Penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, consideration of the properties of the elements that make up this problem, finding a solution to a problem is carried out by a person with the help of mental operations. In psychology, there are such operations of thinking as:
comparison;
abstraction;
generalization;
classification and;
Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis is the selection in an object of one or another of its aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc.; it is the dismemberment of a cognizable object into various components. For example, a student in the classroom young technicians, trying to understand the mode of action of any mechanism or machine, first of all, highlights the various elements, details of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So - in the simplest case, he analyzes, dismembers the cognizable object. Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Unlike analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually act in unity. They are inseparable, they cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected. The inseparable unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such a cognitive process as comparison.
Comparison - this is an operation that consists in comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relations with each other and in identifying, thus, the commonality or difference between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process, from which, as a rule, cognition begins. Ultimately, the comparison leads to a generalization. Generalization - this is a combination of many objects or phenomena according to some common feature. In the course of generalization in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis - something in common is singled out. These are common to various objects properties are of two types:
common as similar signs and;
common as essential features.
By finding similar, identical or common properties and signs of things, the subject discovers the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar features are then abstracted (distinguished, separated) from the totality of other properties and denoted by a word, then they become the content of the corresponding ideas of a person about certain population objects or events.
abstraction - a mental operation based on a distraction from not essential features objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.
Abstraction - an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from non-essential aspects, properties of objects and relations between them in order to identify essential features. Isolation (abstraction) of common properties of different levels allows a person to establish generic relationships in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby construct a certain classification. Classification - systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects. Classification should be distinguished from categorization.
Categorization - the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. The regularities of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the main internal, specific regularities of thinking. On their basis, only all external manifestations of mental activity can be explained.
Issues for discussion :
1. The essence of thinking as a process of problem solving.
3. The main types of mental actions characteristic of the process of solving problems and their content. 4. Basic operations of thinking and their essence.
2. Basic mental operations
The process of solving problems is undoubtedly a model that most fully reflects the structure intellectual activity, and the study of the features of this process can provide essential materials for understanding the psychology of human thinking. In the process of mental activity, a person learns the world through special mental operations. “These operations constitute various interrelated aspects of thinking that pass into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization and generalization.
Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental separation of its aspects, actions, relations from the whole. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts. A table, for example, can be divided into parts such as a lid, legs, drawers, spacers, etc. When introducing children to a plant, they are offered to show part of it (trunk, branches, leaves, roots). Analysis can be practical (when the thought process is directly included in speech activity) and mental (theoretical). If analysis is divorced from other operations, they become vicious, mechanistic. Elements of such an analysis are observed in a child at the first stages of the development of thinking, when the child takes apart, breaks toys into separate parts, without using them further.
Synthesis is a mental union of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relation of individual objects or phenomena as elements or parts to their complex whole, object or phenomenon is established. Synthesis is not a mechanical connection of parts and therefore is not reduced to their sum. When connecting the individual parts of the machine, when they are synthesized, not a pile of metal is obtained, but a machine capable of moving. At chemical compound water receives oxygen and hydrogen. Both synthesis and analysis occupy an important place in the intellectual process. So, when learning to read sounds and letters, they make up a syllable, from syllables - words, from words - sentences.
Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. Analyzing what includes something common, whole. Synthesis also involves analysis: in order to combine some parts, elements into a single whole, these parts and features must be obtained, and the result of the analysis. In mental activity, analysis and synthesis, as it were, alternately come to the fore. The predominance of analysis or synthesis in thinking can be due both to the nature of the material and the conditions of the task, and to the mental makeup of a person.
Comparison is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual features. In practice, comparison is observed when one object is applied to another; for example, one pencil to another, a ruler to a desk, etc. This is how the process of comparison takes place when we measure space or weigh weights. Comparison can be unilateral (incomplete, according to one attribute) and multilateral (complete, according to all attributes); superficial and deep; unmediated and mediated. The main requirement for the comparison operation is that it be carried out in one relation. For a deeper and more accurate knowledge of the activity, especially great importance such a quality of thinking as the ability to find differences in the most similar objects and similarities in different ones.
Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object under study, is distracted from the rest. So we can talk about the green color, as a beneficial effect on human vision, without specifically specifying objects that have green color. In this process, the attribute separated from the object is thought independently of other attributes of the object, becomes an independent object of thought. Abstraction is usually carried out as a result of analysis. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc. were created. Abstraction is a complex process that depends on the originality of the object under study and the goals facing the researcher. Thanks to abstraction, a person can be distracted from the individual, the concrete. At the same time, abstraction does not exist without sensual support, otherwise it becomes meaningless, formal. Among the types of abstraction, one can distinguish practical, directly included in the process of activity; sensual or external; higher, mediated, expressed in concepts.
Concretization involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is addressed in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, the request is essentially to specify what has been said before.
Generalization - a mental union of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features. For example, similar features found in apples, pears, plums, etc., are combined in one concept, which we express with the word "fruit". Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining a result. A person analyzes objects in order to identify common patterns in them and predict their properties. A psychologist studies people in order to reveal the general patterns of their development. The repeatability of a certain set of properties in a number of objects indicates more or less significant connections between them. At the same time, generalization does not at all imply the rejection of specific special properties of objects, but consists in revealing their essential connections. Essential, i.e. necessarily interconnected and, precisely because of this, inevitably repetitive.
The simplest generalizations consist in combining objects on the basis of separate, random features. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined for different reasons. The most difficult is the generalization, in which specific and generic features are clearly distinguished and the object is included in the system of concepts.
All of these operations cannot occur in isolation without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex operations arise, such as classification, systematization, and others. Each of the mental operations can be considered as a corresponding mental action. At the same time, the activity, the effective nature of human thinking, the possibility of creative transformation of reality are emphasized. Human thinking not only includes various operations, but also proceeds at various levels, in various forms, which together allows us to speak about the existence of different types of thinking. In psychology, there are several approaches to the problem of classifying the types of thinking. As already shown above, in terms of the degree of development, thinking can be a discursive, stage-by-stage developed process, and intuitive, characterized by the speed of flow, the absence of clearly defined stages, and minimal awareness.
Raising a culture of mental work. The main requirements for the methodology for conducting such classes are as follows: 1) conducting classes to educate the culture of mental work should be carried out not on a case-by-case basis, but according to a pre-designed program and calendar schedule; 2) successive relationship with the work of subject teachers for development intellectual abilities students; ...
In a didactic game, they imitate the captain's mental work - they "lead the ship along a given course" based on the calculations made. Didactic game is a valuable means of educating the mental activity of children, it activates mental processes, arouses in students a keen interest in the process of cognition. In it, children willingly overcome significant difficulties, train their strength, develop ...
In society, which entails the invention and development of fundamentally new technologies for the search, dissemination, translation of knowledge in the social space. 2.2 general characteristics formation of the intellectual culture of the individual The needs of the socio-economic development of Russia must be provided by the education system, since education and intelligence, as well as spiritual health ...
Knowledge, with the mastery of educational and cognitive operations, with the manifestation of the flexibility of the mind both in the assimilation of knowledge and in their practical use. We are talking about human thinking as an integral part of mental education. Thinking is a product of the activity of the human brain. It is common to all people. Teachers and psychologists recommend that the teacher develop thinking in general and its particular types. ...
Mental operations are actions that we carry out in our thinking on material, real or imagined. Mental operations are separate "bricks" or stages of our thinking. The main types of mental operations include:Comparison,
abstraction,
concretization,
induction,
Deduction.
Comparison
Comparison is a mental operation that consists in establishing similarities and differences between individual objects or phenomena of the real world.When a person observes two objects, willy-nilly or not, he begins to notice how these objects are similar or how they differ. Outwardly simple, this operation includes a number of complex elements. There is no "comparison in general", it always depends on what properties of the compared objects are essential for us, what interests us. Depending on the situation, on our needs (sometimes very subtle) there are different bases for comparison.
Example. There are four people. Three of them are interested in books, the fourth is not. The former is interested in books insofar as he is interested in, say, science fiction. When he encounters a book, he pays attention to those details that can show that it belongs specifically to science fiction. On the cover you can find the name of a familiar author, if the author is unknown, then the title of the work or the characteristic design of the cover can give out that the book belongs to a particular genre. Therefore, when meeting two books, a fan of science fiction will compare them with each other in terms of authors, titles, and design. And, without even looking inside, he can give preference to one or another book.
Another person is also interested in books, but his interest is professional: he is engaged in publishing. Such a person is likely to compare books with each other on other grounds: paper quality, cover design methods, book sizes, and some other technical characteristics.
The fourth person is not at all interested in books, at least in their paper versions. If he reads books, then only from the screen of a computer or mobile device. Paper books occupy almost no place in the life of this person. And therefore, interestingly and importantly, the grounds for comparing books among themselves are temporary and unstable: today two books seem similar / different because of color, tomorrow they are compared in size, the day after tomorrow in the year of publication, etc. .
The comparison operation is carried out either directly or indirectly. When we perceive two things directly, we use direct comparison. Otherwise, we use an indirect comparison. In an indirect comparison, we can use inferences based on indirect signs.
Indirect comparison generally relies on the full power of our intellect; both, for example, imagination and visual actions can be used as a "mediator" in the comparison. The child cannot find out if he has become taller by comparing himself directly with his present self and his former self (for example, a month ago). However, he can use a visual trick and mark his height on the door frame. And then by the marks he will be able to find out the desired information.
Strictly speaking, in nature there are no two identical objects at all. Any two stones differ from each other, heavenly bodies differ, there are no two absolutely identical birds or insects. It must be assumed that even two identical atoms or electrons do not exist. Our thinking makes objects the same. For this, in fact, there is a comparison operation.
Moreover, the human mind has come up with objects that are always the same, under all circumstances. This, of course, is about mathematical - exclusively invented - objects. So in mathematics, all equilateral triangles with a side length of 7 centimeters are always equal to each other.
The operation of comparison is extremely important for the work of the psyche. And in any comparison, as we have already said, there is one or another basis, one or another essential feature. It is interesting that in the comparison operation there are individual differences not only in terms of bases, but also in the comparison algorithm.
Example. There are four people (A, B, C, D) and two stones (b and b). The test subjects are tasked with comparing the stones and making a verdict: are these stones the same or different. For all subjects, the main comparison criterion is the shape, but there are also secondary ones - color, size. A and B started their reasoning like this: "Suppose b and b are the same..." C and D started their reasoning differently: "Suppose b and b are different..." Then they continued their reasoning. Subject A stated: "The shape of the stones is the same, so the hypothesis is fully confirmed." Subject B decided differently: "The shape of the stones is the same, but I have not yet compared in color and size; if it turns out that they are different in some way, then the stones will be different." Subject B argues differently: "The shape of b and b is the same, so my hypothesis was not confirmed, and this means that the stones are not different, but the same." And the last subject, G: "The shape, of course, is the same, and this somewhat contradicts my hypothesis; I will have to compare more in color and size; maybe they will confirm my hypothesis."
Unlike abstract reasoning in philosophy, formal or mathematical logic in real life in most cases we have several bases for comparison. In this case, some grounds are usually somewhat more important than others. Therefore, all four comparison algorithms given in the example make sense. Depending on the number of bases, on their equal or different significance, there are profitable talk one way or another.
The operation of comparison by our thinking is performed so often and in most cases so quickly that we simply do not have time to reflect on the algorithms by which we compare. Algorithms are very different and specific, not only such simple logical ones as in our example. Comparison can be multi-criteria, when in our head we formulate a number of comparison criteria, and then, as it were, putting points in our minds to the compared objects. Some comparison algorithms are inherent in us by nature and have not yet been fully studied by science.
Such, for example, is auditory perception, entirely built on comparisons. Listening to another popular motive, we relatively easily and not without pleasure seek out a recurring chorus in a musical opus. We can say with certainty what other opuses this opus is similar to. But we are not able to clearly describe the algorithm for comparing two pieces of music with each other, or at least separate short sections, because we control this intellectual comparison process very weakly with our consciousness.
The comparison operation is inherent not only to people, but also to animals and birds. Females of many animals, for example, having the opportunity to compare two potential marriage partners among themselves, prefer a larger and more physically developed male. When meeting each other, geese stand on tiptoe and stretch their beak upwards, comparing their height and competing in this indicator.
The comparison operation is the base for many other mental operations. Abstracting from some properties and circumstances, focusing on others provides a primary structuring, ordering of the material.
Analysis and synthesis
Analysis is the mental division of something into parts or the mental selection of individual properties of an object. The essence of this operation is that, perceiving or imagining an object or phenomenon, we can mentally select one part from another in it, and then select the next part, etc.Through analysis, we can find out what parts are in what we perceive. Analysis allows us to decompose the whole into parts, i.e. allows us to understand the structure of what we perceive. Not always, however, there is only one way of this decomposition of the whole into parts. If the system is very complex, then there can be a lot of these methods. Therefore, as in the case of the comparison operation, the analysis can also have reasons.
Example. Suppose we are given the task of dividing the city in which we live into several separate parts. As a basis for decomposition (analysis), we can take the already established administrative-territorial division (by districts). We can divide the city into functional parts: residential areas, industrial areas, landscape gardening areas. We can highlight the historical part (with houses built, say, before 1917), modern part and new building area. It can be divided into right bank and left bank.
It is possible to analyze not only those objects that are presented to us visually. You can analyze, for example, processes. If a position was established in some organization, for example, an economist-analyst or a marketer, then the specialist who occupied it will begin his work with an analysis: he will find out what structural and functional divisions exist in the organization in general, what specific tasks the organization faces, who her partners, etc. Without a preliminary analysis in his work, such a specialist will poke around like a blind kitten.
When analyzing visual objects, we highlight:
Essential parts of the subject (structure),
Color, shape, material properties and other properties.
Analysis of objects, of course, can be carried out not only in a visual mode, but also from memory.
Synthesis is an operation opposite to analysis, a mental combination of parts of objects or phenomena into a single whole, a mental combination of their individual properties.
Suppose we come across a new radio-controlled toy car and we really want to understand how it works. At first we will just play and observe the behavior of the machine. Then we can disassemble it together with the remote control and conduct an analysis, that is, carefully study the structure of the toy, understand what parts it consists of. After that, we can assemble the machine (that is, carry out the synthesis) and continue studying the behavior of the machine. We can disassemble the machine again, change something in its device and assemble it, see what comes of it.
The very fact that we managed to assemble the machine again already shows that we have a good understanding of its device.
Synthesis, as well as analysis, is characterized by mental operation of the properties of an object. However, it cannot be argued that synthesis and analysis are exclusively mental (non-material) operations. It is possible to assemble and disassemble the machine, as in our example, not only in the mind, but also in a mixed form: that is, on visual material. Analysis and synthesis are not some "mystically incomprehensible" operations, they are literally the decomposition and assembly of an object. And it's often more rewarding to take apart a typewriter or something literally than mentally. By the way, the human hand is represented in the cerebral cortex by very large areas and, by manipulating this or that object, the "smart hand" can "explain" a lot.
Throughout life, a person constantly, daily and even hourly uses analysis and synthesis. Arriving, for example, in a new supermarket, the buyer in his mind breaks the store area into departments, analyzes the assortment by manufacturer, highlights strengths and weak sides in the work of personnel, determines which goods are profitable to buy and which are not.
Both analysis and synthesis can pursue purely practical goals, and can also be theoretical. In the latter case, a person is only interested in "truth for the sake of truth", that is, he is engaged in the development of a single, scientific picture (model) of the world.
Regardless of practical or theoretical thinking, analysis and synthesis are closely related to other mental operations, such as comparison. Comparison of two objects with each other can serve as an impetus for the analysis of one of these objects or both. Having learned, for example, that not all products are equally useful, a curious person will begin to inquire why and will begin to sort products into components in his mind. Within the analysis operation itself, a comparison may be required: having met two identical gears in the design of a machine, a person may be interested in whether they are exactly the same, and if they are different, then how significant this difference is.
Analysis and synthesis are closely related. AT Everyday life we usually do not notice how in our minds we first “put things on the shelves”, and then put them together into one whole. By themselves, analysis for the sake of analysis and synthesis for the sake of synthesis practically do not occur. If we have "taken apart something brick by brick", then later we want to make something out of these "bricks". And having done something, I want to take it apart again.
Abstraction and Concretization
Abstraction is a mental distraction from some parts or properties of an object in favor of other, more significant features. You can abstract from any features or properties of the object. To abstract from something means not to attach importance to it, to ignore this circumstance.You can ignore the age, gender and character of your colleagues. Then it will be possible to evaluate colleagues more objectively, according to business qualities.
You can ignore the fact that the Earth is round and build a football field flat instead of convex.
You can disregard the temperature of ice cream and consider melted ice cream to be ice cream as well.
Abstraction is weak and strong. In the first case, we abstract from one or two signs, circumstances. In the second case, we abstract from everything else, except for one or two signs or circumstances.
If we abstract from everything except age, gender and character, then we can make a small personality portrait: "An elderly grumpy woman" or "A brave but arrogant young man."
If we abstract from all other circumstances except that the Earth is round, then we can say that the planet Earth is one big football field.
If we abstract from everything except temperature, then we can say that all cold objects are ice cream.
The beauty of abstraction is not only that we can talk about such concepts as "asexual man" or "flat Earth", but also that we can talk about strong abstractions - signs abstracted from carrier objects. We can judge such abstract things as temperature, gender, age, round shape, rectangular shape, shape, color, democracy, psychology.
What gives us the ability to abstract? For example, it is widely used in the formation and assimilation of new concepts, since the concepts reflect only essential features common to a whole class of objects. Having said "table", we abstract from other, seemingly secondary, features, such as color, dimensions, material, functionality, and present a certain image of a whole class of objects. In the word "table" we present only an abstract characteristic: a rather large object with a flat surface, at which one can sit and on which one can perform certain manual actions, a third or half the height of a person.
Not every person can define a table, but all people are well aware of this concept and use it competently. Some abstract concepts cannot be explained directly at all, only indirectly. So, for example, without the use of a scientific apparatus, it is impossible to explain to another person how green differs from red. It is possible only in examples, through concretization, to say that green is the color of plants, and red is the color of ripe tomatoes or ketchup.
It is even more difficult to explain the meaning of words denoting non-visual objects. How to define love? Or democracy? A feeling of deep sympathy? What is sympathy? Deep attachment to another person or object? How can you tell a deep attachment from a shallow one? People power? Over whom?
This is a very interesting feature. human psyche: we can speak for hours in abstraction words, but to define these words is given to us by significant efforts.
Among the types of abstraction are sometimes distinguished:
Practical (directly included in the process of activity),
sensual (external)
Higher (mediated, expressed in concepts).
Pure abstraction, abstraction for the sake of abstraction, can take you very far in reasoning. In contrast to it, there is concretization - the representation of something single, which corresponds to a particular concept or general position. In concrete representations, we do not seek to abstract ourselves from the various features or properties of objects and phenomena, but, on the contrary, we strive to imagine these objects in all their diversity of properties and features, in a close combination of some features with others.
If abstraction is the breaking of links between features, the transition from consideration of isolated cases to general ones, then concretization always acts as an example or as an illustration of something in common. Specifying general concept we understand it better.
Examples. There was an abstract concept "a piece of furniture" - the concept "table" became less abstract (more concrete). To be specific, you can go to "desk", "my home desk", "my home desk, as it was ten years ago."
"Activity" - " Professional activity"- "Healing" - "Pulling out teeth."
"Animal" - "Predator" - "Representative of the cat family" - "Domestic cat" - "My cat Musya".
Induction and deduction
An important feature of our mental activity is that as a result of it we receive (can receive) new knowledge. The acquisition of new knowledge is directly followed by a conclusion, which is also referred to as mental operations. There are usually two main types of inference:Inductive reasoning (induction),
Deductive reasoning (deduction).
Induction - the transition from special cases to a general position, which covers special cases.
Examples. Suppose we have made a series of observations. We saw bears in several zoos. All of them were brown. From this we concluded that all bears are brown.
We have seen many birds in our lifetime. All of them had feathers, except for those sold in the store. From this we concluded that all living birds have feathers.
I went through a lot of different numbers in my mind. It turned out that no matter how big a number is, there will always be even more. From this they concluded that there is no largest number in the world.
As in any mental operation, in induction we can make certain mistakes, the conclusion made may turn out to be insufficiently reliable or completely false. The reliability of inductive reasoning is achieved not only by increasing the number of cases on which it is based, but also by using a variety of examples in which insignificant features of objects and phenomena vary.
Inferences like "Some bears are brown" are also inductive. And it's not hard at all to make them. It is enough just to watch a few brown bears. Much more difficult with strong statements like "All bears are brown." Even after observing a thousand bears, among which all turned out to be brown, it cannot be argued that all bears are brown, because we do not know if we have seen all possible bears in the world.
Having polled 1200 respondents during sociological research it can be found out that all respondents support the politician Vasisualy Lokhankin. It will be true. However, the inductive conclusion "All the inhabitants of our city (country) support Vasisualy Lokhankin" will remain conjectural and unproven. It will only be proven that some residents support the said politician. And you can't get away from this fact.
Although inductive reasoning is not precise in a strict, logical sense, it is of course of great use in everyday life. Having bought spoiled products several times in the same store, one can come to the inductive conclusion that all (many) products from this store are spoiled. Observing how often a person lies, one can inductively conclude that he usually tells lies in general.
The mental operation opposite to induction is deduction - an inference made in relation to a particular case based on general position. For example, knowing that all numbers are divisible by three, the sum of the digits of which is a multiple of three, we can say that the number 412815 is divided by three without a remainder. At the same time, knowing that all birches shed their leaves for the winter, we can be sure that any individual birch will also be without leaves in winter.
Induction through generalizations of varying degrees of accuracy and reliability helps us to enrich our knowledge about the world around us. We can say that the picture (model) of the world consists of many different inductive conclusions. In adolescence, when a person is studying, he uses the induction operation much more often. In mature years, when it is time to act, deduction is needed more often, because it is it that helps in solving specific life problems.
The doctor, having made a definite diagnosis to the patient, based on knowledge general patterns the course of this disease, concludes how to treat a particular patient. An experienced auto mechanic, knowing the typical problems of cars of a given model and observing certain symptoms, draws a conclusion about the alleged problems. The buyer, knowing that all ripe bananas yellow color, does not buy green.
Like induction, deduction is a rather risky inference. Knowing, for example, that the majority of engineers are men, a school graduate may change her mind about entering technical university, although at school she had success in mathematics and physics.
In addition to induction and deduction, traduction is also distinguished in logic - a conclusion that is not accompanied by a transition from the particular to the general or vice versa. Most characteristic example traduction - analogy. Having a rather vague idea (model) of the object in question, we can turn to an analogy, that is, take another object, or rather its model, correct something in this model and use it on the current object. If students, for example, do not really understand how Earth's crust, then the teacher can give an analogy with a layer cake.
Literature
Maklakov A. G. General psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. Consideration, study of something, based on the dismemberment (mental, and often real) of an object, phenomenon into its constituent parts, determination of the elements included in the whole, analysis of the properties of an object or phenomenon. The reverse procedure of A. is synthesis, with which A. is often combined in practical or cognitive activity. Synthesis consists in the fact that knowledge about the subject is obtained by combining its elements and studying their connection. One of the logical operations thinking. Tasks on S. objects, images, concepts are widely used in psychological research development of thinking and its disorders. The grounds for S. that a person uses, the ease of transition from one of them to another, etc. are analyzed.31. Thinking operations
The process of thinking is carried out with the help of a number of mental operations: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, classification, systematization, comparison, generalization.
Analysis is the mental decomposition of an object into its component parts in order to isolate its various aspects, properties, and relationships from the whole. Through analysis, irrelevant connections given by perception are discarded.
Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis. This is the union of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. This reveals significant links. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations.
Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of the parts. Synthesis without analysis is also impossible, since it restores the whole from the parts selected by analysis.
Comparison is the establishment between objects of similarity or difference, equality or inequality, etc. Comparison is based on analysis. In order to carry out this operation, you must first select one or more characteristic features compared objects. Then, according to the quantitative or qualitative characteristics of these features, a comparison is made. It depends on the number of selected features whether the comparison will be one-sided, partial or complete. Comparison (like analysis and synthesis) can be of different levels - superficial and deep. In the case of a deep comparison, a person's thought moves from external signs similarities and differences to the internal, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence. Comparison is the basis of classification - the assignment of objects with different characteristics to different groups.
Abstraction (or abstraction) is a mental distraction from secondary, non-essential in a given situation sides, properties or connections of an object and the allocation of one side, property. Abstraction is possible only as a result of analysis.
Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.
Concretization is the opposite process. This is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete in order to reveal its content. Concretization is also addressed in the case when it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual.
Systematization is the arrangement of individual objects, phenomena, thoughts in a certain order according to any one sign (for example, chemical elements in periodic table D. I. Mendeleev).
A generalization is a combination of many objects according to some common feature. In this case, single signs are discarded. Only essential links remain. Abstraction and generalization are two interrelated sides of a single thought process, through which thought goes to knowledge.
From the book I'm right - you're wrong by Bono Edward deOUR TRADITIONAL THINKING HABITS In the previous part of the book, I tried to show how the natural, normal, and inevitable behavior of a self-organizing pattern system affects our perceptual thinking (including things like attention). Like me
From the book Teach Yourself to Think [Self-Tutorial for the Development of Thinking] by Bono Edward deDIFFERENT THINKING SITUATIONS The following list of thought situations is by no means exhaustive. Many readers will easily be able to add to this list their own situations that I may have missed. The purpose of this list is to suggest
From the book Pickup. seduction tutorial author Bogachev Philip OlegovichSection Two: Thought Processes (cleaning the tails) Any logically thinking unit can be insidiously deceived by any other unit whose thinking is at least at the same level of logic, Douglas Adams. "Mostly harmless." In this part, we learn and
From the book Mnemonics [Memorization based on visual thinking] author Ziganov Marat Alexandrovich1. Mental operations with images During classes, you will not only have to visualize what you remember, but also modify the images. These changes are carried out with the help of the following mental operations. Connection of images. With this mental operation
From the book Fundamentals of the Science of Thinking. Book 1. reasoning author Shevtsov Alexander Alexandrovich From the book Etudes on the History of Behavior author Vygotsky Lev Semyonovich§ 6. Numerical Operations of Primitive Man
From the book Supernatural in Primitive Thinking author Levy-Bruhl LucienChapter III. Operations and Techniques of Proto-logical Thinking 1 It would be completely useless to draw a parallel between the discursive operations of proto-logical and our thinking, to find out to what extent they correspond to each other. The very assumption of such a correspondence would be
From the book Information Wars [Fundamentals of Military Communication Research] author Pocheptsov Georgy Georgievich From the book Psychology of Intelligence the author Piaget JeanOperations and their "groupings" The main stumbling block for the theory of intelligence, based on the analysis of higher forms of thinking, is the hypnotic effect that opportunities verbal thinking. P. Janet brilliantly showed
From the book Basics general psychology author Rubinshtein Sergei LeonidovichConcrete Operations The appearance of logical-arithmetic and space-time relations poses a problem of great interest from the point of view of the mechanisms inherent in the development of thinking. Indeed, it is not a simple agreement based on
From the book Psychology. Textbook for high school. author Teplov B. M.The formal operations of Displacement, examples of which we have just considered, refer to operations of the same levels, although they are applied to different areas of action or concepts. The fact that they occur during the same period gives reason
From the book Without revolutions. Working on ourselves, staying in harmony author Stevens MichaelBasic operations as aspects of mental activity Presence problem situation, with which the thought process begins, always aimed at solving some problem, indicates that the initial situation is given in the representation of the subject
From the book Psychoanalysis [Introduction to the Psychology of Unconscious Processes] author Kutter Peter§47. Basic thought processes 1) Generalization and abstraction The formation of concepts is based on the process of generalization, i.e., the mental unification of objects and phenomena of reality that have certain common properties. In the most complete form, generalization is carried out in
From the author's bookCHAPTER 2 Thought Rafts Most people grow old in a narrow circle of ideas that they have not discovered for themselves. Luc de Clapier, Marquis de Vauvenargues, French moralist and writer
From the author's bookWorld Thinking Rafts Globalization creates a kind of paradox. Global technologies contribute to the establishment of contact between people, while the global philosophy divides entire cultures that are under the pressure of the same technologies.
From the author's bookStructural features and defensive operations The most important and most consequential feature of the psychotic structure is the division of the self into two parts: psychotic and non-psychotic. Even in topographical theory, Freud repeatedly formulated
Thinking in psychology is defined as a process of human cognitive activity, which is a mediated and generalized reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships.
Types of thinking are distinguished according to various criteria. The main accepted classification distinguishes the following three types: 1) visual-effective thinking; 2) visual-figurative thinking; 3) verbal-logical (or conceptual) thinking. It is in this order that the types of thinking develop in the process of phylo- and ontogenesis.
Visual and effective thinking is a kind of thinking based on the direct perception of objects. The solution of the problem within its framework is carried out in the course of a real, physical transformation of the situation, in the process of actions with objects. way physical contact with objects there is a comprehension of their properties. In the process of phylogeny, people solved the problems that confronted them, at first precisely within the framework of practical, objective activity. Only then did theoretical activity stand out from it. This also applies to thinking. Only as practical activity develops does theoretical thinking activity stand out as relatively independent. A similar process is observed not only during historical development humanity, but also in ontogeny. The formation of thinking in a child occurs gradually. First, it develops within practical activity and is largely determined by how the ability to handle objects develops.
The next type of thinking that appears in ontogeny is visual-figurative thinking. This type is already characterized by reliance on images of objects, on ideas about their properties. A person imagines a situation, imagines the changes that he wants to receive, and those properties of objects that will allow him to achieve the desired result in the course of his activity. In this kind of thinking, action with the image of objects and situations precedes real actions in terms of objects. A person, solving a problem, analyzes, compares, generalizes various images. The image can contain a versatile vision of the subject. Therefore, this type of thinking gives a more complete picture of the properties of the object than visual-effective thinking.
The transition to the conceptual stage is associated with the formation of the following type of thinking - verbal-logical. It represents the latest stage in the development of thinking in phylo- and ontogenesis. Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts. Concepts are formed on the basis of linguistic means. The forerunner of verbal-logical thinking is inner speech.
Forms of thinking. There are three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment, conclusion.
concept is a reflection in the human mind distinctive features objects and phenomena, their general and specific features, expressed by a word or a group of words. The concept is highest level generalizations, inherent only in the verbal-logical type of thinking. Concepts are concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts reflect objects, phenomena, events of the surrounding world, abstract ones reflect abstract ideas. For example, “man”, “autumn”, “holiday” are specific concepts; "truth", "beauty", "good" are abstract concepts.
The content of concepts is revealed in judgments which also always have a verbal form. Judgment is the establishment of links between concepts about objects and phenomena or about their properties and features. Judgments are general, particular and singular. In general, something is asserted about all objects of a certain group, for example: "All rivers flow." A private judgment applies only to some of the objects of the group: "Some rivers are mountainous." A single judgment concerns only one object: "The Volga is the largest river in Europe." Judgments can be formed in two ways. The first is a direct expression of the perceived relationship of concepts. The second is the formation of a judgment in an indirect way with the help of inferences. Thus, a conclusion is the derivation of a new proposition from two (or more) already existing propositions (premises). The simplest form of inference is a syllogism - a conclusion made on the basis of a particular and general judgment. Any process of proving, for example, a mathematical theorem, is a chain of syllogisms that sequentially follow one from the other. A more complex form of inference is inference deductive and inductive. Deductive - follow from general premises to a particular judgment and from particular to singular. Inductive ones, on the contrary, derive general judgments from single or particular premises. On the basis of such methods of reasoning, it is possible to compare with each other certain concepts and judgments that a person uses in the course of his mental activity. Thus, for the productive flow of mental activity, logical forms of thinking are necessary. They determine the persuasiveness, consistency, and, consequently, the adequacy of thinking. The idea of logical forms of thinking passed into psychology from formal logic. This science also studies the process of thinking. But if the subject of formal logic is primarily the structure and result of thinking, then psychology explores thinking as mental process, she is interested in how and why this or that thought arises and develops, how this process depends on individual characteristics of a person, as it is connected with other mental processes.
mental operations. The process of thinking is carried out with the help of a number of mental operations: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, classification, systematization, comparison, generalization.
Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of an object into its constituent parts in order to isolate its various aspects, properties, relations from the whole. Through analysis, irrelevant connections given by perception are discarded.
Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis. This is the union of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. This reveals significant links. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of the parts. Synthesis without analysis is also impossible, since it restores the whole from the parts selected by analysis.
Comparison- this is the establishment between objects of similarity or difference, equality or inequality, etc. Comparison is based on analysis. In order to carry out this operation, it is necessary to first select one or more characteristic features of the compared objects. Then, according to the quantitative or qualitative characteristics of these features, a comparison is made. It depends on the number of selected features whether the comparison will be one-sided, partial or complete. Comparison (like analysis and synthesis) can be of different levels - superficial and deep. In the case of a deep comparison, a person's thought moves from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence. Comparison is the basis of classification - the assignment of objects with different characteristics to different groups.
Abstraction(or abstraction) is a mental distraction from secondary, non-essential in a given situation, sides, properties or connections of an object and the allocation of one side, property. Abstraction is possible only as a result of analysis. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.
Specification is the opposite process. This is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete in order to reveal its content. Concretization is also addressed in the case when it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual.
Systematization i is the arrangement of individual objects, phenomena, thoughts in a certain order according to any one sign (for example, chemical elements in the periodic table of D. I. Mendeleev).
Generalization It is a combination of many objects according to some common feature. In this case, single signs are discarded. Only essential links remain. Abstraction and generalization are two interrelated sides of a single thought process, through which thought goes to cognition.
Similar information.