through stable rocks, gorges and gorges arose. Most of Northeast Thailand is occupied by the Korat Basin, drained by the Nammun River. At the end of the Tertiary period, a series of sedimentary rocks of the Korat was submerged in the strata of a vast tectonic basin. Thus, the branching channels of the Nammun River system are undoubtedly located on the surface of a deep horizon of homogeneous bedrock. Be that as it may, in the southeast, the Nammun River crosses the edge of the structural basin and flows into the Mekong along its ancient course.
Significant tectonic movements at the end of the Tertiary period shaped the Chao Phraya River region, beginning a sedimentation cycle that continues to this day. The original northern coast of the Gulf of Thailand was apparently somewhere in the Uttaradita region. As a result of sediment accumulation, the coast gradually moved southward.
On the Peninsula, the modern river system has essentially remained unchanged since the late Tertiary period. In the northern part of Polu Island - up to Chumpon in the south - the rivers flowing to the east and flowing into the bay, as a rule, flow in the upper reaches along steep young gorges, and in the coastal zone - along open valleys worked out in folded rocks. The lower reaches of many river valleys on the western side of the Peninsula have been flooded as a result of recent land subsidence. In the middle and upper reaches, the steeply dipping channels of these flows run through mature valleys, crossed in many places by transverse and diagonal faults. As a result of Late Tertiary time shifts, several small basins formed in this area.
Modern river system of Thailand.
The heart of mainland Thailand is the Chao Phraya River Basin. The Chao Phraya originates at Paknampo at the confluence of the northern rivers Pinga, Wanga, Yoma and Nana, flowing into the Upper Plain of the Central Valley. Downstream, small rivers and Pasak flow into the main channel of the river and into some of its branches from the right side. In addition, several tributaries flow from the left side. Chao Phraya carries its waters past Bangkok and flows into the Gulf of Thailand to the south, at Samut Prakan (Paknam); somewhat to the west, its main channel, the Nakon-Chaisi (Supanburi), flows into the bay.
Along with the Chao Phraya, two more rivers flowing into the Gulf of Thailand participate in the formation of the Bangkok Plain. These are Maeklong in the west and Prachin in the east. The first is formed from the confluence of the rivers Kveyay and Kwe-noi, which flow from the Western Mountains and merge at Kanchanaburi. Prachin originates in the mountains located along the Southeast coast and the Cambodian border. In addition, the Nakon-Nayok River flows into Prachin, draining the steep slope of the southern Korat plateau.
The entire Korat region and the northern part of Northern Thailand are part of the Mekong basin, the great river of Southeast Asia. At Korat, the Nammun River and its main tributary, the Namsi, flow eastward into the Mekong east of Ubon and north of Pakse (Laos). All other rivers of the Korat not included in this system also flow into the Mekong along the border. In addition, the Mekong receives several small rivers of Northern Thailand.
A vast mountainous region in the north and west of Thailand drains westward to the Salween River, which forms part of the border between Burma and Thailand. Further, the Salwen flows through Burmese territory and flows into the Andaman Sea.
There are no major rivers or river basins along the Southeast Coast and on the Peninsula. Small rivers and streams flow down from the surrounding mountains and flow into the Gulf of Thailand in the area of the Southeast coast and the East coast of the Peninsula, into the Andaman Sea and the Strait of Malacca - in the area of the West coast of the Peninsula.
Geology The peninsula follows the Thai-Burmese border from the Maeklong river system to the Kra Isthmus. Further, it goes almost in the center of the Peninsula along the highest peaks to the border with Malaya.
THEOLOGY
In the countries of Southeast Asia, geological and stratigraphic studies were started many years ago by geologists of the European colonial administration. The first work in Thailand was undertaken only in the 30s of the XX century. Until that time, practically the only geological studies of Thailand were made in 1912 by Hogbom, who visited many parts of the country during his four months of stay, and by W. Lee 2 in 1921-1922.
Field geological work in Thailand is hampered by the fact that almost everywhere the bedrock is hidden under a thick layer of weathering products. A lot of difficulties are caused to geologists by dense tropical vegetation, the absence in many parts of the country of cuts for laying roads and the almost complete absence of mines and quarries. Geological surveys began in the 1930s by the mining department of Siam, who invited several young geologists who had been educated in Europe to their service. In 1949 and 1950 A team of geologists was sent to Thailand by the US Geological Survey. The results of their research, carried out jointly with Thai geologists, are summarized in a geological report 3. It served as the main source of information given below.
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Phuket Series (Cambrian)
Metamorphic sedimentary rocks cover a wide area along the axis of the central fold and the western side of the Peninsula, continuing north into lower Burma. In Thailand, they stretch from Phuket in the south to the latitude of Rathburi in the north and are found in the region of granite intrusions, in the Khaoluang mountain range, in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Almost everywhere the dip is so steep that it is impossible to determine their thickness and succession. in the notch railway between Tungsong and Ronpibun one can see how numerous layers of fine-grained sandstone are interspersed with fine and coarse-grained shale. Most outcrops contain dark schists with well-pronounced bedding, quartzite, and mudstone.
The only known fossil finds in the Phuket series are located at the northeast cape of Tongka Bay on Phuket Island. Here, imprints of fossilized algae were found in dark gray or slate shale.
Tungsong Limestone (Ordovician)
Outcrops of dark (up to black) limestone are found in the southern part of the Peninsula. Outcrops of gray-blue crystalline dolomitic limestone are found further north - on the island of Sichang, near Siracha, and in ridges northwest of Kanchanaburi. It is assumed that they do not differ in age from the limestones of the Peninsula. These limestones are characterized by inclusions of pyrite crystals, while pyrite is very rare or absent in limestones of the Permian period, for example, in Tungsong. The thickness of the measured horizontal limestone layers is nearly 9,000 feet. Clay and sand inclusions are noted on the surfaces of the formations. In thin, discontinuous layers of siliceous shale east of Tung Song, impressions resembling sponge needles are found. To the west of Patalung, weathered dark sandy limestone has been found turned into sand.
Kanchanaburi Series (Silurian, Devonian or Early Carboniferous)
Clastic sedimentary rocks, in many places metamorphosed into slates, phyllite and quartzite, extend from the border with Burma along the western edge of Thailand to the border with Malaya. The thickness of the series of seams in Northern Thailand appears to be similar to the thickness of the seams in the southern region. More precise measurements are impossible due to the close interweaving of faults and folds.
The rocks belonging to the Kanchanaburi series, as a rule, were subjected to deep weathering. Slate or schist, phyllite or mudstone, and quartzite or limestone, found along river channels, have the same dark grey-green hue. Paleontological finds, the number of which is still small, indicate that the age of the rocks in this series ranges from the Silurian to the early Carboniferous period.
Rathburi Limestones (Carboniferous and Permian)
Light gray recrystallized limestone, which is composed of many hills and high cliffs, is found in all parts of the country. Many of the limestone massifs are isolated remnants or hills resting on older rocks. At the same time, limestone rocks are common in a vast area of the western part of Central Thailand (along the western edge of the Korat plateau). On the Peninsula, and to a lesser extent in the north, the limestones form narrow, isolated belts that stretch along the mountain ranges. limestone layers,
obviously, they underwent a process of folding, and in places the limestone recrystallized, although to a lesser extent than the underlying metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The thickness of such limestone ranges from 3,000 to 13,000 feet.
The lower layers of limestone contain numerous thin layers and inclusions of siliceous schist with fossils of Permian age. Widely found, in places in the form of marble, recrystallized limestone. Typically, limestone shades range from light gray to almost white with numerous pinkish veins. In some places, layers of limestone, recrystallized into dolomite, have been widely developed. However, post-Permian rocks are not represented everywhere by limestone or marble.
Korat series (Triassic or Jurassic)
Thick deposits of continental sandstone and conglomerate cover much of Eastern Thailand and are the main rock in Korat. Similar strata fill part of the intermountain basins in the northwest and extend south along the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand. In the extreme south of the Peninsula, quartzite, phyllite and fibrous coal shale (in the northern strike of the strata) have been found, which are listed as rocks of the Triassic period on recent maps in Malaysia. It is likely that this is the age of some of the rocks found in Korat.
The upper horizon of the strata is characterized by a vast weathered surface overlain by deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary alluvium. The Korat series includes strata of gray-green sandy shale and marly fine-grained limestone with inclusions and concretions, as well as red and purple sandstone, conglomerate and shale, which make up the bulk of sedimentary rocks. In some places, pebbles and gravel from the Ratbury limestone are found in the thickness of the conglomerate. The presence of salt springs and springs in Korat indicates that salt deposits can be found in the thickness of the layers.
In the vicinity of Mesota, a breed was discovered, which received the name "Kamavkala". It is composed of dense gray limestone mixed with red quartz sandstone and conglomerate and contains fossils from the lower half of the Middle Jurassic. Limestone layers are interspersed with brown and red quartz sandstone and conglomerates and, obviously, have a consistent occurrence with the above- and
underlying continental deposits. Apparently, these sedimentary rocks were formed on the site of a NARROW sea bay. Layers of young limestones and conglomerates in the Korat area lie horizontally or form gentle folds.
YOUNG SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Tertiary rocks
Lacustrine or river deposits have been found in six intermountain basins of Northern Thailand, and, apparently, the seventh basin was also filled with them. At Memo and Mechang, near Lampang, the shale, shale, sand, and marl beds of the Mesot series, several feet thick, contain sedimentary rocks with lignite inclusions. Similar sedimentary rocks have been found in the Merim Valley north of Chieng Mai.
In the Mefang basin, as a result of drilling, inclined layers of coal-bearing-sedimentary rocks were revealed.
On the Peninsula, the Krabi Series, whose age coincides with the age of the Mesot Series, can be traced in eight basins. Among them is the Kyansa basin southwest of Surat Thani; at Hinru east of Pang; at Khinak, west of Krabi; in Krabi; in Simpun, northeast of Krabi; in Kantang southwest of Taptang; at Bukitarang south of Sadao and at Betong. Local sedimentary rocks are interspersed with layers of lignite. Lignite deposits are especially famous in the Krabi region. Most of the rocks are overlain by later alluvium, with the exception of their outcrops in river beds and on the coast.
Terrace deposits and Quaternary alluvium
Such deposits are found in almost all river valleys in Thailand. Alluvium covers the entire Central Valley - the Upper Plain and the Bangkok Plain, through which the Chao Phraya River flows. Separate islands of thick alluvial deposits are also scattered throughout the Korat, the valleys of the relatively large rivers of Northwestern Thailand and in various places along the coastal plain bordering the Gulf of Thailand, especially along the Eastern coast of the Peninsula. Alluvial deposits in the Peninsula and Western Thailand, containing placers of tin and tungsten, are important.
Most of the terraced and alluvial deposits are less than 150 feet thick. The low terraces along the West Coast of the Peninsula lie between 10 and 40 feet above sea level, and their maximum thickness is about 50 feet. However, along the East Coast of the Peninsula, the thickness of the alluvial strata is up to 100 feet, and on the Bangkok Plain, near Bangkok, no hard rock is visible even at depths of more than 1,000 feet. In the basins of Northwestern Thailand, clastic rocks of the Pleistocene era or later origin are quite common.
Areas of development of Quaternary deposits are almost always observed
along rivers and on shallow seashores. On the Bangkok Plain, there are undoubtedly delta deposits, as well as marl deposited on the bottom of the sea or estuary; sand and gravel. At the opening of the quaternary
sediments in them were found sand, gravel, silt and silt.
A characteristic feature of many leveled surfaces, sea and river terraces, plateaus, as well as highlands such as mesas, are residual layers of laterite covering them, which, as a rule, is speckled with red and brown spots and has a porous or bean-like texture. Laterite owes its origin to rocks of various geological ages, differing in their physical and chemical properties. The stage of development of laterites in Thailand is obviously determined by the geological age of the rocks and their exposure. Young laterites are characteristic of young low terraces.
VOLCANIC ROCKS
Gneisses and schists (Pre-Permian)
Some areas of Thailand are composed of gneisses and schists. Outcrops of these rocks form an elongated belt west of Chiengmai, west of Rakheng, in a small area northwest of Kanchanaburi, in the Hua Hin region south of Petburi and west of Bandon.
These areas have a north-northwest strike along a line coinciding with the strike of gneiss outcrops. In addition, there are significant outcrops of volcanic rocks in the provinces of Chonburi and Rayong and in the northwestern corner of Korat northeast of My Angley.
Basic and ultrabasic rocks (Triassic)
This group of rocks consists of diorite, gabbro and pyroxenite. Some of them are serpentinized in places. The rocks of this group are found only in the north near Uttaradit and Chien Rai. Dikes of diorite, gabbro, and pyroxenite, small plugs, and stocks intrusive in metasedimentary rocks can be traced along the lowland along the Nan River to the northeast of Uttaradit. Outcrops of coarse-grained gabbro with intrusions of diorite and granite were found on the hills along the southern edge of the floodplain of the Mechan River near the ancient Chiengsen and along the upper reaches of the Mechan and Mekok in the province of Chiengrai.
Granite (Triassic or Upper Cretaceous)
Granite is the most common volcanic rock in Thailand. It forms stocks and batholiths in the thickness of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and is exposed on the surface as a result of erosion of these rocks. Most of the western mountain ranges are composed of granite. In areas of domed structures, an accumulation of minerals of great economic importance is possible.
In most cases, the rocks are composed of biotite-muscovite gneisses. The mica schists associated with gneiss distribution areas are mainly of the biotite type found in the west of the country and muscovites in the east.
In the north and east, granite ridges extend in the meridional direction. Granite outcrops can be traced in some areas of a large ridge passing east of Chiengmai. These exits stretched from Pai far to the south, up to the region (ampe) of Mesot. Another granite range starts from 15°N. sh. and stretches south through the provinces of Kanchanaburi and Prachuap Kirikan. A wide granite belt originates near the border of the Shan states to the north-east of Muang-fang and extends in undulating uplifts south to the Kuntan tunnel at the latitude of Lampang. Apparently, this belt continues further south through the province of Tak to the northern tip of the province of Kanchanaburi.
The Peninsula has six major en echelon granite ridges. The most important of them from an economic point of view, stretching with short breaks from Ranong south to the island of Phuket, is known for the richest and most productive deposits of tin ores. The second most important ridge begins on the islands of Paygan and Koh Samui and continues in a southerly direction on the mainland from Sichon to Satul. The third granite outcrop zone is located east of Hat Yai and south of Sonkla and extends southward into the territory of Malaysian Kedah. South of Napradu, the granite outcrops stretch for almost 10 miles and form a fourth belt extending through Betong as far as the Malaysian state of Perak. The fifth granite range begins in the Saiburi region and runs south to Kelantan. The last of the six-granite Tomo Range above the Taluban River.
Granite outcrops found in several areas of Southeast Thailand are especially extensive near Chonburi and Chanthaburi. Granites in the Chonburi region are found in a mountain range that runs near the eastern coast of the bay from Chonburi to Rayong. In the region of Chantaburi, to the east of this range, granites can be traced north as far as the province of Pratburi. A lot of evidence indicates that the intrusions of the granite rocks of Thailand occurred twice - in the early and late Mesozoic. According to the mineralogical composition, local granites differ somewhat from each other, but they all belong to the type of hornblende-biotite granites. The exception is a young granite stock, which is associated with the most important deposits of tungsten and tin in Mesarieng (Maekhongson province). Only two granite formations have been found on the Peninsula, which can be classified as ancient intrusions. One of them is located north of Krabi, the other is south of Bandar. But neither one nor the other is promising for tin.
Diorite and quartz diorite (Tertiary)
Diorite and quartz diorite in the form of domes, stocks, and small batholiths are intrusion into the Korat Series beds and ancient rocks in areas east of Pratburi, north of Lopburi, northwest of Petburi, and northeast of Chiengrai. Vein and alluvial gold deposits occur in diorite intrusions northeast of Lopburi and east of Prathburi.
Basalt (Tertiary)
In Thailand, basalt is widely distributed in the form of solidified lava flows, dikes and plugs. The largest of the basalt flows stretches for about 12.5 miles along the railroad east of Lampang. It has barely been eroded and appears comparatively young.
In addition, there are basalt outcrops southwest of Sukhothai, northwest of Lopburi and south of Sisaket, and its most extensive areas are located south of Buriram. Placer deposits of sapphires and rubies in the Chanthaburi region are associated with several scattered plugs and flows of nepheline basalt, as well as placers of sapphires north of Kanchanaburi.
Andesitic and rhyolite porphyries (Tertiary)
Outcrops of andesitic porphyry in the form of stocks, dikes, and veins cut through by dikes and small veins of younger rhyolite porphyry occur near Saraburi, northeast of Lopburi, west of Petburi, and east of Uttaradit. Andesite is typically green or purple, while rhyolite is yellow or buff. Andesitic porphyry is intruded into rocks of the Korat series and older rocks.
HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Thailand is divided into three structural regions: the Korat, the Chao Phraya Basin, and the northern and western fold systems extending south across the Peninsula. Folding processes occurred between the Indochinese massif in the east and the Himalayan compression zone in the west. The latter stretched through the territory of Burma and Malaya up to Indonesia.
The main mountain ranges are folds of sedimentary rocks running from north to south with characteristic batholith intrusions. Most of the surface layers have disappeared under the influence of weathering and erosion. The outcrops are mainly rocks such as granite, as well as dense, chemically pure limestones and, in some places, quartzites. Rainwater easily seeps through limestone layers that do not contain any impurities, leaving no traces of less soluble minerals on their surface. As the surface layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks weathered, cassiterite, a tin stone, accumulated in the lower layers of alluvium at the foot of the ridges on the Peninsula.
The limited information on the geology of Thailand does not allow any complete description of the history of geological structures. The formation of sedimentary rocks begins in the early Paleozoic, if the assumption of the Cambrian origin of the rocks of the Phuket series is correct. Granite pebbles and boulders of an earlier, obviously Precambrian, origin were found in the thickness of slate slate from the Phuket series. For most of the Paleozoic period, the territory of the country was a zone of marine sediments. Most of the ancient Paleozoic sedimentary rocks are clastic material, now forming thick deposits of shale and sandstone, or their metamorphic equivalents. The only exceptions are sandstone and limestone from the Ordovician period. True, thin layers of limestone or marble are also found in other places in the thickness of older rocks. The culminating point in the formation of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks was the extensive limestone deposits at Rathbury. Most of the country's territory was uplifted, and the rocks of the entire region underwent regional metamorphism as a result of tectonic movements, approximately coinciding with the Zaalian and Appalachian orogeny. This orogeny covered most of the territory of Thailand. In the eastern part of the Korat Plateau and in the Chaopray depression, the older layers are usually overlain, and in some places exposed. As a result of compression, which ranged from moderate to strong, Paleozoic layers form folds that extend northward. In many places, isoclinal folds are traced. The more gentle dip of the limestone strata of the Rathburi massif compared to the underlying rocks indicates either that the limestone is unconformable with older Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that have undergone intense folding, or that the limestones were thrust over them. By all indications, the thrust occurred in the southwestern corner of the Mesarieng Basin in Northern Thailand.
The widespread intrusion of granitic magma dates back to the early Mesozoic. Not metamorphosed and only slightly disturbed, the Korat sandstones (of Triassic or Jurassic origin) overlie granite stocks and batholiths intruded into the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. Outcrops of older hornblende-biotite granite occur in the hills of Central and Northern Thailand. Along with this widespread intrusion, there are local intrusions of basic and ultrabasic rocks.
Exposures of younger biotite-muscovite granites are widespread in the Peninsula and along the Burmese border. Folding of the lower layers of the Korat series along the western marginal zone of the Korat and layers in Mesota, probably belonging to the Early Cretaceous period, is indisputable evidence of a rather late Mesozoic orogeny. During most of the Mesozoic, the country's surface level barely exceeded sea level. The formation of widespread deposits of continental sandstone, shale, and conglomerate of the Korat series dates back to this time. During the Jurassic, the sea apparently encroached on the territory of the country up to the zone stretching along the Burmese border, near the Mesot basin.
At the beginning of the Tertiary time, most of the country was land and a well-developed river network arose. In the middle or end of the Tertiary time, the formation of folds and faults begins, which led to the development of structural basins in the north of the country and on the Peninsula. In the north, there is a process of accumulation of river and lake sediments in basins. On the Peninsula, especially along the coast, this process was accompanied by the accumulation of marine sediments. As a result of the incessant movements of the earth's crust, the layers of basin deposits turned out to be slightly or moderately deformed, and in some places disturbed by normal faults.
In the late Tertiary time, volcanic and intrusive activity began throughout the territory. The results of this activity are basalt veins and dikes in the provinces of Chanthaburi, Trat, Kanchanaburi and Lampang, as well as isolated stocks of diorite cut by later intrusions of andesitic and rhyolitic porphyry in the central part of the country. By the end of the Tertiary time, most of the territory experienced uplift, accompanied by the formation of folds and faults.
Starting from the Quaternary period and up to the present day, sediments brought by the tributaries of the Chaopraya have been accumulating in the Chaopray depression. As a result of erosion in the upper reaches and alluvium of sediments in the lower reaches, the level of the channels of these rivers is leveled. The accumulation of Quaternary alluvium deposits in the river valleys of the Peninsula has resulted in the formation of numerous tin-rich deposits.
In general, the mountain building zone moved westward as geological epochs changed. The prevalence throughout the territory of steeply dipping normal faults and renewed thrusts, interspersed with local eruptions of basaltic lava, is evidence of the Late Tertiary orogeny. At this time there was an uplift of the Korat and a subsidence of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits in the intermountain basins in the North and on the Peninsula. The slight tilt of the Peninsula to the northwest is of later date. As a result, its gently sloping East coast, facing the Gulf of Thailand, turns into a wide sea.
its plain, while the coastline of the Andaman Sea, as in Phuket Bay, is strongly indented, replete with capes and coastal islands.
Chapter II
Soils, vegetation
and the animal world
soil
Much of Thailand's soils are poor in nutrients. Nevertheless, 85% of the country's population lives off agriculture, which
Geography
Thailand is located in Southeast Asia on the Indochina Peninsula, bordered by the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the southeast. Its shape resembles the head of an elephant and often the Thais themselves call Thailand "the country of the elephant", and the white elephant is the royal symbol. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe territory is 513,115 km2, which is approximately equal to the territory of France. The capital of Thailand - Bangkok (in Thai "Krung Tep" - "City of Angels") is the most major city countries. For 1995 Bangkok was the 17th largest city in Asia with a population of about 7 million people. The highest point of the country - Mount Doi Inthanon 2559m above sea level is located in the north-west of the country, near the city of Chiang Mai. There are about 70 national parks and reserves throughout the country. There are hundreds of clean sandy beaches on the coasts of the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the east of the country.
Thailand's neighbors (moving clockwise from the north) are Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar (Burma). The settlements in the delta of the Chao Phraya River became the oldest core of the future state. The local fertile lands allow for intensive farming and largely cover the country's food needs. In the east, surrounded by low mountain ranges (700-1000 m), the Korat mountain plateau stretches, almost devoid of vegetation as a result of intensive deforestation. In the west of the country stretches a mountain range (1500-2000 m), with impenetrable virgin forests, serves as a kind of barrier between the central regions and the border with Burma. This ridge covers the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, which led to the mountainous terrain of southern Thailand. South coast countries, with its countless bays and beaches, are washed by the waves of two seas: the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean in the west and the South China Sea, to which the Gulf of Thailand belongs. Thailand has a tropical climate and three seasons. During the rainy season, which lasts from May to October, southeast monsoons dominate the entire country, bringing heavy rains. During the dry winter, from November to February, mild weather sets in here, and the daytime temperature is not much lower than the annual average. At night in the highlands of northern Thailand, the temperature drops to almost 0 C, and in Bangkok it is about 16 C. In the south of the country, the temperature is much higher. During the hot season - from March to May, strong heat and high humidity are set, and there is practically no precipitation. In the eastern part of the peninsula, its own special climate has formed, which is characterized by uniform rains throughout the year, and only in September there is a sharp increase in showers. The ideal time to visit Thailand is winter. There is almost no rain during this season, and they do not interfere with long walking tours around the country. But in the hot season, even the Thais themselves are exhausted from the scorching heat, and the Europeans are looking for salvation from it on the beaches. On the islands of Phuket and Phi Phi, it rains mainly in May-June, and on Koh Samui - in October-November
The river network of Thailand is dense. Rivers are characterized by sharp changes in water content throughout the year and high floods during the monsoon rainy season. Almost all rivers begin in the mountains of the northern regions and flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Of particular importance in the life of the country is the Menam Chao Phraya River, the longest and most abundant river in Thailand. Its length is 1200 km (navigable for 400 km from the mouth). Together with its tributaries, it irrigates those areas where rice is grown. Through countless canals - klongs - water is diverted from the river to the rice fields. From May to October, during the rainy season, the entire lowland along which the Menam Chao Phraya flows is flooded with water. Other rivers: The Mekong River flows along the eastern and partly northeastern border of Thailand. Equally important is the right tributary of the Mekong River - Mun. Along the western border (partly) is the Salween River. Ozra are insignificant; the largest is Kam (in the Mekong River system). In the life of a Thai, water determines a lot: the harvest depends on it; through canals and rivers, the harvest is brought to the city for sale; on narrow long boats - sampangs - communication is maintained between villages located on the banks of rivers and canals. Many villages are built on stilts over water. Many peasants live in large boats covered with mats, especially during prolonged floods. After all, the river is far from always a protector and nurse. In the flood, she becomes cruel and merciless, like an evil dragon. folk tales. There are a lot of fish in the rivers and canals, and almost all the peasants are engaged in fishing
Thailand Geography Facts:
The name of the country is the Kingdom of Thailand, abbreviated Thailand
Capital - Bangkok
Location - Southeast Asia
Territory area - total: 514,000 km2, of which the sea zone -2,230 km2
Domain - *.th, commercial zone - *.co.th, non-commercial - *.or.th
The extreme northern point of Thailand is 20o 54" north latitude and 99o 86" east. longitude.
The extreme southern point is 5o 68" north latitude and 101o 13" east longitude.
The extreme western point of Thailand is 18o 38" north latitude and 97o 49" east. longitude.
The extreme eastern point is 16o 68" north latitude and 105o 67" east longitude.
Area - 514,000 km2, approximately equal to France or the Khanty-Mansiysk Aut. county
The highest mountains are Doi Inthanon (2595m), Doi Pha Ham Pok (2297m), Doi Luang (2195m), Doi Suthep (2185m), Doi Pha Cho (2024m)
The longest rivers are Mun (673km), Nan (672km), Ping (590km), Yom (555km), Pasak (513km), Chi (442km), Chao Phraya (365km)
Land borders - 4,863 km; borders with Burma - 1,800 km, Cambodia - 803 km, Laos - 1,754 km, Malaysia - 504 km. Thailand controls the only land route to Malaysia and Singapore
Natural disasters - drought due to groundwater imbalance in densely populated regions
Landscape - plain in the central part, Korat plateau in the northeast, mountains in the north
Forests make up 26% of all land resources in the country
Natural resources - tin, natural gas, tantalum, wood, lead, fish, fluorite
Irrigated land - 44,000 km2
Coast length - 3,219 km
Thailand is located in the tropical rainforest zone. About 65% of its area is occupied by the jungle. The vegetation cover of Thailand is dominated by deciduous tropical (monsoon) forests, which grow teak and redwood, sal, bamboo and others. In the most humid regions, mainly in the mountains, on the elevated outskirts of the Korat plateau, on the isthmus of Kra and in the north-east of the coastal part, moist evergreen forests grow. The main species of these forests are dipterocarpations, hopeis, ficuses, pandanuses and various palms. Mangrove vegetation is developed in the coastal strip in the south. On the Korat plateau, savannahs and thickets of thorny trees and shrubs are widespread. On the dry (leeward) slopes of the mountains, in the zone of 700-1700 m, pine-oak forests grow, in the upper zone of the mountains - evergreen shrubs. Many valuable tree species grow in the jungle. Residents of forest areas receive various resins, balms, gums, varnishes from these trees. The fruits of some forest plants (mangosteen, durian, banana) are edible. Of great economic importance are palm trees - coconut and sago. A teak tree grows on the slopes of the mountains of the Northern region. Its height reaches 40 m, and the diameter of the trunk is 2 m. Teak wood is extremely durable, it is an excellent material for the construction of ships and port facilities.
Animal world
Almost all of Thailand belongs to the Indo-Malay zoogeographic region. A wide variety of animals live in forests and bamboo thickets: rhinos, elephants, tapirs, tigers, leopards, wild cats, squirrels. Especially a lot of monkeys there. There are not only macaques, but also anthropoids - gibbons. Antelopes, deer, feral buffaloes and wild bulls - gaur and banteng are found in the savannahs. Throughout the country, in the forests and fields, there are a lot of snakes, among them many poisonous ones, for example, "colored ribbons" and huge king cobras. Diverse birds: pheasants, peacocks, parrots, hornbill, herons, Siamese red-throated crane. In the rivers - crocodiles; various types of fish (mainly cyprinids).
In the northern, wide part of Thailand, the most common are red soils of tall grass savannahs, brown-red soils of tropical dry deciduous forests and mountain forest red soils; in river valleys - alluvial and meadow. In the southern part of Thailand (including the area adjacent to the northern coast of the Gulf of Thailand) - lateritic podzolized soils
Population
Evidence has now been found that in Thailand about 7 thousand years BC. e. settlements existed. Settlers came to this region mainly from the north and west. The main occupations of the ancient peoples of Southeast Asia were agriculture and cattle breeding, they achieved success in art and trade. The influence of ancient Thai culture is evidenced by the fact that the Chinese adopted metalworking technology from Southeast Asia.
There are now many language groups in Thailand, the most common of which are Thai, Lao, Malay, Karen and Khmer. In large cities, there are quite large communities of Chinese, Bengalis and Farangs (a common name for all residents of Thailand of European origin). The official language of the country is Thai, Chinese and English are widely spoken. Judging by signs, guidebooks and other minor things, one gets the impression that the progression in knowledge of foreign languages by Thais goes in the following sequence: English, Chinese, Japanese, German. It can be objected that everything is duplicated in Japanese even in Paris, I’ll add on my own that Japan is Thailand’s main partner in trade, which is more important than tourism.
In Thailand, freedom of religion is enshrined in law, but Buddhism was, is and will obviously remain the leading religion in the country. At present, the population of Thailand is about 70 million people, the vast majority (95%) profess Buddhism, and Buddhism of the southern type (Theravada Buddhism, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism, common in the countries of Southeast Asia) Muslim (3%) and Christianity (about 1%) are common among national minorities who inhabit primarily Bangkok and southern Thailand
Quick facts about the population of Thailand:
Population - 61.2 million people (2000)
Language - Thai, English, Chinese
Religion - Buddhists (south direction) - 95%, Muslims - 3.8%, Christians - 0.5%, Hindus - 0.1%, the rest - 0.6%. Thailand respects freedom of religion
Ethnic groups - Thais 75%, Chinese 14%, Malays 3.5%, the rest: Shan, Mon, Khmer and Karen peoples
The total population of the country is 60.7 million people
Population growth - +0.93% per year (199)
Birth rate - 16.86 / per 1000 people (2000)
Mortality - 7.53 / per 1000 people (2000)
Life expectancy - 68.6 years (2000)
Literacy - 93.8% of the total population
Age structure - up to 15 years: 24%; 15-64 years old: 70%; 65 years and older: 6%
Age of majority - 18 years
State and politics
In 1932 As a result of a bloodless revolution in Thailand, the country's first constitution was adopted, so officially Thailand is considered a constitutional monarchy. But the last version of the same version of the basic law of Thailand says that the king rules not by virtue of the law, but according to "according to the wise tradition given by our ancestors." One way or another, the king is considered the head of state, whose power is strongly limited by parliament. The current king of Thailand is Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX, ascended the throne in 1946), and the most powerful person in the state is the prime minister, chairman of the Council of Ministers. The country's highest legislative body is a bicameral parliament (National Assembly), which consists of the House of Representatives (500 deputies), who are elected for 4 years, and the Senate (200 people), whose members are appointed by the king for a period of 6 years. The Prime Minister is elected from among the members of the House of Representatives. The highest judicial body of the country is the Supreme Court, its chairman is appointed by the king. The country is divided into 76 provinces (tyangwat). The capital of the state is the city of Bangkok. The largest cities of the country: in the north - Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai, in the south - Nakonsitamarat and Hat Yai.
The armed forces consist of the ground forces, the air force and the navy. The total number is 211 thousand people. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the King, the direct leadership of the armed forces is carried out by the National Political Council and the General Staff. Ground troops(141 thousand people) consist of 1 armored division, 6 infantry divisions, including 4 tank battalions. In addition: 3 regimental battle groups, 4 airborne battalions, 1 missile battalion (Hawk), 5 army aviation companies and several separate special units and subunits. In service: over 150 light tanks, over 300 armored personnel carriers, about 400 artillery and anti-aircraft guns, 40 missiles, about 90 light aircraft, over 170 helicopters and other military equipment. The Air Force (43 thousand people) has about 150 combat aircraft, over 100 helicopters. Includes squadrons: 1 - fighter-bombers, 7 - to fight insurgents, 1 - reconnaissance, 3 transport, 2 helicopter, 1 - auxiliary aviation. There are 4 airfield security battalions. The Navy (28 thousand people, including 8 thousand marines) has 3 frigates, 26 patrol ships, 3 missile and 20 patrol boats, 30 coast guard boats, over 40 landing craft, 1 base aviation patrol squadron, 1 brigade marines(3 infantry battalions, 1 artillery battalion). The main naval bases are Bangkok and Sattahip. All military equipment and weapons are of foreign (mostly American) production. The armed forces are recruited on the basis of the law on universal conscription. Valid military service 2 years. In addition to the armed forces in Thailand, there are: a volunteer defense corps (52 thousand people) and a border police (14 thousand people, 54 helicopters).
Facts about the politics, state and administrative structure of Thailand:
Political parties - Thai National Party, Democratic Party, National Development Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Renewal Party, etc.
Form of government - constitutional monarchy (since 1932)
The current prime minister is Thaksin
In the period 1932-1992. There have been more than 20 coups d'état in Thailand.
Constitution - the current constitution was adopted in 1997.
The emergence of the state - 1238. Considered the founding date of the first Thai state, Thailand has never been a colony.
In the 70s, a civil war was actually going on in the country between the communists and government troops, especially in the territory of Northeast Thailand
Administrative division - 76 provinces: Amnat Charoen, Ang Thong, Buriram, Chachoengsao, Chai Nat, Chaiyaphum, Chanthaburi, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Chon Buri, Chumphon, Kalasin, Kamphaeng Phet, Kanchanaburi, Khon Kaen, Krabi, Krung Thep Mahanakhon ( Bangkok), Lampang, Lamphun, Loei, Lop Buri, Mae Hong Son, Maha Sarakham, Mukdahan, Nakhon Nayok, Nakhon Pathom, Nakhon Phanom, Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Sawan, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Nan, Narathiwat, Nong Bua Lamphu, Nong Khai , Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Pattani, Phangnga, Phatthalung, Phayao, Phetchabun, Phetchaburi, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Phrae, Phuket, Prachin Buri, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ranong, Ratchaburi, Rayong, Roi Et, Sa Kaeo, Sakon Nakhon, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkhram, Sara Buri, Satun, Sing Buri, Sisaket, Songkhla, Sukhothai, Suphan Buri, Surat Thani, Surin, Tak, Trang, Trat, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, Uthai Thani, Uttaradit , Yala, Yasothon
Territorial disputes - some sections of the border with Cambodia and Laos are undefined, the border with Burma has not been finally determined along its entire length
Units - Royal Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force
Conscription age - 18 years
Army - 580,000 people (1999)
Military spending - 2.0 billion USD / 1.3% of GDP
Economy
Thailand is rightly considered the "dragon of Asia" of the second wave along with Macau, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia. The rapid economic development of these countries began against the backdrop of the economic growth of their economic partners (Japan, the United States, etc.) and is still highly dependent on the state of the economy in these countries. When East Asia experienced a severe economic crisis in the mid-90s, not a single country remained aloof from it. In Thailand, the result was that economic growth, averaging 9% per annum, turned to stagnation in 1997. and the fall of 1998-1999. The Thai government refused to hold the exchange rate of the national currency, as a result, it depreciated almost twice. Economic stabilization in the present allows Thailand to continue economic growth and hope for the future
Features of the formation of the economy
In the 19th century the penetration of colonial powers (Britain, USA, France) into Thailand intensified, and later other capitalist states imposed a capitulation regime on the country. Being at the junction of the colonial possessions of England and France in southeast Asia, Thailand was able to maintain political independence. In the development of the Thai economy, a number of features have been identified. Compared with other countries in the region that fell into colonial dependence, Thailand for a long time was less of an object of imperialist exploitation, which left room for the economic development of the country. However, by the end of the 19th century. in the hands of foreign, mainly British, monopolies were the most important industries, including the extraction of tin and tungsten, teak harvesting, and banking. On the eve of World War II, England controlled up to 70% of foreign investment and the same share of Thailand's foreign trade. In fact Thailand was developed into a semi-colony. During the period between world wars, the process of dispossession of the peasantry deepened in the Thai countryside. On the eve of the 2nd World War, among the ruling circles of Thailand, the positions of supporters of the pro-Japanese orientation strengthened; Thailand took part in the war on the side of Japan. Taking advantage of this, after the end of the war, England tried to achieve monopoly rights in this country. However, England failed to carry out its plans due to the expansion of the United States, which in 1950 imposed unequal agreements on military assistance and economic "cooperation" on Thailand. And in 1954 they dragged the country into the SEATO bloc, participation in which required large military expenditures from Thailand (about 60% of the budget). This placed Thailand in a strong economic and political dependence on the United States. Already by 1962. Thailand's public debt has reached 12 billion baht and has been steadily growing. Now the country's external debt is about $90 billion, but this amount has a downward trend.
Internal differences
Central Thailand (about 35% of the territory) is a vast low-lying valley of the Menam Chao Phraya River with abundant rainfall and fertile alluvial soils. Here is the main center for the production and export of rice - the "rice bowl" of Thailand. Maize, fruits and vegetables are also cultivated. The most important branches of production: rice cleaning, sawmilling, textile, cement, paper, pottery. Cities: Bangkok (capital), Thonburi, Ayutthaya.
The northeast (32% of the territory) covers mainly the Korat plateau - an arid region with low and uneven precipitation. The main occupation of the population is agriculture, mainly on the fertile soils of flat areas (rainfed rig, corn, jute, cotton, castor seed), as well as animal husbandry (buffaloes and other cattle - 53% of the country's livestock, pig breeding). Handicraft production of yarn, lacquered and carved wooden products is developed. Main cities: Nakhon-Rachashima (Korat), Ubon, Udon Thani, Konken.
The north (19% of the territory) is a mountainous region covered with forests, with rainfall up to 2000 mm. Slash-and-shift farming system (rice, legumes, corn, opium poppy), the basis of teak development. There are deposits of oil, oil shale, lignite. Handicraft, textile production (satin and cotton fabric), silver carving is developed. Main cities: Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Lampang.
The south (14% of the territory) dates almost all the production of tin, tungsten, lead in Thailand. AT agriculture rubber production prevails (90% of the total collection of Thailand). In the coastal part, fishing plays an important role, including marine fishing. Main cities: Nakonsrit Thammarat, Sonkla
Although speaking of Thailand, you should always make allowances for the tropics. The Thais themselves are extremely lazy people due to the climate of the area where they live. If you look at the map of the world, it is easy to see that the vast majority of developed countries are in the temperate zone. In the temperate zone, the change of seasons forces one to move, to build one's own housing at least, to stock up for the winter. And in the tropics, the climate is hot and humid all year round, no matter what the system will rot, food stocks should be made - but there are always fruits and rice crops can be harvested three times a year. Until recently, Thailand's simple economic policy - international organizations lend to Thailand, and Thailand lends to Western companies by buying their goods.
If we talk about how the economy affects travel, it’s very simple: I happened to visit Thailand during the “golden” period (it’s hard to evaluate it unambiguously, that’s why the quotes), which probably won’t happen again. The Thai government released the butt to free float in mid-1997. and it doubled in value. Our Russian held until a complete default in August 1998. Consider during this period, according to cross-rates, it can be calculated that the cost of purchases, food and much more has fallen by half for Russian tourists. True, flights and hotels, the cost of which is considered in dollars, even more likely to have risen in price (the ruble exchange rate over the same period fell from 6 rubles / $ to 7 rubles / $, but it was still much cheaper to travel to Thailand than ever. So if now Thai the baht is falling against the dollar, which seems to be good, but as they say, there is no smoke without fire - the Thai baht is guided by the yen and the Nikkei index, and the falling Nikkei does not bring anything good.Whether our government will artificially restrain the ruble in the face of a general fall is unlikely.
Economic data:
The main export items are industrial products (especially computer equipment), agricultural products (rice)
Export volume - $58.5 billion (1999)
The main export partners are the USA (22.3%), Japan (13.7%), Singapore (8.6%), Hong Kong (5.1%), the Netherlands (4.0%), the UK (4, 0%), Malaysia (3.2%), China (3.2%), Taiwan (3.2%)
Main import items - means of production, raw materials, consumer products, fuel
Volume of imports - $45 billion (1999)
Main import partners - Japan (23.6%), USA (14%), Singapore (5.5%), Taiwan (5.2%), Malaysia (5.1%), Germany (4.2%) , China (4.2%), South Korea (3.5%), Oman (2.6%)
Population below the poverty line - 12.5% (1998)
External debt - $80 billion (1999)
Budget - $20 billion revenue / $23 billion expenditure (FY 98/99)
Assistance through international organizations - $ 1.7 billion (1995)
Employable population - 32.6 million people (1997)
The main sources of income are tourism, light industry, agriculture, production of tobacco, cement, jewelry, computers and components, furniture, tin mining
Employment - agriculture (54%), industry (15%), services, including government (31%)
Main agricultural products- rice, tapioca, rubber, corn, sugar cane, coconut, soy
Unemployment - 4.5%
Inflation - 2.4% (1998)
Gross domestic product - $388.7 billion (1999)
The amount of runway per person - $ 6.4 thousand (1999)
GDP growth - +4% (1999)
Growth in industry - +12.6% (1999)
The structure of GDP is agriculture (12%), industry (39%), services (49%).
Electricity - 85 billion kWh (1999)
Thai baht exchange rate
Thai baht exchange rate
The currency of Thailand is the Thai baht (THB).
It should be noted that over the past time, the Thai baht has fallen against almost all Asian currencies presented here, but vice versa has risen against the currencies included in the euro area.
PS. The difference in the exchange rate between different US dollar bills shows that it is better to take hundreds with you. The difference in the rate is 0.87 baht, that is, with a hundred dollars exchanged with one-dollar bills (science fiction, but still), you lose about 100 baht (~$ 2.5). Currency Code Currency Buy Sell
USD bills $1 44.27 45.62
USD bills $5-20 44.65 45.66
USD bills $50-100 45.11 45.71
EUR euro 39.61* 40.27*
GBP English pound 63.54 65.37
DEM Deutschmark 20.02 20.68
CHF Swiss franc 25.53 26.23
JPY Japanese yen (100 yen) 35.97 37.05
AUD Australian dollar 23.20 24.19
ATS Austrian schilling 2.73 2.94
BHD Bahraini dinar 90.5 130.0
BEF Belgian franc 0.94 1.03
BND Brunei dollar 23.7 25.17
HKD Hong Kong dollar 5.71 5.88
DKK Danish krone 5.10 5.42
IDR Indonesian rupiah (1000 rupiah) 2.4 5.4
ESP Spanish peseta 0.19 0.30
ITL Italian Lira (100 Lira) 17.7 22.9
CAD Canadian dollar 28.77 29.59
QAR Qatari rial 9.55 13.48
CNY Chinese Yuan 4.37 5.72
KRW Korean won (100 won) 2.8 3.8
NLG Netherlands guilder 17.63 18.30
NZD New Zealand dollar 18.47 19.75
NOK Norwegian krone 4.75 5.08
AED UAE Dirham 9.85 12.83
OMR Omani Rial 88.1 127.85
SAR rial Saudi Arabia 9.45 13.09
SGD Singapore dollar 24.68 25.24
TWD Taiwanese dollar 1.05 1.43
FIM Finnish brand 5.8 7.0
FRF French franc 5.94 6.17
SEK Swedish krona 4.25 4.48
* - while the euro is not in cash, so the exchange rate of the baht to the euro is the rate of buying / selling traveller's checks
Monarchy in Thailand
The Thai monarchy originates in 1238, the year of the founding of the Thai kingdom in the city of Sukhothai and the coronation of the first Thai king. The first Thai king, however, was at one time a petty prince and vassal of the Khmer empire, and to strengthen his authority, he also married a Khmer princess. Subsequently, several dynasties changed in Thailand, some cities rose, others went into oblivion. The Chakri dynasty, now ruling, appeared in 1782, when, after the defeat of Ayutthaya by the Burmese, the country plunged into dark years. The Thai general, later the founding king of the Rama I dynasty, was then able to defeat Burma and drive their troops out of the country. The state was revived, the capital was moved to Bangkok. The current king of the country, Rama IX (Bhumibol Adulyadej, full name with title - Phrabaatsomdet Boramintaramahaphumiphonadunyadet) is the ninth king of the Chakri dynasty. He was born in 1927. in the US, where his father studied medicine at Harvard University and was educated in Bangkok and Switzerland. Thailand is often defined as a constitutional monarchy, but this is not entirely true. The Constitution of Thailand states that the king ascends the throne not by law, but "according to respected tradition" and is not subject to any kind of punishment. His Royal Highness ascended the throne in 1946. after the premature death of his brother, who reigned for only a year. In 1996 Thailand celebrated the 50th anniversary of the reign of Rama IX. The King is fluent in English, French, German and naturally Thai, and also writes jazz music and plays the saxophone.
Whether by law or by tradition, most ordinary Thais perceive the king as something like a demigod; monarchy, along with religion and national unity, is highly regarded in Thai society. Negative reviews about the Thai king are both condemned by society and prosecuted by law. The punishment for insulting the personality of the king and members of the royal family is 7 years in prison, so all guidebooks about the monarchy are recommended to respond either respectfully or not at all.
While criticism of the government and even culture (but not Buddhism) is allowed, it is considered a strong insult to the nation and the monarchy not to stand up at the sound of the national or royal anthem. On radio and television, the national anthem is broadcast at 8:00 and 18:00, in villages and small towns the anthem is played from loudspeakers in the streets. At this time, Thais put aside all their affairs in order to listen to the anthem standing up (except for Bangkok and Pattaya and other purely tourist cities). The Royal Anthem (by the way, composed by the current King of Thailand, who is also a musician) is played only in cinemas before movies; the entire audience must listen to the royal anthem from beginning to end while standing.
Thai monarchy:
The current King of Thailand is Rama IX
The king's wife is the daughter of the Thai ambassador to France, the king met her during his stay in Paris
Rama IX rules the country for more years than any other living monarch in the world, in addition, his reign (1946+) is the longest in Thai history
Thailand's system of succession to the throne allows women to rule; if the only son of the current king, after the death of the latter, renounces the throne, then his sister will rule the country. (Now, by the way, this is coming)
The most respected king of Thailand in its entire history - Rama V Chulalongkorn
The Thai state had the greatest military power during the reign of Ramkhamhaeng "and, in the XIII century AD
- a state located in the southwestern part of the Indochina peninsula and in the northern part of the Malacca peninsula. Thailand is traditionally divided into 4 regions: Central, South, North and Northeast. It borders Myanmar in the northwest, Laos in the northeast, and Cambodia in the southeast. In the south and east it is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Thailand, and in the west by the waters of the Andaman Sea.
The name of the country comes from the ethnonym of the people - tai.
Official name: Kingdom of Thailand
Capital:
The area of the land: 514 thousand sq. km
Total population: 67.1 million people
Administrative division: Divided into 73 changwats (provinces).
Form of government: A constitutional monarchy.
Head of State: King.
Composition of the population: 80% - Thais, 10% - Chinese, 3.5% - Malaysians, 6% - Khmers, Karens, Vietnamese, Indians.
Official language: Thai. English is widely spoken in tourist centers. A small part of the population speaks Japanese, Chinese and Malay.
Religion: 95% are Buddhists, 4% are Muslims.
Internet domain: .th
Mains voltage: ~220 V, 50 Hz
Phone country code: +66
Country barcode: 885
Climate
Thailand is located in the tropical climate zone. In the tropical zone of Asia, there is a change in air currents: the trade wind dominates in winter, the monsoon dominates in summer, which determines the seasons of the year. The characteristic features of the climatic regime of Thailand are due to the presence of mountains in the north, which protect its territory from the influence of the winter trade winds, so the cool season is weakly expressed.
In the northern, northeastern and central regions of Thailand, 3 seasons are distinguished per year, depending on the amount of precipitation, in the southern regions - 2. In the east of the country, a special climate has formed with a fairly even distribution of precipitation throughout most of the year and with a sharp increase in September .
During the influence of the trade wind (from November to February), mild weather is established throughout the country. The average temperature in December, the coldest month, is +19 degrees in the north and +26 in the south. At the same time, during the daytime, the air in these areas warms up to +27 and +30, respectively. In winter, the night temperature in most of Thailand does not fall below +20; only the mountainous regions in the north are characterized by lower temperatures - in January they are +10: +12 degrees, and on some days the thermometer can drop to 0.
The period from December to February is the dry season in most of Thailand. At this time, partly cloudy weather with light rains prevails; the average monthly rainfall does not exceed 40 - 50 mm. In the south, the driest month is February, in December and January the amount of precipitation varies depending on the location from 30 mm in the northernmost regions to 370 mm in the southernmost.
Summer lasts from March to May in the northern, northeastern and central regions of the country. The sun burns already in the morning, and by noon the temperature reaches +32:+35 degrees. At night, the air cools down to +25. In April, precipitation becomes more intense, and in May the third season begins in these areas - the monsoon rainy season, which lasts until the end of October. Thunderstorms occur almost daily, but they quickly end, and after them the sun shines again brightly. Daytime temperatures during this period go down by 2 - 3 degrees.
The maximum amount of precipitation occurs in September-October and is 230 - 250 mm.
In the south, the rainy season begins as early as March and lasts until January, with the maximum precipitation in different areas occurring at different times. In September-October it floods Phuket, in November-December - Koh Samui (more than 300 mm of precipitation falls per month) - At the same time, in the remaining months of the rainy season, the amount of precipitation exceeds 100 mm. The further south the territory is located, the shorter the dry season lasts. The hottest month is August, when in the daytime the air warms up to +32...34, and at night it cools down to +25.
The Central Plain, North and Northeast receive an average of 1000-1100 mm of precipitation per year, of which more than 90% falls during the wet season lasting from May to October. In the South and Southeast, the average annual rainfall is 2300–2500 mm, and their amount does not change significantly from month to month.
The dry season is especially noticeable in the Northeast. In the fields, the dry soil turns to stone and cracks. Ponds, shallow lakes, swamps and ditches dry up due to the lowering of the groundwater level. Some rivers become very shallow and become unsuitable for navigation, and sometimes they lose their flow.
The monsoon rains begin in April-May, and in early June the land is so moistened that it can be cultivated and sown. In July, irrigation canals fill with water following the rivers, which overflow widely in the Central Plain. As a result of the land in the delta of the river. The Chao Phraya are flooded almost entirely. To protect against the water element, the local population builds houses on stilts. AT last years due to large-scale deforestation, the adverse effect of seasonal floods and droughts has increased.
Geography
Thailand is a country in Southeast Asia. It occupies the central part of the Indochina peninsula and the northern part of the Malacca peninsula, it also includes a number of small islands. In the west, Thailand borders with Laos and Cambodia, in the east - with Myanmar, in the south - with Malaysia. The country is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Thailand, the South China Sea in the south and the Andaman Sea in the southwest.
The area of Thailand is 531.1 thousand square meters. km. It stretches for 1500 km from north to south and 800 km from west to east. More than half of the country's territory is occupied by low plains; in the north and west there are mountain ranges that have a predominantly meridional direction and continue to the Malay Peninsula. The highest point in Thailand is Mount Doi Inthanon (2595 m) in the mountain range on the western border. To the east is the Korat plateau, almost devoid of vegetation as a result of intensive deforestation, and the coastal area is occupied by a plain known for its beautiful sandy beaches.
The rivers Menam, Mekong and Salween are of the greatest importance in the life of the country. The rivers are mainly fed by rain, so floods can occur during the rainy season. There are few lakes in Thailand, the largest of them is Lake Thaleluang on the Malay Peninsula.
On the territory of Thailand, 5 national parks have been created with a total area of about 8 thousand square meters. km.
The national parks include the Erawan waterfall (west of Bangkok), the highest mountain in Thailand, Doi Inthanon, and other interesting natural objects. Reserves located on mountain ranges Khunthan and Tanentahunji in the west of the country preserve many of the plants and animals of the jungle. Here is the home of the elephants that survived in Thailand; animals can even be seen at work in forest clearings. Unique nature reserves are located on the islands in Phang Nga Bay.
Flora and fauna
Vegetable world
Currently, forests occupy 20% of the country's territory. Up to 70% of the forest stand are deciduous species. In the mountains in northern Thailand and near the border with Myanmar, moist monsoon mixed deciduous forests dominate, in which teak, planer xylia, large-fruited pterocarpus and other hardwood species grow. These forests are interspersed with thickets of bamboo.
On the open slopes in northern Thailand there are oak forests, at altitudes of more than 1000 m above sea level. alternating with pine forests of Merkuza and Khazi pines. Moist evergreen broad-leaved monsoon forests are common in the Makhlong River valley in the west and in the most humid places in the southeast.
Dry monsoon forests are found in the Korat Plateau, the Central Plain, and in the high mountains of western Thailand. These forests are dominated by stunted trees, bamboo and thorny shrubs. Evergreen rainforests are widespread in the south and southeast. They are dominated by dipterocarp (yang, takyan), hopei, anisoptera, sal tree, palm trees (areca, sago), bamboo, pandanus are found. Lianas are widespread.
There are mangroves along the coast, but introduced tree species such as eucalyptus and acacia often crowd out indigenous communities that have been severely affected by logging. The Thai government in 1989 sharply limited the scale of logging, but nevertheless, the rate of deforestation decreased only slightly.
Animal world
Hunting and loss of natural habitats have contributed to a sharp decline in the number of wild animals in Thailand. However, in some remote areas and in protected areas, elephants, tigers, leopards (including the very rare clouded leopard), white-breasted and Malay bears, gaur and banteng bulls, Asiatic buffalo, serow, and a very rare animal black-backed tapir are still found.
There are numerous monkeys (white-handed gibbons, macaques, orangutans, langurs), muntjac and sambar deer, small and large deer, antelopes and other mammals. Domesticated elephants and buffaloes are widely used in agriculture.
There are several dozen species of snakes in Thailand, including poisonous ones.
The fauna of birds is extremely diverse: there are many waterfowl (herons, white pelicans, ducks), pheasants, wild chickens, partridges, parrots, peacocks (including green ones), birds of prey, etc. are widespread. The world of insects is diverse, including more than 600 species of butterflies .
Attractions
Thailand is the leader in attendance among the countries of Southeast Asia. Thousands of Buddhist temples and monasteries, magnificent palaces and pagodas in Bangkok, the beautiful beaches of Pattaya, Patong, Koh Samui and Phuket, vibrant nightlife with a wide variety of shows and entertainment, the notorious sex tourism of all kinds, the famous Thai massage and martial arts, elephant riding, excellent diving conditions, unique floating bazaars and hundreds of exotic uninhabited islands of the Andaman Sea, famous Thai cuisine and colorful Buddhist festivities - all this attracts the attention of millions of tourists.
Banks and currency
The monetary unit of Thailand is the baht (THB). There are 100 satang in one baht. There are coins in circulation in denominations of 25 and 50 satang, 1, 2, 5 and 10 baht; banknotes are issued in denominations of 10 baht, 20 baht, 50 baht, 100 baht, 500 baht and 1,000 baht.
Banks are open on weekdays from 8.30 to 15.30. The resorts have a network of exchange offices that are open from 8.30 to 20.00 or even later.
In Thailand, only local money is accepted for payment. You can exchange currency at the hotel, however, as a rule, the exchange rate at banks and exchange offices is more profitable, and in Bangkok it is more favorable than in other cities. At airports, the exchange rate is acceptable. When exchanging US dollars, it should be borne in mind that old-style banknotes (until 1993) and banknotes of some later years of issue are not always and everywhere accepted, due to the large number of counterfeit banknotes of this year of issue.
In Thailand, the exchange of dollars is quite specific - depending on the denomination of dollar bills, the exchange rate also changes. The lowest rate is offered for banknotes in denominations from 1 to 20 dollars, the highest - for banknotes of a new sample in denominations of 50 and 100 dollars. There are also exchange machines, but they do not accept all banknotes.
Most hotels and shops accept international credit cards such as Visa, American Express, etc.
Useful information for tourists
It is forbidden to photograph military installations and the interior of some temples. Ask for permission before photographing a Thai. You can import no more than 5 photographic films into the country. In Thailand, buy film only in large department stores, because in a tropical climate, if stored improperly, it quickly becomes unusable
For Thais good tone- restrained. Here it is not supposed to touch a person, pat him on the shoulder, and even more so stroke his head, even small children.
The royal house enjoys a particularly deep respect, so under no circumstances is criticism of it unacceptable. Shoes should be removed not only before entering the temple, but also in a private home.
It is customary to bargain in small shops and markets. Traditional Thai souvenirs are Thai silk, wooden figurines, lacquer boxes, silver items, ceramics, snake and crocodile skin items. The export of Buddha figurines, fur, ivory, tortoise shells is prohibited.
The people of Thailand are neat in their clothes. Ripped jeans and worn T-shirts disgust them. Shorts (this, by the way, applies to both men and women) can only be worn on the beach and in the hotel. However, women in miniskirts are perceived normally. There is another interesting detail: when talking with Thais, it is not customary to talk about the heat.
Geography.
Thailand is located in Southeast Asia on the Indochina Peninsula, bordered by the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the southeast. Thailand occupies an area of 517 thousand square meters. km, which is slightly smaller than the state of Texas in the United States or about the same size as the territory of France. Its outline on the map looks like the head of an elephant, whose trunk is lowered down to the Malay Peninsula. Often, the Thais themselves call Thailand "the country of the elephant", and the white elephant is the royal symbol. The capital of Thailand - Bangkok (in Thai "Krung Tep" - "City of Angels") is the largest city in the country. For 1995
Bangkok was the 17th largest city in Asia with a population of about 7 million people. Bangkok lies at 14 north latitude, which is on the same level as Madras, Manila, Guatemala and Karthum. The highest point in the country - Mount Doi Inthanon 2559m above sea level is located in the north-west of the country, near the city of Chiang Mai. There are about 70 national parks and reserves throughout the country. There are hundreds of clean sandy beaches on the coasts of the Andaman Sea in the southwest and the Gulf of Thailand in the east of the country.
The length of the country from north to south is approximately 1860 km, but due to the relief convolutions, the extent in any direction is about 1000 km or less. Due to the fact that from north to south the location on the 16 degree strip, Thailand has the most varied climate in all of Southeast Asia. The topography ranges from high mountains in the north (mainly along the borders with northern Burma and the mountain chain of Southwest China to the southeastern peaks of the Tibetan Plateau) to limestone tropical islands in the south, which is part of the Malay Archipelago.
Northern and central rivers and tributaries flow into the Gulf of Thailand through the Chao Phraya River near Bangkok, Mae Nam Mun and others water streams north-east go to the South China Sea through the Mekong River.
These main geographical characteristics divide the country into four main zones:
- A fertile central region dominated by the Me Nam Chao Phraya River;
- The northeastern plateau, the poorest region of the kingdom (due to the thin layer of soil plus drought and floods), rising 300 m above the central region;
- Northern Thailand, a region of mountains and fertile valleys;
- The southern peninsula, which stretches to the Malayan border and is mostly tropical forests or humid jungles. The southern peninsula receives the main rains and the northeastern one is in the minority, and therefore the climate in the north is less humid.
From the western coast of the Malay Peninsula to Vietnam, the Sunda Reef separates the Gulf of Thailand from the South China Sea. On the opposite side of the peninsula is the Andaman Sea, directed to the Indian Ocean west of the Andaman of India and the Nicobar Islands. The coast of the Andaman Sea from Thailand and the Gulf of Thailand forms 2710 km. beaches. The depth in the bay is from 30 to 80 m, while in the Anlaman Sea the depth reaches more than 100 m.
Thailand's neighbors (moving clockwise from the north) are Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia and Myanmar (Burma). The settlements in the delta of the Chao Phraya River became the oldest core of the future state. The local fertile lands allow for intensive farming and largely cover the country's food needs. In the east, surrounded by low mountain ranges (700-1000 m), the Korat mountain plateau stretches, almost devoid of vegetation as a result of intensive deforestation. In the west of the country stretches a mountain range (1500-2000 m), with impenetrable virgin forests, serves as a kind of barrier between the central regions and the border with Burma. This ridge covers the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, which led to the mountainous terrain of southern Thailand.
The southern coast of the country, with its countless bays and beaches, is washed by the waves of two seas: the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean in the west and the South China Sea, to which the Gulf of Thailand belongs. Thailand has a tropical climate and three seasons. During the rainy season, which lasts from May to October, southeast monsoons dominate the entire country, bringing heavy rains. During the dry winter, from November to February, mild weather sets in here, and the daytime temperature is not much lower than the annual average. At night in the highlands of northern Thailand, the temperature drops to almost 0 C, and in Bangkok it is about 16 C.
Temperatures are much higher in the south of the country. During the hot season - from March to May, strong heat and high humidity are set, and there is practically no precipitation. In the eastern part of the peninsula, its own special climate has formed, which is characterized by uniform rains throughout the year, and only in September there is a sharp increase in showers. Winter is the perfect time to visit Thailand. There is almost no rain during this season, and they do not interfere with long walking tours around the country. But in the hot season, even the Thais themselves are exhausted from the scorching heat, and the Europeans are looking for salvation from it on the beaches. On the islands of Phuket and Phi Phi, it rains mainly in May-June, and on Koh Samui - in October-November.
The climate in Thailand is determined by the monsoons, which result in 3 seasons in North, Northeast and Central Thailand, and 2 seasons in South Thailand. The three-season zone, which extends approximately from the far North to the province of Petchaburi in the southern part of the peninsula, forms a "dry and humid monsoonal climate". July to November is the "rainy season", November to February is the cool season, and March to June is the "hot season".
Officially, the rainy season begins in July (according to the agricultural calendar), but still the weather depends on the monsoons every year. Generally, the further south you go, the shorter the dry season. In the north, in Chiang Mai, the wet season lasts up to 6 months (from mid-November to May), in the central and northeastern regions, 5 months (from December to May).
Most of Thailand - including the mountainous area in the north and the Korat Plateau in the northeast - has a very humid climate - from 66% to 82%, depending on the time of day and season. The highest temperature during the hot season reaches 39 C during the daytime, and cools down by only a few degrees at night. In the cool season in the north in Chiang Mai, the temperature drops to 13 C at night, and in Mae Hong Son province it is lower.
The river network of Thailand is dense. Rivers are characterized by sharp changes in water content throughout the year and high floods during the monsoon rainy season. Almost all rivers begin in the mountains of the northern regions and flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Of particular importance in the life of the country is the Menam Chao Phraya River, the longest and most abundant river in Thailand. Its length is 1200 km (navigable for 400 km from the mouth). Together with its tributaries, it irrigates those areas where rice is grown. Through countless canals - klongs - water is diverted from the river to the rice fields. From May to October, during the rainy season, the entire lowland along which the Menam Chao Phraya flows is flooded with water. Other rivers: The Mekong River flows along the eastern and partly northeastern border of Thailand.
Equally important is the right tributary of the Mekong River - Mun. Along the western border (partly) is the Salween River. The lakes are insignificant; the largest is Kam (in the Mekong River system). In the life of a Thai, water determines a lot: the harvest depends on it; through canals and rivers, the harvest is brought to the city for sale; on narrow long boats - sampangs - communication is maintained between villages located on the banks of rivers and canals. Many villages are built on stilts over water. Many peasants live in large boats covered with mats, especially during prolonged floods. After all, the river is not always a protector and nurse. In the flood, she becomes cruel and merciless, like an evil dragon of folk tales. There are a lot of fish in the rivers and canals, and almost all the peasants are engaged in fishing.
Thailand Geography Facts:
The name of the country is the Kingdom of Thailand, abbreviated as Thailand.
Capital - Bangkok
Location - Southeast Asia
Territory area - total: 514,000 km2, of which the sea zone -2,230 km2
Domain - *. th, commercial zone - *. co. th, non-commercial - *. or. th
The extreme northern point of Thailand is 20o 54' north latitude and 99o 86' east. longitude.
The southernmost point is 5o 68' north latitude and 101o 13' east longitude.
The extreme western point of Thailand is 18o 38' north latitude and 97o 49' east. longitude.
The extreme eastern point is 16o 68' north latitude and 105o 67' east longitude.
Area - 514,000 km2, approximately equal to France or the Khanty-Mansiysk Aut. county
The highest mountains are Doi Inthanon (2595m), Doi Pha Ham Pok (2297m), Doi Luang (2195m), Doi Suthep (2185m), Doi Pha Cho (2024m)
The longest rivers are Mun (673km), Nan (672km), Ping (590km), Yom (555km), Pasak (513km), Chi (442km), Chao Phraya (365km)
Land borders - 4,863 km; borders with Burma - 1,800 km, Cambodia - 803 km, Laos - 1,754 km, Malaysia - 504 km. Thailand controls the only land route to Malaysia and Singapore
Natural disasters - drought due to groundwater imbalance in densely populated regions
Landscape - plain in the central part, Korat plateau in the northeast, mountains in the north
Forests make up 26% of all land resources in the country
Natural resources - tin, natural gas, tantalum, wood, lead, fish, fluorite
Irrigated land – 44,000 km2
The length of the coast is 3,219 km
It is not for nothing that Thailand is called the "Land of Smiles", because very polite and hospitable people who love to smile live there. Probably, the habit of smiling among Thais is developed from an early age under the influence of Buddhism. This is not surprising given that there are over 18,000 Buddhist temples in Thailand. Something else is amazing in Thailand - nature, mountains, palaces, ancient monasteries and temples, pagodas, floating bazaars, Thai cuisine, Thai massage, coral islands, and, of course, white sandy beaches surrounded by palm and coconut groves.
Geography of Thailand
Thailand is located on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. Thailand borders Laos and Cambodia to the east, Malaysia to the south, and Myanmar and Laos to the north. In the east of the country is the Gulf of Thailand, which belongs to the South China Sea, and the western shores are washed by the waters of the Andaman Sea. The total area of Thailand, including the islands, is 514,000 sq. km., and the total length of the state border is 4,863 km.
There are several geographical regions in Thailand. In the west, south and north are mountain systems, and in the east - the Korat plateau. The highest peak is Mount Doi Inthanon, whose height reaches 2,565 m. In the central part, along the Chao Phraya River, there is the Menam lowland. It is the Chao Phraya that is considered the largest river in Thailand.
Capital
The capital of Thailand is Bangkok, which is now home to more than 15 million people. The history of Bangkok goes back to the 15th century.
Official language of Thailand
The official language of the people of Thailand is Thai, belonging to the Thai-Kadai language family.
Religion
More than 94% of the population of Thailand professes Theravada Buddhism (the most conservative direction of this religion).
Government of Thailand
Under the current constitution, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the King and the head of government is the Prime Minister.
The bicameral parliament in Thailand is called the National Assembly, it consists of the Senate (150 senators) and the House of Representatives (480 deputies).
The main political parties in Thailand are the For Thailand Party and the Democratic Party.
Climate and weather
The climate in Thailand is tropical with a lot of rainfall. On the west coast of the country, the monsoon brings rain from April to November, while on the east coast the rainy season lasts from September to December.
Generally, the best time to visit Thailand - from November to February. During this cool season, the air temperature in Bangkok ranges from +18C to +32C.
The summer period (i.e. the hot, dry season) lasts from March to June. In Bangkok at this time of the year, the average air temperature is +34C, but often reaches +40C. Try not to get to Thailand in April, unless, of course, you plan to constantly swim in the ocean. April is the hottest month in Thailand.
From July to October, the monsoon season continues in Thailand. During this time, floods often occur in the country.
Sea in Thailand
In the east of Thailand is the Gulf of Thailand, which belongs to the South China Sea, and the western shores are washed by the waters of the Andaman Sea. The total length of the coast is 3,219 km. The average annual water temperature is +26-29C.
Rivers and lakes
The largest river in Thailand is the Chao Phraya River, which flows through the Menam Lowland in the central part of the country. Another large local river is Mun, which is a tributary of the Mekong River. The Tapi River flows through the south of Thailand, it originates in Khao Lang and flows into the Gulf of Thailand near the city of Surat Thani.
Also in the south of Thailand is the largest lake in this country - Songkhla Lake, located near the city of the same name. Its area is 1,040 km. sq.
Story
Archaeological finds indicate that people on the territory of modern Thailand lived already 10 thousand years ago, and they began to grow rice more than 5 thousand years ago. The ancient Thais were nomads, and their ancestral home is still not exactly known.
Buddhism began to spread in the territory of modern Thailand from about the 3rd century BC. From the 9th to the 11th century, Thailand was part of the Khmer kingdom.
In the XIII-XVII centuries, there were two strong Thai states - Sukhothai and Ayutthaya, which formed the Thai principalities. Interestingly, the Europeans were never able to establish their protectorate over Thailand (it was called Siam in the Middle Ages and in modern times).
In 1932, after a bloodless revolution, the absolute monarchy in Thailand turned into constitutional monarchy. In 1939, Siam officially became known as Thailand.
After World War II, Thailand experienced several military coups. Only in 1997, after the adoption of the new Constitution, the political situation in this Asian country stabilized.
Culture of Thailand
Thailand's culture is rooted in family and Buddhist traditions. Thai children are taught to respect their parents, the elderly, teachers, Buddhist monks. Every Thai settlement has a Buddhist temple, which is the center of local life. That is why Thais are so polite and friendly.
In April, the people of Thailand celebrate the onset of the New Year (Songkran). To be more precise, Thais celebrate this holiday for three days - from April 13 to 15. Before the onset of the New Year, Thais spend a spring cleaning in their homes to throw away all the failures of the outgoing year.
Songkran begins with the distribution of food to Buddhist monks who appear on the streets on this holiday from the very morning. Then the youth pours water on everyone (including themselves), after which festivities, games, and dances begin.
Other popular festivals in Thailand are Visakha Puja (May), Rocket Festival, Full Moon Night (November) and Elephant Festival (November).
Kitchen
Thai cuisine is considered one of the best in all of Asia. Indian and Chinese culinary traditions had a noticeable influence on her. The staple food is rice, which is eaten at every meal. Other staple foods in Thailand are fish noodles and seafood. Meat is not often eaten in this country (because of its high cost).
Be warned that most Thai dishes are very spicy. Therefore, if you do not like a lot of spices, in a restaurant just tell the waiter "No spicy".
In Thailand, tourists are recommended to try rice in oyster sauce, khao phat (rice with vegetables and crabs), laap (fish salad with spices), mi krop (noodles with sweet and sour sauce), nay ( pork sausages), "mu daeng" (pickled meat), "salaphao" (patties with different fillings).
In the bazaars in Thailand, tourists are offered a variety of exotic fruits that grow in this country all year round.
Fruit season in Thailand:
lychee - june
durian - May-August
mangosteen - May-September
rambutan - May-September
longan - June-August
longkong - August-October
mango - March-May
sapodilla - January-May
Do not forget also that in Thailand there are also other fruits - watermelons, bananas, coconuts, pineapples and papaya.
Landmarks of Thailand
In Thailand, tourists are waiting for a huge number of various historical, cultural and architectural monuments. According to official figures, there are now several thousand temples, palaces, pagodas and other attractions in Thailand. The top 10 most interesting sights in Thailand, in our opinion, may include the following:
- Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok
- Buddha's footprint at Phra Buddha Bath
- Royal Palace in Bangkok
- Wat Mahathat temple in Ratchaduri
- Hill Temple in Bangkok
- Sitting Buddha statue at Mahahtati Si Chum
- Temple of Dawn in Bangkok
- Wat Lok Moli temple in Chiang Mai
- Marble Temple in Bangkok
- Temple of the Mountain in Bangkok
Cities and resorts
The largest Thai cities are Nonthaburi, Pakkret, Chiang Mai, Nakhon Phanom, and, of course, the capital is Bangkok.
In Thailand, tourists are waiting for excellent beach resorts. The most popular of them are Cha-am, Krabi, Hua Hin, Pattaya, Samet, Koh Samui, Phuket, Phi Phi, Chan.
Many tourists believe that Thailand has some of the best beaches in the world. Which one to choose from them? In our opinion, the top ten beaches in Thailand include the following:
- Patong - the largest beach in Phuket, soft white sand, warm sea, a large number of hotels, restaurants. shopping, and a lively nightlife.
- Railay Beach - This small beach near Krabi is only accessible by boat and is surrounded by clear waters and majestic mountains.
- Maya Bay, Koh Ley - the beach is located in a small bay, surrounded by high cliffs. This beach can only be reached by boat.
- Hua Hin - This beach, located on the shores of the Gulf of Thailand, is considered an ideal beach for families with children.
- Kata Beach - This beach is located in the quiet southern part of Phuket, in the low season there are quite large waves, and therefore there are many surfers.
- Lamai Beach, Koh Samui - this beach combines beautiful nature and dozens of bars.
- Sairi Beach, Koh Tao - is considered a great place for a beach holiday and diving.
- White Sand Beach, Koh Chang - This beach, located on the island, is surrounded by palm and coconut groves.
- Haad Rin, Koh Phangan - once a month, this beach hosts a fun music party that lasts all night.
- Koh Mun Nork - This beach is located on a desert island in the Gulf of Thailand. The white sandy beach is surrounded by palm trees. You can get there in 45 minutes by ferry.
By the way, Thailand and the Andaman Sea are among the top ten places in the world for diving. The infrastructure on the islands is very poorly developed, and therefore the coral reefs and the underwater world remain untouched. On the west coast, diving can be practiced almost all year round (the best time is from mid-November to the end of April).
Souvenirs/Shopping
From Thailand, tourists usually bring handicrafts (including wooden carvings), ceramics, Thai silk, silk scarves, clothes, Buddha figurines, silver jewelry, objects depicting elephants (elephants are the symbol of Thailand), Thai sauces and spices.