In what year did the events take place in France? History of the French Revolutions. Brief history of France

1789–1791
1791–1793
1793–1799
1799–1814
Napoleon's coup and the establishment of the empire
1814–1848
1848–1851
1851–1870
1870–1875
Revolution of 1870 and establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, gradually turning into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters, leading to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France spent a lot on unsuccessful wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took loans, the interest on which was unbearable for it. The only way to increase revenues to the treasury was to deprive the tax privileges of the first and second estates. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three classes: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility and the third - all the rest. The first two estates had a number of privileges, including being exempted from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, meeting the resistance of the noble parliaments. Parliaments- before the revolution, the highest courts of the fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Parlement of Paris existed, then the remaining thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the Estates General Estates General- a body that included representatives of the three estates and convened on the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three classes. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters issued orders to deputies: few people wanted a revolution, but everyone hoped for change. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, while at the same time counting on limiting its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land as their property; among the townspeople, the ideas of the enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the well-known brochure of Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes “What is the third estate?”, Containing the following passage, was published in January 1789: “1. What is the third estate - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something"). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, and not the king, should have the highest power in the country, that absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one, and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly defined laws that are the same for all citizens.

The Great French Revolution and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy

The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Hoehl. 1789

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

Beginning of the Estates General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

Storming of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the Estates General opened at Versailles. By tradition, each class had one vote during the voting. Deputies from the third estate, who were twice as many as deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up for discussion only financial reforms. On June 17, the deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new state system in France.

Soon a rumor spread around Paris that the government was gathering troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the highest authority in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from August 5 to August 11, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were abolished.

The overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and the absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted the constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. The laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. Executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official who obeyed the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; Church property was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood ". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790, in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected in 1789 to the States General from the third estate.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its storming had a symbolic, not pragmatic meaning, although it was taken in the hope of finding weapons there. By decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration of the Rights of Man stated that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and declared natural and inalienable human rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still underlies French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

The execution of the king and the establishment of the republic

last moments life of Louis XVI. Engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793

Wellcome Library

Chronology

Beginning of the war with Austria

Deposition of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pillnitz, the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm II and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military . Girondins Girondins- a circle that has developed around the deputies from the department of the Gironde, who advocated further changes, but adhered to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the king's execution., supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to go to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When the French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying the national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned its powers: now, in the absence of the king, it was necessary to write a new constitution. For these purposes, it was collected new law the legislative body is the elected National Convention, which first of all proclaimed France a republic.

In December, the trial began, which found the king guilty of an offense against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death penalty.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, part-time poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost that status under Napoleon, and finally regained it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of left-wing resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870

Alte Nationalgalerie Berlin

Chronology

By decree of the Convention, an Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established, which in October will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal

Creation of the Committee of Public Safety

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Year I Constitution, or Montañar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup of 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to suffer setbacks in the war. Monarchist rebellions broke out inside the country. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to try "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the domestic and foreign policy of the country.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

Big influence in the Committee of Public Safety received the Girondins. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the introduction of emergency measures, some expressed outrage that Paris was imposing its will on the country. Montagnards competing with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, based, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at meetings of the Legislative Assembly, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. sent against the Girondins disaffected urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention demanding the exclusion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution adopted in 1793 did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Practically all power was now concentrated in his hands; The Convention sent commissars with great powers to the localities. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotining. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the lands of emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most necessary goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid shortages, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the rebellions were suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the Suspicious Law, which ordered the detention of all people who were not accused of any crime, but could have committed one. From June 1794, interrogations of defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as mandatory interrogations of witnesses, were abolished at the Revolutionary Tribunal; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup  

In the spring of 1794, the Robespierreists began to talk about the need for a final wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were in danger. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II of the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards, Maximilian Robespierre, and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention who feared for their lives. On July 28 they were executed.

After the coup, terror quickly declined, the Jacobin Club Jacobin club- a political club formed in 1789 and meeting in a Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assembly, and later to the Convention; they played a big part in the policy of terror that was carried out. was closed. The power of the Committee of Public Safety diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Coup of 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire, 8th year of the Republic), two of the five directors, together with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, dispersing the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also deprived of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government consisting of three consuls. All three conspirators became them.

Symbols

 Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. To the white color of the Bourbons, used on the flag before the revolution, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar. On October 5, 1793, a new calendar was put into circulation, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar received new names: time from the revolution had to start anew. In 1806 the calendar was abolished.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public even before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of the empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Fragment of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

The adoption of the Constitution of the X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution was adopted (Constitution of Year VIII), created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). Napoleon Bonaparte was named the first of the three consuls. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and prefects of departments. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were actually abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became for life, and the first consul received the right to appoint his successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was uncovered, the purpose of which was to assassinate Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary in order to exclude such a thing in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "Emperor of the French", who declared Napoleon Bonaparte. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804, the Civil Code, written with the participation of Napoleon, was adopted - a set of laws that regulated the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, the inviolability of landed property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: due to constant recruitment into the army, both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with an excess of workers, which led to an increase in income. He dealt harshly with the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France, became enormous.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire, which was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called the Napoleon (Napoléon d’or, literally “golden Napoleon”) received circulation: it depicted the profile of Bonaparte.

Legion of Honor. Order founded by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 following the example of knightly orders. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special merits to France.

Restoration of the Bourbons and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830

Musee du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

Capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of King Louis XVIII

Promulgation of the Charter of 1814

Escape of Napoleon from Elba

Capture of Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July ordinances

Mass unrest

Abdication of Charles X

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on he became king of the French, Louis Philippe I.

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries subject to him to trade with England - as a result of the industrial revolution, England forced out French goods from the markets. The so-called Continental Blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis had affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French troops in the Iberian Peninsula began to destroy the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin a retreat from Moscow, which was occupied in September.

Restoration of the Bourbons
On October 16-19, 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two chambers of parliament. France has re-established a constitutional monarchy, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who had a certain level of prosperity.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII did not have popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate with European countries the peace failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated again, and on July 15 he surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July Revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died, and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the Chambers of Deputies were closed, Charles appointed the extremely unpopular Prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as Minister of Foreign Affairs. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, the increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

The ordinances of Charles X caused mass indignation. On July 27, riots began in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution ended, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated and left for England.

The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, a representative of the younger branch of the Bourbons, who had a relatively liberal reputation, became the new king of France. During his coronation, he took an oath on the Charter of 1830 drawn up by deputies and became not "king by the grace of God" like his predecessors, but "king of the French". The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with an eagle returned to replace the coat of arms with three lilies, which symbolized royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Liberty Leading the People". Eugène Delacroix's famous painting, centered on Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) holding the French tricolor in her hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Philippoteaux

Musee du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

The beginning of the riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution that consolidated the republican form of government

General presidential election, victory for Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded the expansion of suffrage, others demanded the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. In 1846 and 1847 there was a poor harvest. Hunger has begun. Since rallies were banned, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts were proclaimed for the republic. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. On February 23, Prime Minister François Guizot resigned. A huge crowd was waiting for him to leave the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired, most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. Parliament (returning the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election took place, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the vote. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, the Republicans received only 70 seats.

Symbols

 Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris during every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. The Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were also used as material for the barricades.

1851 coup and Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

Promulgation of the new constitution. By changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year, the Second Empire was created

Napoleon's proclamation III emperor French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of either the President, or the Parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's presidential term was coming to an end. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon demanded several times to revise this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was against it.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, supported by the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition members. The riots that began in Paris and in the provinces were harshly suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was prepared, extending the presidential powers for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, with the deputies of its upper house appointed by the president for life.

Empire Restoration
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, the powers of Parliament were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but from the 1860s the course changed. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon started new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and rebuild the whole of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Proclamation of the Republic
On September 4, France was again proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was chosen, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began the siege of Paris. There was famine in the city, the situation worsened. In February 1871, elections were held for the National Assembly, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, followed by a German parade on the Champs Elysees, which many citizens perceived as treason.

In March, the government, which had no funds, refused to pay the National Guard's salaries and tried to disarm it.

Parisian Commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops went on the offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally crushed - a week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was saved. In 1875, the Constitutional Laws were passed, which approved the post of president and a parliament elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The Third Republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power passing from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but the members of the commune, among whom were many socialists, preferred a single color red. Attributes of the Paris Commune - one of key events for the formation of communist ideology - was adopted, including by Russian revolutionaries.

Vendôme column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875 the column was installed again.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine style basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and has become one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material.

Event: the capture by the people of the royal fortress of Bastille

king louis sixteenth

Outcome: start of the French Revolution

Event:"Night of Miracles" Meeting of the first in the history of France, the people's Constituent Assembly.

What political forces were in power: king louis sixteenth

Outcome: declared equality of all citizens before the law. The privileges of the clergy and nobles were abolished. The church tithe, which all citizens had previously paid to the church, was abolished. Later, the nobility was abolished in general and the first ever democratic "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" was adopted.

Event: march of the people to Versailles. The king was forcibly taken out of the Palace of Versailles and settled in Paris.

What political forces were in power: formally - the king, but in fact - the revolutionaries

Outcome: The absolute monarchy was replaced by a constitutional one. Now it was not the people who did what the king wanted, but the king carried out the will of the Constituent Assembly

Event: Deposition of King Louis by the Paris Commune

What political forces were in power: The Paris Commune of insurgents-revolutionaries. Basically, these are guardsmen, soldiers and ordinary citizens.

Outcome: Prussia, protecting the king, started a war with France. The king is imprisoned.

Event: France proclaimed a republic

What political forces were in power: French National Convention (Girondins).

Outcome: The monarchy in the country has been abolished altogether

Event: execution of Louis XVI in Paris

What political forces were in power: National Convention (Girondins)

Outcome: France is at war with several European powers defending the monarchy: Prussia, England, Spain.

Event: Jacobin uprising

What political forces were in power: Girondins and Montagnards

Outcome: a split among the revolutionaries, the coming to power of the Jacobins and Montagnards. The beginning of the brutal revolutionary terror of the population. The Girondins were executed. All material goods were taken away from citizens in the interests of the revolution and war.

Event: execution of Queen Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI

What political forces were in power: Jacobin National Convention and the Paris Commune

Outcome: destroyed another "enemy of the revolution"

Event: Thermidorian revolution. A split among the leadership of the revolutionaries. The Commune, with arms in hand, took the side of Robespierre against other Jacobins.

What political forces were in power: The Paris Commune and the National Convention.

Outcome: Robespierre was defeated and executed along with his supporters. The Paris Commune has fallen. The revolution weakened, and the Jacobins themselves began to be persecuted.

Event: Coup of 18 Brumaire

What political forces were in power: Directory

Outcome: End of the French Revolution. The victory of the military monarchy in the person of Napoleon Bonaparte, who proclaimed the power of the Provisional Government in the person of three consuls, one of whom was himself. Later, he will take power single-handedly into his own hands.

1789 - The French Revolution puts an end to the royal unlimited monarchy. The Bastille, a state prison and a symbol of the unlimited power of kings, was taken by the people of Paris on July 14, 1789 and a little later destroyed. There are no more subordinates here, but there are citizens. Established civil equality, proclaimed human rights.

1792 - After passing through the crises and cruelties of this period that followed the revolution, and which was called the era of terror, the government - the National Convention - proclaims the first republic in France.

1804 - Having become emperor under the name Napoleon, Bonaparte proclaims an empire and wages wars against England and European countries. After some famous victories won by the Allied Powers, Napoleon's empire collapses in 1814.

1830 - The Revolution of July 1830 ends with the accession to the throne of the French King Louis Philippe. In memory of these events, a bronze column rises in Place de la Bastille in Paris.

1848 - A revolutionary movement in February 1848 led to the proclamation of a second republic that ended Louis Philippe's monarchy.

1852-1870 - The second republic was followed by the restoration of the empire. After the authoritarian period, the empire becomes more liberal. The years of the second empire of Napoleon III were a period of material prosperity, the rapid development of industry and trade. The defeat of France in the war of 1870 ended the era of the second empire.

1870 - France declares war on Prussia. French attempts cannot prevent the surrender of Paris. France loses its territories - Alsace and Lorraine.

1871 - The revolutionary government - the Comunne of Paris - is overthrown by the standing army of Thiers, who brutally suppresses the uprising.

1870-1940 - The political regime that emerged after the surrender of France in the Franco-Prussian War (3rd Republic) implements democratic reforms: freedom and the press, secular education the separation of church and state.

1914-1918 - In 1914, France is drawn into the war declared by Germany. In it, she wins, but with heavy losses.

1939-1944 - France declares war on Germany, but Germany in turn invades in May 1940. Part of France is occupied, the government adopts a policy of cooperation with the Germans. General de Gaulle creates the Resistance, which organizes and expands. In 1944, the Allies landed in Normandy and broke through towards Paris, which was liberated on August 25.

1944 - After the liberation of the country, the constitution, adopted by referendum, proclaims the 4th republic.

1958 - After the political and social crisis, the Constitution of the 5th Republic was adopted, which significantly strengthens the authority of President Charles de Gaulle. 1968 - In May, a deep university and social crisis occurs in France. General de Gaulle resigns. Other presidents of the 5th republic: George Pompidou, Valerie Giscard d Estaing, Francois Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy.

The Great French Revolution is the general name for the processes that swept France in the late 1780s - the first half of the 1790s. Revolutionary changes were radical, they caused:

breaking the old system
liquidation of the monarchy
gradual transition to democracy.

In general, the revolution was bourgeois, directed against the monarchy and feudal remnants.

Chronologically, the revolution covers the period from 1789 to 1794, although some historians believe that it ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Members

The Great French Revolution was based on the opposition of the privileged nobility, which was the backbone of the monarchical system, and the "third estate". The latter was represented by such groups as:

Peasants;
Bourgeoisie;
Manufactory workers;
Urban poor or plebs.

The uprising was led by representatives of the bourgeoisie, who did not always take into account the needs of other groups of the population.

Background and main causes of the revolution

At the end of the 1780s. in France, a protracted political, economic and social crisis erupted. Changes were demanded by the plebs, the peasants, the bourgeoisie and the workers, who did not want to put up with this state of affairs.

One of the most difficult issues was agrarian, which was constantly becoming more complicated due to the deep crisis of the feudal system. Its remnants hindered the development of market relations, the penetration of capitalist principles into Agriculture and industry, the emergence of new professions and production areas.

Among the main causes of the French Revolution, it is worth noting such as:

Commercial and industrial crisis that began in 1787;
The bankruptcy of the king and the country's budget deficit;
Several lean years that led to the peasant uprisings of 1788-1789. In a number of cities - Grenoble, Besançon, Rennes and the suburbs of Paris - there was a series of speeches by the plebs;
Crisis of the monarchical regime. At the royal court, attempts were made to solve the problems that had arisen, but the methods of overcoming the systemic crisis, which officials resorted to, were hopelessly outdated and did not work. Therefore, King Louis XVI decided to make certain concessions. In particular, notables and the States General were convened, which last met in 1614. At the meeting States General representatives of the third estate were also present. The latter created the National Assembly, which soon became Constituent.

The nobility and the privileged strata of French society, including the clergy, spoke out against such equality, and began to prepare to disperse the assembly. In addition, they did not accept the king's proposal to tax them. The peasants, the bourgeoisie, the workers and the plebs began to prepare for a popular uprising. On July 13 and 14, 1789, an attempt to disperse it brought many representatives of the third estate to the streets of Paris. Thus began the French Revolution, which changed France forever.

Stages of the revolution

Subsequent events are usually divided into several periods:

From July 14, 1789 - to August 10, 1792;
From August 10, 1792 - to June 3, 1793;
June 3, 1793 - July 28, 1794;
July 28, 1794 - November 9, 1799

The first stage began with the capture of the most famous French prison - the Bastille fortress. The following events also belong to this period:

Replacing old authorities with new ones;
Creation of the National Guard, subordinate to the bourgeoisie;
Adoption in autumn 1789;
The adoption of a number of decrees concerning the rights of the bourgeoisie and the plebs. In particular, class division was abolished, church property was confiscated, the clergy came under the control of secular authorities, the old administrative division of the country was abolished, and workshops were abolished. The most intense was the abolition of feudal duties, but in the end the rebels managed to achieve this as well;
The emergence of the so-called Varna crisis in the first half of the summer of 1791. The crisis was connected with the king's attempt to escape abroad. This event is associated with: the execution of a demonstration on the Champ de Mars; the beginning of the confrontation between the poorest segments of the population and the bourgeoisie, who went over to the side of the nobility; as well as the separation from the revolutionary Jacobin club of the moderate political party Feuillants;
Constant contradictions between the main political forces - the Girondins, the Feuillants and the Jacobins, which made it easier for other European states to penetrate French territory. During 1792-1792. The following declared war on the state torn apart by the revolution: Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Spain, the Netherlands and some German principalities. The French army was not ready for such a turn of events, especially since most of the generals fled the country. Because of the threat of an attack on the capital, detachments of volunteers began to appear in Paris;
Activation of the anti-monarchist movement. On August 10, 1792, the final overthrow of the monarchy and the creation of the Paris Commune took place.

The main feature of the second stage of the revolution was the confrontation between the Girondins and the Jacobins. The leaders of the first were Zh.P. Brissot, J.M. Roland and P.V. Vergniaud, who were on the side of the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. This party wanted a speedy end to the revolution and the establishment of political stability. The Jacobins were led by M. Robespierre, J.P. Marat and J.J. Danton, who were representatives of the middle class and the poor bourgeois. They defended the interests of the workers and peasants, and also advocated the further development of the revolution, since their demands remained unheeded.

The main events of the second period of the French Revolution were:

Struggle between the Jacobin-controlled Paris Commune and the Girondin Legislative Assembly. The result of the confrontation was the creation of the Convention, whose representatives were elected from the entire male population of France over 21 years old on the basis of universal suffrage;
France declared a republic on September 21, 1792;
execution last king the Bourbon dynasty on January 21, 1793;
Continuation of peasant uprisings caused by poverty, landlessness and hunger. The poor seized the estates of their masters and divided the communal land. The townspeople also rioted, demanding fixed food prices;
The expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention in late May - early June 1793. This ended the second period of the uprising.

Getting rid of opponents allowed the Jacobins to concentrate all power in their own hands. The third period of the Great French Revolution is known as the Jacobin dictatorship and, first of all, is associated with the name of the head of the Jacobins - Maximilian Robespierre. It was a rather difficult period for the young republic - while internal contradictions were tearing the country apart, the troops of neighboring powers were advancing to the borders of the state. France was involved in the Vendean Wars, which engulfed the southern and northwestern provinces.

The Jacobins, first of all, took up the solution of the agrarian question. All communal lands and lands of the fleeing nobles were transferred to the peasants. Then feudal rights and privileges were abolished, which contributed to the formation of a new class of society - free owners.

The next step was the adoption of a new Constitution, which was distinguished by its democratic character. It was supposed to introduce constitutional government, but a complex socio-political and economic crisis forced the Jacobins to establish a regime of revolutionary democratic dictatorship.

At the end of August 1793, a decree was adopted on the mobilization of the French in the fight against foreign invaders. In response, the opponents of the Jacobins who were inside the country began to massively carry out Act of terrorism in all cities of France. As a result of one of these actions, Marat was also killed.

At the end of July 1796, the republican troops defeated the interventionist troops near Fleurus. The last decisions of the Jacobins were the adoption of the Vantoise decrees, which were not destined to come true. Dictatorship, repression and the policy of requisition (expropriation) turned the peasants against the Jacobin regime. As a result, a conspiracy arose to overthrow the government of Robespierre. The so-called Thermidorian coup ended Jacobin rule and brought moderate republicans and the bourgeoisie to power. They created a new governing body - the Directory. The new government carried out a number of transformations in the country:

Adopted a new Constitution;
Replaced universal suffrage with census (admission to elections was received only by those citizens who possessed property for a certain amount);
Established the principle of equality;
Gave the right to elect and be elected only to those citizens of the republic who are 25 years old;
She created the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the Elders, who monitored the political situation in France;
Waging wars against Prussia and Spain, culminating in the signing peace treaties. Continued hostilities against England and Austria.

The Board of the Directory ended on November 9, 1799, when another coup took place in the republic. It was led by General of the Army Napoleon Bonaparte, who was very popular among the soldiers. Relying on the military, he managed to seize power in Paris, which was the beginning of a new era in the life of the country.

Outcomes and results of the revolution

The elimination of the remnants of the feudal system, which contributed to rapid development capitalist relations;
Establishment of a republican system based on democratic principles;
The final consolidation of the French nation;
Formation of authorities formed on the basis of suffrage;
The adoption of the first constitutions, the provisions of which guaranteed citizens equality before the law and the opportunity to enjoy national wealth;
Solving the agrarian question;
Liquidation of the monarchy;
Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

However, positive transformations also contained a number of negative features:

Introduction of property qualification;
Ignoring the opinion of the majority of citizens, which led to new unrest;
Establishing a complex administrative division which hindered the formation of an effective management system.

Geography

During the years of the French Revolution, the borders of the territory of the French state almost reached the size modern France. The process of territorial expansion was completed later in the 19th century after the accession Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice(originally, in the era First Empire, and then finally, in 1860), as well as some small papal regions (for example, Avignon) and foreign possessions. Of course, the territory of France was significantly expanded during the military campaigns of Napoleon I, but following the results of the Congress of Vienna, the borders of European states were again restored. France, after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, ceded its province to Germany Alsace and part of the province Lorraine(see Alsace-Lorraine); these lost regions would only return to France at the conclusion of the First World War.

originality

Thanks to the military, social and educational policies pursued during the period Third Republic, by 1914 the French people had turned (in the words of the historian Eugene Weber) from “provincial peasants into French nation". (Weber, E., 1979) By 1914, most French people were reading French, and regional languages were aggressively suppressed; role catholic church in public life changed radically; awareness and pride in national identity were actively inculcated. The anti-clericalism inherent in the Third Republic radically changed the religious way of life of the French: in a case study on the city of Limoges, when comparing figures for 1899 and 1914, it was found that the number of citizens who passed sacrament of baptism decreased from 98% to 60%, and the number of families living in civil marriage before its official registration, increased from 14% to 60%. However, the extermination of regional characteristics and anti-clerical character Third Republic, will have negative consequences for France in the second half of the 20th century.

Historical periods

Great French Revolution (1789–1792)

First French Republic (1792–1799)

The execution of Louis XVI at the Place de la Concorde in front of the pedestal where the statue of his grandfather Louis XV used to stand.

On January 17, 1793, the king was accused of conspiring against "the freedom of the nation and an attack on the security of the state", found guilty and by a small majority in the Convention sentenced to death. On January 21, 1793, the king was beheaded. This event caused a hostile reaction from Great Britain and France declared war on her and the Netherlands.

The first half of 1793 brought a series of setbacks - French troops were forced out of Germany and the Austrian Netherlands. In such a situation, prices began to rise in France, riots of sans-culottes (poor laborers and radical Jacobins) began; counter-revolutionary protests began in some regions. The Jacobins, encouraged by these events, seized power through parliamentary coup; their actions against the Girondin faction were supported by force through the mobilization of society, in addition to this, they had the Parisian sans-culottes. The current center of the new government was formed by an alliance of Jacobins and sans-culottes. Their politics became much more radical. The new government announced "total mobilization" - on military service all physically fit men over the age of 18 were called up. Thanks to this, the number of the French army far exceeded the number of rival armies and, soon, a turning point occurred in the course of the war.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1792)

According to the new constitution, a new executive body was founded - Directory and for the first time in French history, a bicameral parliament was formed. The new government was noticeably more conservative, dominated by the bourgeoisie, who sought to restore order and eliminate the sans-culottes and other lower classes from political life. In 1795, France again took possession of the Austrian Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine, incorporating them into French territory. Spain and the Republic of the Netherlands were defeated and became satellites of France. However, at sea, the French navy could not resist the British and in June 1794 suffered a crushing defeat off the coast of Ireland.

Restoration of the monarchy (1814–1830)

Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne for the second time by the Allied countries in 1815, and after that two decades of wars in Europe ended. The king was forced to approve at least the most important principles french revolution and ruled as a constitutionally limited monarch. The peace treaty after the hundred-day reign of Napoleon was much more severe for France this time. France, under its terms, returned to the borders of 1789 and was obliged to pay an indemnity. Allied troops remained in France until the end of all payments. Very large-scale purges were undertaken in the government and armed forces for the purpose of exile Bonapartists, and a short period white terror led to 300 victims in the south of France.

Despite the return to power of the Bourbon dynasty, France has changed a lot compared to the era old order. Politics equality and liberalism revolutionary period remained a significant force and the restoration of the unlimited monarchy and the hierarchy of the past era was no longer possible in full. The economic changes that began long before the revolution and continued during the years of mass unrest were firmly consolidated in 1815. These changes contributed to a shift in leadership from titled landowners on the townspeople-merchants. Napoleon's administrative reform, such as the Napoleonic Code, as well as an efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes led to the emergence of a uniform central government, which was not corrupted from a financial point of view and kept under much stronger control all spheres of French life; and this is the essential difference from the situation in which the Bourbons found themselves before the revolution.

Nevertheless, in the early years of his reign, Louis-Philippe made an attempt at a comprehensive and sensible reform of his government. The legal foundations for the activities of his government were laid down in the Charter of 1830, written by the reform-minded deputies of the lower house of parliament. The main principles laid down in the charter were the equality of religions, the restoration of the National Guard to protect the civilian population, the reform of the electoral system, the reform of the peerage system and the weakening royal powers. And in fact, Louis-Philippe and his ministers pursued a policy of strengthening the basic provisions of the constitution. However, most of these political measures were veiled attempts to strengthen the power of the government and the bourgeoisie, instead of legitimately strengthening equality and empowering the broad masses of the French people. Therefore, despite the apparent movement of the July Monarchy in the direction of reforms, such a movement was for the most part deceptive and feigned.

During the period of the July Monarchy, the number of citizens entitled to the electoral vote roughly doubled, from 94,000 under Charles X to over 200,000 in 1848. However, this number was only about 1% of the country's population, and only the wealthiest citizens who paid taxes to the treasury were given the right to vote. In addition to simply increasing the presence of the bourgeoisie in the House of Representatives, this development of the electoral system made it possible for the bourgeoisie to oppose the aristocracy at the legislative level. Thus, while maintaining a visible commitment to his public vow to increase popular participation in elections, Louis-Philippe actually increased the influence of his adherents and increased their control over the French parliament. The inclusion of only the wealthiest citizens in the process, among other things, weakened any possibility of the growth of radical factions in parliament.

Updated Charter of 1830 limited the power of the king - depriving him of the opportunity to introduce and approve bills, and also limited his executive powers. However King of the French sincerely believed that the king, even in the new monarchy, is something more than a figurehead with an elected parliament, and therefore he was quite active in the political life of the country. One of Louis-Philippe's first decisions in the process of forming his cabinet was the appointment of the conservative Casimir Périer as Prime Minister. Perrier, who was a banker, made a decisive contribution to the cessation of many secret societies Republicans and labor unions that were formed in early years mode. In addition, he supervised the section National Guard after she began to support radical political currents. Of course, all these steps were taken by him with the approval of the king. He once said that many believe that the suffering of the French is caused by the past revolution. "No monsieur," he told another minister, "there was no revolution: there was just a change of head of state."

François Guizot

In the future, the conservative direction of politics intensified even more, first under the leadership of Perrier, and then the Minister of the Interior, François Guizot. The ruling regime realized early enough the threat to its policy of non-intervention from the side of radicalists and republicans. Therefore, already in 1834, the monarchy outlawed the Republicans. Guizot ceased the activities of the clubs of the Republicans and closed the publications of the Republicans. Perrier, along with his conservative supporters, removed the Republicans, for example, the banker Dupont, from the government. Not trusting National Guard, Louis Philippe increased the size of the army and spent military reform to ensure the loyalty of the military.

Despite the fact that there have always been two factions in the Cabinet - liberal conservatives, to which Guizot belonged ( Resistance Party(fr. le parti de la resistance)), and liberal reformers, which belonged to the journalist Louis Adolphe Thiers ( Movement Party(fr. Le parti du Mouvement)) - the latter have never been widely known. It is Guizot's leadership that is marked by large-scale harsh measures against Republicans and dissidents, as well as by the connivance policy pursued in the interests of business circles. Among these measures were preferential customs tariffs that protected French businessmen. The Guizot government conceded contracts for the construction of railways and mines to those bourgeois who supported the government and, moreover, made certain initial contributions to these projects. Under such a political system, workers did not have the right to assemble, organize, or petition the government for higher pay or lower hours. Period July Monarchy under the governments of Perrier, Mol and Guizot was an unfavorable period for the lower strata of society. Moreover, Guizot advised those who did not have the right to vote under the current legislation, just get rich. The king himself was not particularly popular by the mid-1840s, and because of his appearance he was often referred to as crowned pear. During this era, there was a personality cult of Napoleon and in 1841 his body was transported from Saint Helena to France, where he was reburied with majestic honors.

Louis Philippe pursued a pacifist foreign policy. Shortly after he came to power in 1830, Belgium rebelled against Dutch rule and declared its independence. The king abandoned plans to invade there, as well as any kind of military action outside France. The only exception was the war in Algiers, launched by Charles X a few weeks before his overthrow, under the pretext of fighting pirates in the Mediterranean. The government of Louis Philippe decided to continue the conquest of this country, which took almost 10 years. By 1848, Algeria was declared an integral part of France.

Revolution of 1848

The revolution in France brought together classes of society with diametrically opposed interests: the bourgeoisie sought reform electoral system(democratic republic), the leaders of the socialists (for example, Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, as well as the radical left Louis Auguste Blanqui) sought labor rights and creation National Workshops(a republic with social security) and that France promote the liberation of the oppressed peoples of Europe (Poles and Italians), while the centrists (for example, the aristocrat Alphonse de Lamartine) sought a compromise position. Tensions mounted between these factions, and in June 1848 a working-class uprising in Paris claimed 1,500 lives and shattered once and for all the dream of a welfare constitution.

Second Republic (1848–1852)

The Constitution of the Second Republic, adopted in 1848, turned out to be extremely imperfect, since it did not allow for effective resolution of differences between President of the Republic and National Assembly. In December 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President of the Republic, who later, in 1851, carried out a coup d'état, justifying his actions with the existing dead-end legislation. Ultimately, in 1852, he proclaimed himself Emperor of the Second Empire, Napoleon III.

Second Empire (1852–1870)

Emperor Napoleon III ruled France from 1852 to 1870. In the early years, his rule was authoritarian, and freedom of speech and assembly was severely restricted. During this period, significant industrial development, a general economic upsurge and an increase in urbanization were noted in France (the grandiose reorganization of Paris carried out by Baron Haussmann is noteworthy), however foreign policy Napoleon III had disastrous consequences.

As the French became fed up with the despotic authoritarian style of government of the 1860s, public opinion became the dominant force. Napoleon III, who had expressed certain liberal ideas before his coronation, initially relaxed censorship, laws on public meetings and strikes. As a result, the growth of radical sentiments among the proletariat began to be observed. Growing dissatisfaction with the high pace of expansion Second Empire as the economy started to slow down. The happy time of the 1850s is over. Napoleon's adventurous policy increasingly served as a pretext for criticism. Hoping to appease the liberals, Napoleon proposed in 1870 the establishment of a full parliamentary regime, a proposal that won wide support among the French. However, the emperor of France did not have the opportunity to implement this proposal - by the end of that year Second empire collapsed in disgrace.

Napoleon was completely preoccupied with the campaign in Mexico, and this prevented him from entering the Danish War of 1864 and the Third War of Italian Independence in 1866. Both of these conflicts turned Prussia into the most powerful force in Germany. After this, tensions between France and Prussia began to grow, especially after Prussia tried to erect a prince from the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1868. Spanish throne, which became free after the revolutionary events.

Third Republic (1870–1940) in the period up to 1920

The Commune began its existence with an uprising of Parisians shortly after the Siege of Paris in September 1870; it existed from March 18, 1871 to May 28, 1871. Adolphe Thiers aroused the ire of the townspeople by allowing Prussian army to stage a military parade in Paris on February 17, 1871, and on March 18, hoping to strengthen the influence of his government and weaken the position of the command of the National Guard, he ordered the French regulars to seize the artillery pieces stationed at Montmartre. Many French soldiers supported National Guard and refused to obey the order, joining the uprising with the guards. Seeing that he was losing control of the situation, Thiers withdrew regular troops, police forces and officials from Paris to Versailles and left the city himself, accompanied by supporters loyal to him.

The flag of the Paris Commune was Red flag socialists instead tricolor moderate republicans (during the era of the Second Republic in 1848, radical movements supporting the socialists opposed to the moderate republican government were already raising the red flag). In just three months of its existence Commune approved the adoption of a set social laws, among which:

exemption of citizens from rent for the entire period of the siege of Paris (after the start of the blockade, many homeowners significantly raised its size)
the abolition of work at night in the bakeries of Paris, of which there were hundreds
abolition of guillotine executions
payment of a pension lonely companions members of the National Guard who died in combat, as well as their children
free return by state pawnshops of any tools of labor pledged by workers during the siege of the city
deferred payment