FORMATION OF A SINGLE RUSSIAN STATE
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | FORMATION OF A SINGLE RUSSIAN STATE |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Politics |
As in Western Europe, after feudal fragmentation in Russia at the end of the 13th-15th centuries. the formation of a unified Russian state. This is a natural stage in the development of political relations in the period of feudalism.
The peculiarity of the formation of Russian statehood was that this process took not three or four centuries as in the West, but a little more than two centuries. The fact is that in the unification of the scattered Russian lands, it was not the economic, but the political factor that played (liberation from the Mongol yoke, the fight against external danger). Although economic factors also took shape, otherwise the state would not have formed, but they were weak and they did not play a decisive role in the unification of the Russian lands. Economic needs forced the establishment of economic ties between the principalities, contributed to the creation of a single market, which finally took shape much later - only in the 17th century, and the economic remnants of the former fragmentation - internal customs - would be eliminated only in the middle of the 18th century. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, political processes in Russia were ahead of economic ones.
All this was reflected in the originality of the established state: strong monarchical power, great dependence of the ruling class on the monarch, cruel exploitation of direct producers.
At the same time, in Russia, which occupied an intermediate position between two global civilizations - Western and Eastern, the signs characteristic of the East manifested themselves most of all, although there were both European and purely Russian features. The latter include catholicity, Orthodoxy, collectivism.
The process of collecting land began at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. under the son of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Daniel, continued under Ivan Kalita (1325-1340), Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389), Ivan III (1462-1505) and ended mainly under his son Vasily III (1505-1533). Only during the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III, the territory of Russia increased by more than 6 times.
At the stage of gathering Russia feature there was the formation of large feudal centers in North-Eastern Russia and the selection of the strongest among them. The main rivals were Moscow and Tver. Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan claimed the role of leader. Having absorbed the culture, law, literature of Ancient Russia, including the Western and Southwestern Old Russian lands, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also began to claim to become the center of the unification of Russian lands. The main rivals were Moscow and Tver.
The Vladimir principality was considered the center of Russia. A label for a principality gave its owner power over all of Russia (that is, the northeastern and northwestern principalities, Novgorod the Great and Pskov, and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality proper).
At the same time, Moscow becomes the center of unifying processes.
A decisive role in the liquidation of the independence of several dozen independent principalities and the formation of a single state (Moscow Rus) was played by Moscow, a small town of the Vladimir principality. Certain reasons contributed to this initially.
First of all, the reason for the rise of Moscow was the purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who used various methods to expand and strengthen their principality. Armed seizure was widely used, buying up the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords, new territories were also captured with the help of the Horde, the expansion of the size of the principality was also facilitated by the resettlement of the population from the Moscow region to other regions with subsequent annexation, and the Rostov principality voluntarily entered into Muscovy in 1474 ᴦ.
An important reason for the successful policy of the Moscow princes was the support of Moscow by the church, since the princes skillfully attracted it to their side.
It should also be noted that the advantageous geographical position cities.
Moscow of the ball is surrounded by dense forests and fenced off from the Golden Horde by the Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod principalities. From the raids of the Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians, Moscow was defended by Novgorod, Pskov and the Smolensk principality. For this reason, people left the eastern and western oppressors and settled in the city itself and villages near Moscow, contributing to the economic growth of this region.
Moscow stood at the crossroads of trade routes (land and water). Along the Moskva River, Novgorod merchants sailed on ships to the Volga and further east. Merchants passed by Moscow from north to south, to the Crimea. Greek and Italian merchants came to Moscow from the south. Trade people stopped in Moscow, exchanged goods. Moscow, becoming an important trading center, grew and grew rich.
Moscow, as an urban settlement, already existed at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. and belonged to the boyar Stepan Kuchka and was called ʼʼMoskovʼʼ, ʼʼKutskovaʼʼ, ʼʼKuchkovoʼʼ. The first annalistic news about Moscow refers to 1147 ᴦ. This year, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky of Vladimir-Suzdal, strengthening allied relations, met in Moscow with his supporter, Prince of Chernigov Svyatoslav Olgovich.
Initially, Moscow was a fortress on the southern border of the Vladimir-Suzdal land and did not constitute a special principality. But in the 70s. XIII century. she gained independence. In Moscow, the youngest of the sons of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil, established himself, who became the founder of the Moscow princely house. The first Moscow princes tried to expand their small principality, being, in essence, the collectors of the Russian land.
Daniil conquered Kolomna from the Ryazan princes, according to the will from a childless relative received Pereslavl. His son Yuri (1303-1325) took Mozhaisk from the princes of Smolensk. As a result, all the lands along the Moscow River from source to mouth became part of the Moscow Principality, and its territory almost doubled. This created the basis for the further development of its economic ties with other Russian lands.
The Moscow principality was especially strengthened under the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Ivan I Kalita (1325-1340), (the purse for money, which was tied to a belt, was called a kalita). He was a cruel, intelligent, cunning, purposeful ruler, although God-fearing, he always had copper money with him, which he distributed to the poor and wretched, and fought against heretics.
Ivan Kalita laid the foundation for Moscow's might. Under him, the Moscow principality became the strongest in Russia. There are three most important areas of Ivan Kalita's political activity. Ivan I sought to strengthen the prestige of his power and enlist the support of the church. He succeeded. From 1326 ᴦ. Moscow becomes the religious center of Russia, where Metropolitan Peter moved his residence from Vladimir.
Defending the interests of the Russian land, Ivan Kalita established good relations with the Golden Horde Khan and deftly used his power to his advantage. He often went to Sarai and always brought valuable gifts to the khan and his wives. He helped the khan in 1327 ᴦ. crush the uprising in Tver. For this he received a label for a great reign. Moscow became the political center of the Russian lands. Under Ivan Kalita, according to L.N. Gumilyov, finally approved new principle political activity - the principle of ethnic tolerance. The selection of service people by the prince was carried out exclusively on business qualities. Ivan Kalita showed obedience to the khans, regularly paid the established tribute to the Horde, while striving for independent power in internal affairs Russia. Such a policy did not allow the Golden Horde khans to carry out raids and devastate the Russian lands. According to the chronicler, "there was a great silence on the whole Russian land, and the Tatars stopped killing Christians".
Relying on the authority of the church, Ivan Kalita consistently sought the rise and expansion of his principality, acted as an exemplary organizer of his lot. He placed under his influence the Rostov, Belozersk and Yaroslavl principalities, strengthened his influence in Novgorod, Uglich, Galich.
The policy of Ivan Kalita was continued by his sons Simeon the Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan II the Red (1353-1359). Οʜᴎ no longer had rivals when receiving a label for the great reign of Vladimir. Under them, the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub lands, the region of present-day Kaluga became part of the Moscow principality.
In the 50-70s, under the son of Ivan II the Red - Dmitry - (1359-1389), the struggle between Moscow and Tver for a shortcut to the Vladimir principality intensified. Tver was supported by the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, who three times (in 1368, 1370, 1372) made campaigns against Moscow.
The Moscow prince Dmitry was supported by Metropolitan Alexei (the church had long supported the policy of the Moscow princes) and the Moscow boyars, who did not want to come under the authority of the Tver prince. Moscow's leadership was already undeniable.
The Moscow prince was supported by almost the entire North-Eastern Russia. In 1375 ᴦ. as a result of a military campaign against Tver and its capitulation, the Vladimir table was recognized as belonging to the Moscow princes.
The rallying of the Russian lands around the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich led to an attempt by the Russians to eliminate the dependence of Russia on the Horde by military means. The horde was weakened by the civil strife of the khans. From 1360 to 1380 ᴦ. 14 rulers of the Horde were replaced, one of whom the temnik Mamai decided to raid Russia, punish her for defeating the troops of Murza Begich in 1378 ᴦ.
Mamai gathered a huge army, it included the conquered peoples of the Volga region and North Caucasus, heavily armed infantrymen from the Genoese colonies in the Crimea. The allies of the Horde were the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and the Ryazan prince Oleᴦ.
Jagiello did not want to strengthen either the Horde or the Russian side; his troops did not appear on the battlefield. Oleg Ryazansky made an alliance with Mamai, fearing for the fate of his border principality, but he was the first to inform Dmitry about the advance of the Horde troops, but did not participate in the battle.
In the army of Dmitry, princely squads and militias of most Russian lands (except Ryazan and Novgorod) gathered. The Monk Sergius of Radonezh blessed Prince Dmitry on the feat. Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin on September 8, 1380 ᴦ. on the right bank of the Don, was of great political importance. Although dependence on the Horde still remained, the Horde recognized Moscow as an independent national capital. The amount of tribute to the Horde Khan was reduced.
The Moscow princely dynasty obtained from the Horde the recognition of its right to a great reign as a ʼʼfatherlandʼʼ (Dmitry Donskoy for the first time transferred power to his son Vasily without a khan's yarlyk).
New increments of the territory of the Moscow principality in the eastern and northeast directions occurred during the reign of Vasily I (1389-1425), son of Dmitry Donskoy. The Tver principality was surrounded on all sides by the lands of the Moscow prince, which sealed his fate. Vasily I made an attempt, fighting the Horde, to strengthen the alliance with Lithuania by marrying the Lithuanian princess Sofya Vitovna. But soon Lithuania betrayed Moscow. This resulted in 1408 ᴦ. Vasily I paid the ruler of the Horde Edigey, who ruined Moscow lands during the raid, a huge indemnity of 3 thousand rubles. But, having gathered strength, Moscow repelled the new invasion of Edigei.
The new order of succession to the throne (from father to son, and not from older brother to younger, which existed earlier) did not immediately gain a foothold in Russia. The reign of the grandson of Dmitry Donskoy Vasily II (1425-1462) was marked by a bloody many years of war. Claims for power in Moscow were made by the uncle of Vasily II - the Galician prince Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka.
Prince Yuri and his sons, fighting for the Moscow throne, defended only their own interests (they wanted to expand their own possessions). While Vasily II was the defender of the idea of the unity of Russia. For this reason, despite the repeated capture of Moscow during the feudal war, the military defeats of Vasily II in the course of the fight against his opponents, the Moscow boyars and service people ultimately supported the Moscow prince Vasily II, which predetermined his victory and the consolidation of centralization tendencies in Russia.
Having strengthened his position in the Central part of Russia, Vasily II undertook in 1456 ᴦ. campaign against Novgorod, which during the feudal war maneuvered between opposing sides, and after the death of Dmitry Shemyaki provided assistance to his family.
After the defeat of the militia, Novgorod lost the right to independently pursue foreign policy, and pledged not to support the opponents of the Grand Duke. The legislative power of the veche was abolished. Later, Novgorod began to pay tribute to the Grand Duke.
These measures testified to a significant limitation by the Moscow prince of the independence of the feudal boyar republic. Under Basil II won new order throne succession and the unifying tendency of the Russian lands.
Under Basil II, the dependence of the church on the Patriarchate of Constantinople ceased. In 1442 ᴦ. The Council of the Russian Clergy independently appointed Jonah Metropolitan. The Russian Church became autocephalous. The Moscow Metropolis now fell into direct dependence on the strengthened grand ducal power.
After the death of Vasily II in 1462 ᴦ. the Moscow throne was taken by his eldest son Ivan III (1462-1505 ᴦ.). He was actually the creator of the Muscovite state. By the time Ivan III took the throne, the territory of the Moscow principality far exceeded the possession of the rest of the Russian princes.
The territory of the Moscow principality required centralized administration. The supreme power belonged to the Moscow prince. He received the right to impose disgrace on the boyars, confiscate their property, grant them new estates, and remove the boyars from public service.
Under Ivan III, a Boyar Duma. The Moscow boyars began to include princes of previously independent principalities, ᴛ.ᴇ. former appanage lords turned from vassals into subjects of Moscow.
The Palace was created, which was in charge of the grand ducal lands, and also sorted out litigations about land ownership.
Complication government controlled expressed in the creation of the Treasury. The treasury performed financial functions, was the state office and was in charge of foreign policy issues (in the middle of the 16th century it broke up into orders). The leading role in the apparatus was played by clerks (scribes). Οʜᴎ regulated financial relations, dealt with embassy local, yam and other affairs.
In administrative order, the country was divided into counties, camps, volosts, headed by governors and volosts. Οʜᴎ received territory in ʼʼfeedingʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. took legal fees and part of the taxes collected in the territory.
The second marriage of Ivan III to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine Palaiologos Sophia in 1472 contributed to the growth of the authority of the Moscow prince. This marriage contributed to the rise of Russia, but did not realize the plans of the Pope to unite Catholicism and Orthodoxy. To unify the judicial and administrative activities in 1497 ᴦ. a new set of laws was drawn up - ʼʼSudebnikʼʼ - the first code of laws of a single state. He consolidated a single structure and administration in the state, established uniform norms of criminal responsibility and the procedure for conducting trial and investigation.
ʼʼSudebnikʼʼ marked the beginning of the legal registration of the serfdom of the peasants from the feudal lords. He limited the right of peasants to leave their feudal lord for a certain period - a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and within a week after it with the obligatory payment of an "elderly" - a certain fee to the feudal lord in the amount of 1 ruble.
Under Ivan III, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania claimed the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In Novgorod itself, there was also a pro-Lithuanian orientation among the boyars, led by the widow of the Novgorod posadnik Marfa Boretskaya.
In 1471 ᴦ. Novgorod nobility called for a Lithuanian governor, a protege of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, to rule in the city. Ivan III undertook a series of campaigns against Novgorod in 1471, 1475, 1478, in which the Moscow prince was victorious. Novgorodians recognized Ivan III as their sovereign, the political system of Novgorod was liquidated, the veche was canceled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Instead of posadniks and thousandths, Moscow governors began to rule the city.
Pskov retained self-government. But his policy was under the strict control of the Moscow prince.
Under Ivan III, the policy of annexing specific principalities to Moscow was consistently pursued. Small appanage princes passed into the service of the Moscow prince, and their destinies turned from independent lands into estates. So the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities joined Moscow.
Prince of Tver Mikhail Borisovich decided to strengthen his alliance with Lithuania in order to resist Moscow. Upon learning of this, Ivan III began a campaign against Tver and finally annexed the Tver lands to Moscow. Although the Ryazan principality formally retained its independence until 1521 ᴦ., in fact, it was ruled by a Moscow prince. At the end of the XV century. a new name for the country appeared - Russia. Earlier there were attributes of the supreme power. The double-headed eagle became the coat of arms of Muscovite Russia.
During the reign of Vasily III (1505-1533), the unification of the Russian lands was completed. He annexed the Pskov land, conquered Smolensk from Lithuania, annexed the Ryazan principality. So, there was a single Russian state with its capital in Moscow. It became the largest power on the European continent.
At the beginning of the XVI century. the idea of Moscow as a ʼʼthird Romeʼʼ took shape. It was formulated by Abbot Philotheus in his letter to Vasily III. Philotheus believed that the world center of Christianity was consistently moving from Rome to Constantinople, and from there to Moscow.
Moscow was the ʼʼthe third Romeʼʼ, and there will never be a fourth. The statement about Moscow - the "third Rome" was intended to serve to exalt the Moscow sovereigns.
The activities of Ivan III, Vasily III, Ivan IV the Terrible reflected the peculiarity of the formation of Muscovite Russia. The Russian unified centralized state was created as a feudal state under the conditions of strengthening the feudal lord's ownership of land, the enslavement of peasants, their struggle against serfdom, with an insignificant role of cities.
In the West already in the XVI century. the genesis of capitalism was underway, the third estate was taking shape. The growth of cities, the strengthening of economic ties between them led to the formation of the united states of Western Europe.
The basis for the functioning of the socio-economic system of Russian society was feudal land tenure. It was presented in various forms. Princely, boyar, church estates are the most important of them.
As the relationship between the princes and the Grand Duke strengthened, the princely land tenure weakened. The main form of land use at the end of the XV century. there remained the boyar patrimony - the family estate, which was inherited.
In the strengthening Muscovite Russia, a process was going on that could undermine the efforts of the Grand Duke to strengthen his influence, the power of the state. The process of impoverishment of part of the votchinniki intensified, the transition to the lower rank of the class of feudal lords - free servants, or even to serfs to their more successful brethren.
The landless votchinnik could no longer, as before, support the soldiers at his own expense. And in the absence of regular troops, this significantly reduced the military power of the state.
The resolution of this problem was facilitated by the special policy of the Moscow princes, which helped to strengthen the social support of the grand ducal power, to support this part of the feudal lords, to strengthen their dependence on the central government, the military power of Russia. The Grand Duke began to distribute land to the impoverished feudal lords and resettle them to new places. Such "feudal lords" who were located on the new lands began to be called landowners, and their possessions were called estates. They were also called courtyard servants, that is, managers of the princely household, hence the title - nobles.
Local lands were not inherited, but were assigned to the nobles only for the duration of their service until 1714 ᴦ. As a result of such a policy of the Grand Duke at the beginning of the XVI century. there were already estates in almost all counties of the country.
She became a major feudal lord from the 14th century. church. The possessions of the monasteries grew rapidly. The main source of land enrichment was land contributions "for the remembrance of the soul" that landowners gave to monasteries. This custom created huge land wealth of the church in Russia (similar to that in Western Europe) and ruined the feudal lords.
Already in the second half of the XVI century. monasteries owned a third of all cultivated land in the country. This led to the offensive of the grand duke's power on church land ownership, especially in the context of Russia's wars with other states.
The bulk of the population in Russia were peasants, more than 96% of the Russian population lived in rural areas. During this period, the following categories of peasants existed. First of all, black-haired or volost peasants living in communities, later they began to be called state.
The community was characterized by volost self-government under the control of the princely administration, governors and volostels. With the development of the local system, their lands were distributed to the nobles under the pretext of patronage of the peasants from the monasteries of the estates.
A significant part of the peasants were owned or patrimonial peasants. The main type of feudal rent was quitrent in kind due to the weak development of commodity-money relations. Labor rent existed in the form of separate duties: plowing and harvesting, construction, fishing, and so on.
The strengthening of the serfdom of the peasants was fixed by the 57th article of the Sudebnik of 1497 ᴦ. The Cathedral Code of 1649 completed the legal registration of serfdom. St. George's Day was canceled, an indefinite search for runaway peasants was established.
As feudal landownership grew, so did the number of bonded people. They became free people who failed to work out the amount of debt and large, extortionate interest in a timely manner. Peasants who worked on church and monastery lands also belonged to the owner's peasants.
The dependent peasants also included palace peasants who belonged to the Moscow grand dukes (later tsars) and lived on their land.
In the XV-XVI centuries. urban development continued, although the urban population did not become dominant and amounted to only 2%. Cities served as a place of natural exchange and sale of products of artisans, products Agriculture and crafts.
A feature of the development of the craft was the deepening and clearly manifested specialization of labor. For example, in the field of metalworking, there were lockmakers, cutlers, blacksmiths, horseshoes, frying pans, saber makers and others.
High level reached arms and foundry business. By the end of the XV century. in Moscow, the Cannon Yard was created, the production of bricks was revived, which was used by Russian builders to create fortresses. The category of ʼʼblack artisansʼʼ lived in the cities. Οʜᴎ carried ʼʼ taxʼʼ - a complex of natural and monetary duties in favor of the state. Artisans who belonged to the boyars, monasteries or princes were exempted from carrying the ʼʼtaxʼʼ.
With the dominant natural economy, the development of handicrafts nevertheless gradually led to an increase in trade. In the XV century. The main unit of account was the ruble. The coin was originally money, and since the time of Elena Glinskaya, the mother of Ivan the Terrible, a penny. In the XVI century. merchants began to play a prominent role in trade major cities. The largest merchants in the XVI century. were the Stroganovs, whose descendants became counts of the Russian Empire and carried out their activities in the 20th century.
The growing process of unity of the Russian lands allowed the Russian princes to pursue an active foreign policy. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy activities remained the struggle for the final overthrow of the yoke of the Golden Horde and the establishment of relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates that separated from its composition, the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the return of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands seized by it, the struggle against the Livonian Order for access to the Baltic the sea.
Under Ivan III, Russia took shape not only as a single, but also as a sovereign state. In November 1480, as a result of the "great standing" on the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka), the Mongol yoke was finally eliminated. At the end of the XV century. Russia included the Seversky and part of the Smolensk lands, which previously served Lithuania, later Russia again lost these lands. Ivan III did not allow Russia to be drawn into the anti-Ottoman league of Christian sovereigns, which was created by the Pope. He established diplomatic relations with Italy, Germany, Hungary, Denmark, Turkey.
The strengthening of the centralization of the Russian state occurred under Ivan IV the Terrible (1533-1584).
A group of persons close to him formed around the young king, which was later called Chosen by Rada. With her help, the king carried out comprehensive reforms. The creation of central government bodies - orders - was completed. Οʜᴎ existed until the reign of Peter I. By the middle of the 16th century. there were already 20 of them, among them petition, embassy, local, zemstvo, etc.
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Local government developed, the main function of which was the layout, collection and delivery of direct taxes to Moscow. ʼʼfeedingʼʼ was abolished and instead a tax was introduced in favor of the state, which contributed to the centralization of finances. For the first time in Russia in 1550 ᴦ. a permanent archery army was created, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ by the end of the 16th century. numbered 25 thousand people.
In the course of the church reform, uniform church holidays and a pantheon of saints were established. An attempt was made to limit the influence of the church on state affairs, to weaken its economic power. A ban was introduced on making large contributions to monasteries. Ivan IV made an attempt to limit localism, the system of distribution of official places among the feudal lords, which took into account, first of all, the origin and official position their ancestors.
One of the measures to strengthen the centralization of the state and strengthen the power of the Grand Duke was the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom in 1547 ᴦ. (previously, the khan of the Golden Horde was called the king). In Russia, the tsar was considered the vicar of God on earth, in connection with this, his power was more despotic than in Western Europe. The Boyar Duma played an ever smaller role in the state.
In 1549 ᴦ. for the first time, an all-class legislative body was convened - the Zemsky Sobor, which was convened irregularly to resolve the most important state issues. Unlike the Western European class-representative bodies, it limited the power of the king to a much lesser extent. This brought Russia closer to the East.
In 1550 ᴦ. a new Law was adopted. It was based on the Sudebnik 1497 ᴦ., but expanded, it took into account judicial practice. Sudebnik 1550 ᴦ. strengthened serfdom, increasing the ʼʼelderlyʼʼ, the feudal lord was called the ʼʼsovereignʼʼ of the peasant, thereby the legal position of the peasant approached the status of a serf.
A decade of reforms (1549-1560) gave way to years of oprichnina (1565-1572). The term ʼʼoprichninaʼʼ comes from the word ʼʼoprichʼʼ - except. This is how Ivan IV called the territory, which he allocated to himself as an inheritance. He created an oprichnina army, the oprichniki settled on the lands of the boyars, who were evicted to the territory of the zemshchina. In the oprichnina, in parallel with the zemstvo, its own system of state administration developed. Oprichnina in form was a return to the times of feudal fragmentation. At the same time, she pursued the goal of strengthening the personal power of the king, which the king achieved by strengthening the oprichnina terror, various classes suffered from it. The oprichnina army, capable of plundering and killing its people, could not protect the country from an external enemy. In 1571 ᴦ. Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey with an army went to Moscow and burned it. In 1572 ᴦ. Ivan IV canceled the oprichnina. Oprichnina embittered society, human life depreciated, it undermined the country's economy.
The main tasks in the foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVI century. were to provide access to the Baltic Sea, the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the beginning of the development of Siberia, the protection of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khanate.
Ivan IV waged the exhausting Livonian War (1558-1583) for 25 years, the purpose of which was to acquire new lands on the Baltic coast. This could create better conditions for the development of trade with Western states. Starting a war with the Livonian Order, initially Russia won victories, capturing cities, capturing the master of the Livonian Order.
But later she faced the opposition of the Commonwealth, Sweden and Denmark and began to suffer defeats. Heroic defense of Pskov in 1581 ᴦ. against the troops of the King of the Commonwealth, Stefan Batory, allowed Russia to make peace with minimal territorial losses.
Yam-Zapolsky peace was concluded between Russia and the Commonwealth in 1582 ᴦ. for a period of 10 years. The cities occupied by Polish troops were returned to Russia, in return, Russia abandoned Polotsk and Livonia. Plyus truce of 1583 ᴦ. Russia and Sweden ended the Livonian War. The Russian cities of Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye and Korela with counties went to Sweden. Russia retained only the mouth of the river.
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Russia's actions in the eastern and southern directions were more successful. In 1552 ᴦ. after a long preparation, Kazan, a first-class military fortress, was taken by storm. In 1556 ᴦ. annexed Astrakhan. New fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route were part of Russia.
The annexation of Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of advancing to Siberia. In 1581 ᴦ. Ermak Timofeevich, at the head of a detachment of Cossacks, entered the territory of the Siberian Khanate, and a year later defeated the troops of Khan Kuchum, took his capital Kashlyk (Isker).
With the development in the XVI century. the territory of the Field, the fertile lands of the present Central Black Earth Region, the southern borders of the state were strengthened from the raids of the Crimean Khan. They were built in the second half of the 16th century. Tula and Belgorod defensive features. Among the built fortresses was Voronezh.
In 1584 ᴦ. Ivan IV died, leaving two sons, Fedor, incapable of governing the state, and a young Dmitry. In fact, the state was ruled by the royal brother-in-law Boris Godunov. In 1591 ᴦ. died under unclear circumstances, Tsarevich Dmitry, and in 1598. the childless Fedor died, which caused a dynastic crisis.
Russia gradually overcame the consequences of the Mongol yoke. From the beginning of the XIV century. there has been a new upsurge of culture in the Russian lands.
At this time, oral folk art was widely developed. The glorious victory of the Russians on the Kulikovo field was sung in ʼʼTales of the Battle of Mamaevʼʼ, in the poem ʼʼZadonshchinaʼʼ. From the 14th century Chronicles were widely disseminated, which were written not only in monasteries, but also at the courts of Moscow Tver and other princes. Gradually, Moscow became the center of chronicle writing. An all-Russian annalistic code of 1408 ᴦ was compiled. By 1480 ᴦ. includes the creation of the Moscow chronicle code.
Lives, stories about princes, metropolitans, founders of monasteries were widely distributed. Epiphanius the Wise wrote ʼʼThe Life of Sergius of Radonezhʼʼ at the beginning of the 15th century. and glorified the main virtue of Sergius - diligence. Significant flourishing reached iconography in the works of F. Grek, A. Rublev, Dionysius.
In the conditions of acute political struggle in Russia, culture and education developed, schools were opened. Wealthy landowners and townspeople hired home teachers to teach their children. There were schools in which the clergy were trained. By order of Ivan the Terrible, the Printing Yard was built near the Kremlin, and in 1564 ᴦ. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published the first book ʼʼApostolʼʼ, later Russian grammar and the first Slavic-Russian primer were published.
The literature of this period is distinguished by pomp and solemnity. The acute political struggle led to a decline in interest in narrative, fiction literature and a great development of journalism. The most important issues of the life of society became the subject of discussion not only of ecclesiastical, but also secular authors. Ivan IV and A. Kurbsky were bright talented publicists. Ivan IV defended the tsar's right to autocracy. A. Kurbsky wrote about the king's duty to take care of his subjects.
ʼʼDomostroyʼʼ, a book of instructive content intended for home reading, which was written by Sylvester, the confessor of Ivan IV, has received wide distribution in Russia. For personal reading, ʼʼGreat Cheti-Minœiʼʼ was intended, this is a 12-volume (according to the number of months) collection of the lives of saints, teachings, collections of canon law, located on the days of Christian holidays and the days of commemoration of saints.
In this period in Russia there is an intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses, although wooden buildings in Russia prevailed. The architect Aristotle Fioravanti, invited from Venice, supervised the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, in which the rites of election and consecration of the metropolitan and the sacred coronation of kings were performed. The Archangel Cathedral, the burial place of the kings and princes of Moscow, was built. The Faceted Chamber, in which holidays, marriages of kings were held, ambassadors and clergy were received and treated.
In 1560 ᴦ. in commemoration of the victory over Kazan, having fulfilled the order of Ivan IV, Russian architects from Pskov Barma and Postnik completed the construction of the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, which was also called St. Basil's Cathedral. The temple was originally white. It got its variegated coloration in the 17th century.
In connection with the construction of churches and cathedrals, icon painting receives a new impetus, but as never before, it is subject to strict official control. In connection with heightened interest to historical themes in the 16th century. the genre of historical portrait is developing intensively. Portraits of historical persons were of a conditional nature, the artists were not interested in individual features, but in the rank and age of the depicted.
Tendencies of political centralization stimulated ethnic processes in Russia. In the XIV-XVI centuries. a culture of the Great Russian nationality developed, which consolidated the corresponding ethnic process.
FORMATION OF A SINGLE RUSSIAN STATE - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "FORMATION OF A SINGLE RUSSIAN STATE" 2017, 2018.
Remember what role the posadnik played in the administration of Veliky Novgorod. Could a merchant become a posadnik?
The posadnik was selected from among the local boyars. He was in charge of all the Novgorod lands, headed the court of Novgorod, appointed and dismissed various officials, observed the activities of the prince, acted with him at the head of the army, led foreign policy. A merchant could not become a posadnik. He could have been chosen as the 1000th.
Remember which of the Russian princes for the first time refused to pay tribute to the Horde. When it was?
Prince Mikhail received a label for the reign of Vladimir. However, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich refused to obey and declared that he would not give up the reign to anyone. Khan agreed to leave the label with Dmitry. All this suggests that the fate of the throne of Vladimir was decided not in the Horde, but in Russia. And in 1374 Dmitry Donskoy refused to pay tribute to the Horde.
Checking our knowledge
1. Tell us about the annexation of Novgorod to the Muscovite state. What is the significance of this event?
Two groups fought in the Novgorod boyars. The boyars were the first to believe that Novgorod's liberties could only be preserved by relying on the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The boyars of the second group advocated close ties with Moscow. In 1471, the Boretsky group concluded an agreement on behalf of Novgorod with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the King of Poland, Kazimir IV Yagailovich. Novgorod recognized Casimir as its prince, and Casimir pledged to lead its defense in the event of Moscow's campaign against Novgorod.
Upon learning of this, Ivan III gathered the regiments of all the lands subordinate to Moscow and moved to Novgorod. In July 1471, on the Shelon River, Moscow troops defeated the Novgorod militia. Ivan ordered to cut off the heads of four captured leaders of the Novgorod army. Casimir IV did not come to the aid of the allies.
The Moscow prince concluded an agreement with Novgorod. The city retained its independence, but paid Moscow a significant amount of money and refused an alliance with the Lithuanian prince. Ivan III again became Prince of Novgorod.
In the autumn of 1475, Ivan III went to Novgorod. Along the way and in the city itself, residents turned to him with numerous complaints about the abuses of the boyars. Ivan, violating Novgorodian traditions, judged and perpetrated the massacre himself, sent some of the boyars in chains to Moscow to continue the investigation there. All the accused boyars were opponents of Moscow. Ivan, thus, not only acted as a public defender, but also destroyed his rivals, weakened the Novgorod freemen.
In the spring of 1477 Novgorod ambassadors arrived in Moscow. When referring to Ivan, they used the title "sovereign", while earlier Grand Duke called "Mr." Velikiy Novgorod"He negotiated with" Mr. Grand Duke ". This slip was used by Ivan Vasilyevich. He sent his ambassadors to Novgorod to find out what state the ambassadors were talking about.
And when one of the supporters of the Moscow prince was killed at the Novgorod veche, Ivan considered this a weighty reason for a new campaign. The Grand Duke's troops took Novgorod into the encirclement. The besieged Novgorodians were forced to agree to all the demands of the Moscow prince.
In January 1478, the independence of Novgorod was liquidated, the veche was dissolved, and the veche bell - the symbol of the Novgorod freemen - was taken to Moscow. Elected posadniks and thousandths were replaced by Moscow governors.
Initially, Ivan III promised not to take away the estates from the Novgorod boyars. However, he soon began to drive the owners from their homes and give it to people who served the Moscow prince.
2. Tell us about the overthrow of the Horde yoke. What circumstances predetermined the inevitability of this event?
In 1473 Ivan III stopped sending tribute. But in 1480 the situation in the Muscovite state became more complicated. Brothers of Ivan III offended by the that Ivan did not attach part of the Novgorod lands that were part of the Moscow principality to their destinies, entered into an alliance with Casimir IV. The troops of the Livonian Order attacked the Pskov land. It was restless in the newly annexed Novgorod.
One of the Horde khans Akhmat took advantage of this. He managed to attract almost all the military forces of the former Golden Horde to the campaign against Russia. He made an alliance with the Lithuanian prince and went to Russia to force the Grand Duke to pay tribute.
On October 8, 1480, the Horde troops approached the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka, where the Russian-Lithuanian border passed, and began to wait for the troops of the Lithuanian prince, with whom Akhmat made an alliance. But Ivan III also managed to make an alliance with the Crimean Khan, a long-time enemy of Akhmat. And he raided the southern lands of Lithuania. In addition, a conspiracy of an influential group of Orthodox princes was brewing in Lithuania itself. In such circumstances, Casimir IV again did not dare to oppose Moscow. Besides Ivan III managed to make peace with their brothers, and their detachments also approached the Ugra.
For more than a month, Moscow and Horde troops stood on opposite banks of the Ugra. After the first unsuccessful attempt to cross the river, Akhmat no longer dared to join the battle. He was waiting for Casimir. Ivan III dragged out time, negotiating with Akhmat. In the meantime, early cold weather came, snow covered the remains of the grass, which the Horde horses did not have time to eat. On November 11, 1480, Akhmat turned back, devastating the Lithuanian possessions on the Upper Oka and its tributaries. So, almost bloodlessly, ended the Horde dominion that lasted 240 years.
3. What is the significance of creating a unified Russian state?
1. Allowed to stop internecine strife.
2. Contributed to the development of the economy and culture of the state.
3. A strong state could withstand an external threat.
4. Show on the map the territories annexed to the Moscow principality at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century.
Tver and Novgorod lands, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Rylsk, Bryansk, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan principality.
5. Compose an oral story based on the painting by A. D. Kivshenko “Sending Martha Boretskaya and the Novgorod veche bell to Moscow in 1478”, placed in the textbook. What, from your point of view, is the significance of this event in the process of formation of a unified Russian state?
On January 29, 1478, Novgorod capitulated. This meant the loss of independence by Novgorod. The symbol of Novgorod independence - the bell - was removed and taken to Moscow. And he confiscated the lands of the local nobility who opposed Ivan III, including Martha Boretskaya. Martha, accompanied by guards, along with her children, was sent to Moscow.
Learning to be historians
1. Find out the origin of the name of the river Ugra. In what areas modern Russia does it flow?
Ugra is a river in the Smolensk and Kaluga regions of Russia. Ugra - "strong, mighty, huge."
2. Try to act as a chronicler, telling your descendants about the great standing on the Ugra (write no more than 60 words).
For more than a month, the opponents stood on opposite banks of the Ugra River. And Akhmat tried to cross the river. And he didn't succeed. And Akhmat did not dare to join the battle. Prince Ivan III exhausted the enemy with anticipation. And the cold came. Seeing that the battle would be unsuccessful, Khan Akhmat turned his troops back.
The beginning, development and completion of the process of formation of a unified Moscow state.
Political and economic prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The process of formation of centralized states is a historically natural process that took place in all countries. In Europe, it was associated with the destruction of the subsistence economy, the strengthening of economic ties between different regions and the emergence of bourgeois relations. In Russia, the formation centralized state, unlike the West, took place on a purely feudal basis. The decisive role in the process of unification of the Russian lands was played by political prerequisites - the strengthening of the grand duke's power and the need to fight against external enemies, primarily the Horde yoke.
From the beginning of the XIV century. Russia's economy began to gradually revive after the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The development of productive forces in agriculture led to the restoration of agriculture. The use of the plow and plow caused an increase in the number of livestock. The cultivation of the land was improved: deeper plowing was used, which made it possible to switch everywhere to a three-field system of agriculture. With the development of the three-field land, fertilizing the land with manure comes into practice. Crafts and home crafts revived in the villages. With the increase in productivity, the process of geographical specialization of agricultural regions begins (the northern regions specialized in the production of flax and hemp, Yaroslavl became one of the centers of cattle breeding, and arable farming developed in the central regions). From the end of the XIII century. handicraft began to revive. By the beginning of the XIV century. there were more than 200 types of handicraft production. There are centers of iron-making, leather production, salt extraction, etc. Big cities- Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Suzdal - became craft and trade centers.
Markets (trades) were organized in the cities, to which merchants from different parts of the country traveled. A trading class was formed, the top of which was represented by "guests". The growth of agriculture and handicrafts, the development of trade in the country strengthened economic ties between the regions of the country, i.e. there were economic preconditions for political unification.
The unification of the country was objectively dictated by the tasks of developing trade and striving for independence. In the XIII-XIV centuries. large-scale feudal lords transferred part of their lands into conditional possession to service people (nobles) for service for a certain period, after which the land was returned to the previous owner. This contributed to the growth of the nobility - small landowners who were in the service of large feudal lords.
The development of feudal relations, the strengthening of feudal property was accompanied by increased exploitation of the artisan and peasant population, which caused an aggravation of social contradictions that led to the XIV-XV centuries. to a number of uprisings (in Moscow, Torzhok, Novgorod, Kostroma). The struggle of the peasantry (renunciation of corvée, arson, escapes, murders, local uprisings) forced the feudal lords to maintain a strong centralized power capable of protecting their interests.
Strengthening the Moscow principality. The center around which the unification of Russian lands began was Moscow, allocated by Alexander Nevsky to his son Daniel at the end of the 13th century. Calling the reasons for the rise of Moscow, it is necessary to take into account favorable natural and climatic conditions, the intersection of trade routes, remoteness from the outskirts that were attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. Moscow was also one of the centers of the formation of the Great Russian people. Considering that similar conditions were also inherent in other Russian lands, it should be recognized that the policy of the first Moscow princes played a decisive role in the rise of Moscow. They entered into a struggle with the princes of Tver for a great reign, although according to the rules of seniority they did not have the right to do so, they tirelessly expanded the territory of the Moscow principality. Under Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303), it doubled, occupying the Moskva River basin. Under his son Yuri Danilovich (1303-1325), the Principality of Moscow became one of the strongest in North-Eastern Russia, it included Pereyaslav and Mozhaisk.
In the fight against the princes of Tver, the rulers of Moscow tried to rely on the Horde khans, who used rival princely families to increase political destabilization in Russia.
The highest flourishing in the XIV century. The Moscow principality reached during the reign of Ivan I Kalita (1325-1340). The nickname Kalita - "a bag of coins" - was not given to the prince by chance, because. with the help of purchases, he tried to increase the territory of the principality. In a similar way, he acquired labels in the Horde for Uglich, Galich, Beloozero. Ivan Kalita is known for the fact that: having brutally suppressed the uprising against the khan's tribute collectors in Tver in 1327, he received the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands and deliver it to the Horde. Thus, the Basque system was abolished; fawning over the Golden Horde, he managed to obtain in 1328 the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir and All Russia (this title was retained by the Moscow princes almost without interruption for all subsequent years); managed to enlist the support of the Russian Orthodox Church and its head, Metropolitan Peter, whose residence was moved from Vladimir to Moscow; being a cunning diplomat, he managed to provide the Moscow principality with a long peaceful respite, not without reason that his contemporaries called the years of his reign “great silence”.
During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality grew from 4 to 97 cities and villages. Compromising with the Horde authorities, receiving benefits and privileges, the first Moscow princes strengthened the Moscow principality, gradually turning it into the center of the national liberation of Russia.
The beginning of a decisive struggle against the Horde. In the second half of the XIV century. Moscow princes not only fought for political dominance in Russia, but also spoke of national interests, fighting against the Horde yoke. From this point of view, the reign of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1363-1389) should be considered. He was nicknamed "Donskoy" for his brilliant victory over the Mongol-Tatars at the Battle of Kulikovo. This victory strengthened Moscow's leading role in the unification process.
No wonder V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote that Russian state was born not in the hoard chest of Ivan Kalita, but on the Kulikovo field. After the victory on the Kulikovo field, Dmitry Donskoy included the Vladimir principality in his fiefdom. At the end of the XIV-XV centuries. the lands of the rich Nizhny Novgorod and Murom principalities, as well as a number of large cities - Tula, Veliky Ustyug, etc., were annexed to Moscow.
feudal war. After the death of Dmitry Donskoy (1389), civil strife began among the specific princes for the possession of the Moscow throne, which gave the title of Grand Duke. The large boyar nobility opposed the centralization of power and a unified state. Civil strife led to a feudal war that unfolded in the first half of the 15th century. and ended by the beginning of the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505). The consequence of the feudal war was the final approval of the principle of inheritance of power in a direct descending line from father to son. Ivan III destroyed the appanage system, under which the relatives of the Moscow prince were sovereign sovereigns in their hereditary destinies and even shared power over Moscow with the Grand Duke.
The largest independent public education Novgorod remained along with Moscow, whose lands defended Russia from the North-West. In the 70s. 15th century in Novgorod, the influence of the anti-Moscow group led by Martha the Posadnitsa increased. She and her supporters aspired to the autonomy of Novgorod within the Polish-Lithuanian state, while the inhabitants of the north-west themselves considered Novgorod an integral part of the Russian lands. Ivan III made two trips to Novgorod: 1471 (battle on the Shelon River) and 1478, as a result of which the independence of the Novgorod Republic was liquidated, the veche was forbidden, the governor of the Moscow prince was planted, the lands of the traitor boyars were confiscated and transferred to the Moscow nobility.
In 1485, after two days of resistance to the Moscow troops, Tver surrendered. In 1489, the city of Vyatka, important in terms of trade, was annexed to the Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III (1505-1533), the Pskov Republic ceased to exist in 1510, and in 1521 the Ryazan Principality, which was a vassal of Moscow, ceased to exist.
Completion of the political unification of Russia. The subordination of a large territory to one monarch or the unification of several previously independent states cannot be considered sufficient signs of centralization. A centralized state can be considered such a state in which there are laws recognized in all its parts, and a well-coordinated administrative apparatus that ensures the implementation of these laws or the monarch's will. Therefore, in parallel with the unification of the lands, the construction of an all-Russian state apparatus was going on.
Ivan III pursued a policy of raising the power of the Grand Duke; boyars and princes now swore allegiance to the prince of Moscow; special signs of grand ducal power appeared (“Monomakh's cap”, the state emblem - a double-headed eagle), etc. In an appeal to Ivan III, the title "Sovereign" was used; The Boyar Duma played an important role in governing the country; it included boyars from the old Moscow nobility and descendants of former influential princes (“prince boyars”). The less distinguished members of the Duma were called roundabouts. People in the Duma were selected according to the principle of parochialism. Localism is such an order of holding public office, in which the position of a person in the state apparatus was determined by the service of ancestors. In addition to the Duma, the metropolitan and the Consecrated Cathedral (a meeting of the higher clergy) had a significant influence on the policy of the Moscow sovereign; in Russia there were two nationwide bodies - the Palace and the Treasury, which performed the functions of the state chancellery; with the complication of public administration, it becomes necessary to create special institutions that were in charge of individual branches of affairs. Such bodies were the orders that appeared under Vasily III; local administration was carried out by governors appointed by the Grand Duke. They collected taxes from the population, monitored the execution of the decrees of the Grand Duke, and carried out court and reprisals. The content of the governors was carried out at the expense of extortions from the population (feedings).
In order to introduce uniformity into the judicial and administrative system, in 1497 the all-Russian Code of Laws was adopted, where uniform norms of criminal liability and judicial procedural norms were established. In the Sudebnik of Ivan III, the right of the peasant to leave the former landowner was recorded only for two weeks a year, dedicated to St. George's Day (November 26). The peasant was obliged to pay all debts, as well as the elderly - compensation to the landowner for the loss of labor. This document marked the beginning of the formalization of serfdom, which meant the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord in personal, land, property and administrative-legal terms.
Historical meaning creation of a unified state. The formation of the Russian centralized state was of great historical significance:
- its creation was a progressive step compared with the economic and political disunity of individual lands;
- the necessary prerequisites arose for the further economic, political and cultural development of Russia;
- internal unity, strengthening the country's defense capability ensured the successful struggle of the Russian state with external enemies;
- the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off.
At the same time, the formation of a single state led to an increase in the dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords, which was officially fixed by the state.
formed at the beginning of the 16th century. It is more correct to call the Russian state not centralized, but united, because. there was no true centralization in it yet; strong economic relations had not yet developed, the central state apparatus was only in its infancy, and the church had considerable independence.
To the question, what is the significance of creating a unified Russian state? given by the author Iishat Tavkhutdinov the best answer is The emergence of a unified Russian state was of great historical significance. The elimination of partitions in the country and the cessation of feudal wars created more favorable conditions for the development National economy and to repulse external enemies. For the future of the Russian people, it largely determined its future fate and features of development. A protected field has been formed for the self-preservation of Russian lands, for active historical activity, creating a national culture. Having taken a prominent place among European states, Russia established ties with the outside world.
Answer from piglet[newbie]
The emergence of a unified Russian state was of great historical significance. The elimination of barriers on the territory of the country and the cessation of feudal wars created more favorable conditions for the development of the national economy and for repelling external enemies. For the future of the Russian people, it largely determined its future fate and features of development. A protected field was formed for the self-preservation of Russian lands, for active historical activity, and the creation of a national culture. Having taken a prominent place among European states, Russia established ties with the outside world.
Answer from Nadezhda Elistratova[newbie]
Answer from flush[newbie]
and what do you think?
Answer from Liza Ustinova[newbie]
The formation of a single Russian state and the overthrow of the Horde yoke provided Russia with the conditions for intensive economic, political, and cultural development. Feudal strife was abolished. There was a unification of the Russian people and the process of formation of the Russian nation began. Russia again began to exist as an independent state of Eastern Europe. It has firmly entered the complex system of international relations.
Answer from Prida Oksana Ivanovna[newbie]
The formation of the Russian centralized state was of great historical significance: its creation was a progressive step compared to the economic and political disunity of individual lands; the necessary prerequisites arose for the further economic, political and cultural development of Russia; internal unity, strengthening the country's defense capability ensured the successful struggle of the Russian state with external enemies; the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off. At the same time, the formation of a single state led to an increase in the dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords, which was officially fixed by the state. It is more correct to call the Russian state not centralized, but united, since there was no true centralization in it yet; strong economic relations had not yet developed, the central state apparatus was only in its infancy, and the church had considerable independence.
Answer from Daria Prikhunova[newbie]
a centralized state created improved conditions for the development of agriculture. there were no civil strife within the country, since there was no division into separate principalities. plus a single army, which means protection from enemies. the creation of a national culture and the ability to interact with other countries
Answer from Angela Razzhivina[active]
The unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow strengthened the defense capability of the state, made it possible to stop internecine conflicts and paved the way for the creation of a great Russian Empire which lasted until 1917. In cultural terms, the unification made it possible to form a single Russian people with common religious, economic and linguistic values. Moscow has become not only the political capital of the Russian state, but also its cultural symbol.
Answer from Polina Porval[newbie]
The unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow strengthened the defense capability of the state, made it possible to stop internecine conflicts and paved the way for the creation of the great Russian Empire, which lasted until 1917. In cultural terms, the unification made it possible to form a single Russian people with common religious, economic and linguistic values. Moscow has become not only the political capital of the Russian state, but also its cultural symbol.
Answer from Yomirnykh Tatyana[newbie]