State system STATE ORDER - a concept used in constitutional law most often in a broad sense: it covers the foundations of the structure of society and the state reflected in the constitution, the nature of political relations and the organization of power in a given

4. The political system of the Old Russian state. System of state authorities Ancient Russia. The legal status of the population of Kievan Rus The Old Russian state was a monarchy headed by the Grand Duke. He owned the supreme

11. Class-representative monarchy in Russia. The legal status of the main categories of the population The prerequisites for the emergence of a class-representative monarchy is the struggle of the great princes and kings for the further strengthening of the centralized state. Power

12. State system in the period of estate-representative monarchy. Mandatory management system State system. The only form of government was approved by the monarchy, while the status of the monarch changes. Ivan IV proclaimed himself tsar, reflecting

19. The legal status of peasants in Russia during the period of absolute monarchy During the period of absolute monarchy, the process of enslaving the peasants was completed. Cathedral code 1649 abolished the fixed summer and established an indefinite search for fugitive peasants. During this period, serfdom

Formation of a centralized multinational state The formation of a centralized state in Russia is a long and complex process. It began at the end of the thirteenth century. and clearly manifested itself in the first decades of the XIV century, and the XV century became the most important in this process.

According to the social system, the Russian centralized state can be characterized as feudal, and according to the form of government - early feudal monarchy. In the society of the feudal period, the class difference of the population was fixed by establishing the legal place of each category of the population or by dividing it into estates.

If during the period of fragmentation the hierarchy of the feudal class was relatively stable, then in the 15th century the appanage princes became the "princes" of the Grand Duke of Moscow. Significantly weakened the economic and political significance of the boyar nobility, suppressed as a result of resistance to centralization. They no longer had the "right of departure" to another overlord, for this was followed by deprivation of the patrimony and accusation of treason. The issuance of immunity letters is terminated, judicial functions are withdrawn. At the same time, the importance of medium and small feudal lords is growing, and the emerging nobility is rising. The centralized state needed a strong army and bureaucracy. This task could be performed by the nobles who owned estates and were dependent on the Grand Duke.

According to the economic situation, the feudal lords were divided into boyars (owners of estates), nobles (owners of estates). The very meaning of the term boyar has become ambiguous. On the top step were the "introduced boyars". The rank of "introduced boyar" was solemnly announced and given for service or for special merits to eminent boyars. Ranks were equated to state positions.

At the second stage there was the rank of "rounder", the bearer of which were small specific princes and noble boyars who were not included in the "introduced boyars". The rest of the boyars merged with the "children of the boyars" and the nobles. One of them received the ranks of duma nobles and duma clerks, other ranks of stolniks of Moscow nobles, nobles of the city. Nobles (from the word "servant over the noble") and landlords (derived from the word "to make use of" on the ground and for service) arose in the Rostov-Suzdal Principality, but as a social group in the Muscovite state it was formed in the second half of the 15th century.

Service in the apparatus of the state in the Moscow principality is considered a privilege. The palace and patrimonial system of government is gradually dying out. The butler no longer deals with the princely economy, but together with the treasurer and, relying on the clerks, controls the local administration and exercises judicial functions in the most important cases. The groom becomes the head Boyar Duma.

Kravchiy deals with food and supply issues. Hunters, falconers, bed-riders are engaged in state affairs and can influence the solution of important issues.

During this period, there were also changes in the legal status of the peasants (the peasant - a derivative of the word Christian, arose in the 14th century). In the XV century. the peasant was no longer free; he paid taxes either to the state or to the feudal lord. State peasants were called black or black tax ("tax" - the amount of taxes on the community), or black-sowed ("plough" - a unit of taxation equal to 50 acres of land). In this category of peasants, the entire community was responsible for the receipt of taxes to the treasury. The community was in charge of the lands, protected from encroachment, accepted new settlers, provided legal protection to members, distributed the amount of dues and duties.

In the XV - XVI centuries. the rural community was strengthened, since this form of organization was convenient for both the state and the peasants.

Privately owned peasants paid taxes to the feudal lords in the form of products and worked off the corvée.

The form of feudal dependence makes it possible to divide privately owned peasants into categories:

a) old-timers - peasants who have lived for a long time on black lands or in private estates, who had their own household and carried the sovereign's tax or duty to the feudal lord;

b) new contractors (novices) - impoverished, who lost the opportunity to independently manage their household and were forced to take allotments from feudal lords and move to other places (after 5-6 years they turned into old-timers);

c) silversmiths - peasants who owe money (silver) at interest ("in growth") or to pay off a debt by working for a feudal lord ("for a product");

d) silver debtors - those who gave a promissory note ("bondage record") became bonded people;

e) ladles - impoverished peasants, half-way (up to 50% percent) cultivating feudal land on their horses;

f) bobyls - impoverished people (farmers and artisans), obliged by duties to the feudal lord or cash quitrent to the state;

g) serfs-serfs - serfs planted on the ground and carrying corvee.

The feudal-dependent population included monastic peasants (monastic cubs, dependents, etc.).

At the lowest stage of the social ladder were serfs who worked in the courts of princes and feudal lords (keykeepers, tiuns). Their number has decreased markedly, because. some of them were planted on the ground. In addition, the Sudebnik of 1497 limits the sources of servility. They became serfs in the case of marriage to persons of a similar state, by will, by self-sale. Admission to the rural Tiunism also entailed servitude, but the rest of the family members remained free. In the cities, however, the situation was different - entering the service "according to the city key" did not entail a servile state. The code of law of 1550 further restricts the sources of servility: tyunism does not entail servitude without a special agreement (Article 76).

In the XIV-XV centuries the position of the peasantry was very difficult. Factors enhancing exploitation were:

* the desire of the feudal lords and the state to extract the maximum profit from peasant labor;

* the need for funds to pay tribute;

* distribution of state (communal) lands to the noble army;

* the routine state of feudal technology, etc.

All this prompted the peasants to search for those places where feudal oppression was more moderate. Peasant transitions ("natives"), and even simply flights to the northern and southern lands, became more frequent. There was a need to limit the "outputs" of the peasants. At first, the prohibition of the transition was stipulated in between princely treaties. In the 15th century, serfdom took on an orderly character as a result of the registration of a dependent population.

The transition of the peasant was only once and a year - a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and within a week after it. The Sudebnik of 1497 consolidated this provision (Article 57). To "exit" the peasant had to pay one ruble "in the fields" and a fee in less fertile places.

The Sudebnik of 1550 regulated "refusals" (transitions) in more detail, repeating the same transition period. At the same time, he established that the "old" is paid "from the gate", and not by each generation of a family living together. The amount of "elderly" increased to two altyns. Thus, the Sudebniks of 1497 and 1550 played important role in the formation of bondage.

During the period of centralization, its state system also changed significantly. First of all, it should be noted the strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke (the Horde Khan was also called the king). This was facilitated by the restriction of the immune rights of the feudal lords, especially the specific princes. The political isolation of the principalities is being liquidated. The fall of Byzantium led to the exaltation of the Moscow sovereign. The flight of the Horde army on the Ugra (1480) meant the formation of the independence of the Russian land. State attributes are being formed: Byzantine-type symbols (coat of arms and regalia). The marriage of Ivan III with the niece of the Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus strengthened the historical continuity from Byzantium. Beginning with the son of Ivan III, Dmitry, the Grand Duke is crowned for a great reign in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (from February 3, 1498). Vasily III (1505-1553) successfully fought against feudal separatism. Under him, the principality is no longer divided into destinies. On January 19, 1547, Ivan IV was married to the kingdom. The word "tsar" was added to his title "sovereign and grand prince of Moscow", which equated

Ivan the Terrible to the Holy Roman Emperor. The Byzantine patriarch and all the eastern clergy recognized his royal title. The liquidation of appanages and independent principalities meant the abolition of the system of vassalage. All people became subjects of the Grand Duke of Moscow and had to serve the sovereign.

Jurisdiction over the most important cases on the ground was transferred to state bodies.

The appanages (principalities, lands) are abolished, and the entire territory is divided into counties and volosts. The monarch himself concentrated in his hands all the power (civil, judicial, administrative and military). His status in the Code of Laws was not fixed, since he was recognized as standing outside the law. He decided important state affairs with the council of feudal lords - the boyar duma, which arose as the highest body in the middle of the 15th century. and turned into a permanent institution. The Boyar Duma ("Sovereign Top") - the successor to the council of feudal lords, included large boyars (introduced or roundabout), former specific princes, and later representatives of noble families and the service bureaucracy.

The Boyar Duma resolved the main issues of foreign and domestic policy, carried out the supreme administration of the country, supervised orders and local government bodies, established taxes, resolved issues related to the armed forces, and exercised judicial functions.

There was no separation of the competences of the tsar and the Duma. Therefore, many decrees began with the words "the king indicated, and the boyars (that is, the thought) were sentenced."

Feudal congresses met to resolve issues of exceptional importance, requiring great effort and sacrifice. They rarely met. But the fact that they existed is proved by the fact that Ivan III, before going to Novgorod in 1471, convened a congress, which was attended by the brothers of the Grand Duke, vassal princes, the church hierarchy, boyars, governors and "voi".

The central administration was built on the basis of the palace and patrimonial system, in which there was no clear separation between the functions of state administration bodies and the princely domain. This system consisted of:

* palace management, which was called "paths" (the word "path" meant profit, advantage, income) led by worthy boyars (falconer, trapper, horseman, steward, chalice);

* governors and volostels in state counties and villages;

* patrimonial administration in feudal estates.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. along with the process of limiting the functions of governors and volosts, new bodies of central administration arose.

Each order was headed by a boyar, who had at his disposal a whole staff of officials. The order hut had its representatives or authorized representatives in the field. The order system was closely connected with the nobility and was appointed from its composition (shown in the diagram).

Noble deacon families with hereditary vocational guidance were formed. The following commands are known:

* Ambassadorial order - was in charge of external relations;

* Robbery order - was engaged in "dashing" and robbery affairs;

* Local order - was in charge of allocating land for service;

* Pit order - pit service;

* Treasury order - the financial affairs of the state.

Orders exercised judicial functions in cases related to their areas of activity. In the orders, office work was fairly streamlined. During this period, there was no clear delineation of the functions of orders, they could carry out both sectoral and territorial activities, sometimes replacing each other.

The order system was most developed during the period of the estate-representative monarchy.

Local government was carried out by governors in counties and volosts in volosts. They ruled the entire territory of the counties or volosts, with the exception of the boyar estates. Local government was built according to the "feeding" system, in which the local population provided the governors and volosts with everything necessary. The entire local administration was provided at the expense of the local population. But the feeding system by the 16th century began to become obsolete. Since the positions of governors and volosts were occupied by boyars, who often allowed arbitrariness, the feeding system ceased to satisfy both the central government and the nobility.

The center began to limit the period of feeding (usually - years), the staffing of the administration of governors and volosts, as well as the amount of taxes.

Sudebnik of 1497 distinguishes between governorship with "boyar court" and "without boyar court"

(see Art. 18, 20, 40, 42, 43), therefore, there is a differentiation of governors. Moreover, the feeders with the boyar court, in accordance with the Sudebnik, were under control, because. courtier, headman and " the best people"It was prescribed to be present at the court of the governor (Article 38).

The power of the governors was finally undermined after a series of zemstvo-labial and judicial reforms of the 30-50s of the 16th century. Lip, zemstvo and judicial reforms 30-50s. years were due to two reasons.

Firstly, the aggravation of class contradictions led to a situation where state bodies could not cope with their punitive duties against "dashing people" and it became necessary to involve the local population in this. Secondly, the growth in the importance of the nobility, the merchants, the wealthy elite of the peasantry intensified opposition to feudal arbitrariness, demanded streamlining judging, etc. The organs of provincial self-government, the so-called labial hut, consisting of a labial headman and kissers, were elected bodies and were formed mainly from the nobility. The functions of the lab huts were the detection of crimes, interrogation, etc. Later, they began to concentrate judicial functions in their hands and even carried out court sentences.

During this period, the relationship between the state and the church received a certain development. Until the middle of the 15th century, the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church was appointed by Constantinople from among its representatives. But gradually the positions of the national clergy strengthened, and a representative of the Russian clergy was appointed metropolitan upon the approval of the Byzantine patriarch. At the end of the 15th century, Ivan 3 achieved the right to appoint a metropolitan without the consent of the Byzantine patriarch, thereby strengthening his power over the church. In the future, the metropolitans were changed at their discretion. But at the same time, the church retained its positions, although within the clergy there was a struggle between two political and philosophical currents: the Josephites and non-possessors (non-possessors allowed the secularization of church lands). The church council of 1503 did not support Ivan III's plans to secularize church and monastery lands.

Failed to achieve the secularization of church lands and Ivan the Terrible at the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551.

At the turn of the 14th-15th centuries. in Russia, a centralized state was formed, marking the end of the period of feudal fragmentation.

Russian state gaining power, expanding its borders.

3. The military structure of the centralized Russian state

During the formation and development of a centralized state, there were changes in the organization armed forces(states). The armed detachments of the feudal lords did not meet the interests of the grand duke's power, since they were a force of opponents of centralization. From the 2nd half of the 15th century, the basis of the armed forces was the noble militia - the noble regiments that served as the support of the Grand Duke. In addition, the Muscovite princes enlist the landowners of all the service people of estates and estates to carry out military service, and at the same time forbid the "departure" of service people to other princes.

The local or noble army was based on local system, i.e. to attract the children of boyars and nobles to military service from their possessions. It consisted of service people who received land for their service in conditional possession, which served as sources of their income. Estates were distributed to service people in accordance with the following requirements:

* Estates were given only to those who actually served in the military (the estates were taken away from those who lost the ability to serve).

* The size of the estate was determined by the duration and impeccability of service.

* The size of the estate was determined by the quantitative composition of armed persons acting together with the owner.

In addition, the owners of the estates received a cash salary. This system made it possible to create a large local army of nobles, supporters of centralized power. The local militia is higher in position than the feudal army, consisting of detachments led by the feudal lord.

The local system was laid by Ivan III, who distributed the land confiscated from 70 Novgorod votchinniki to two thousand Moscow service people. The size of the local salary ranged from 100 to 750 acres of land, depending on the territory, merit, position.

Ivan IV significantly streamlined military service from local estates. In 1550, after a large review, he singled out 1000 "landowners" "children of boyars and the best servants" and endowed them with estates around Moscow. This elite thousand (later "Moscow ranks") was the armed force of the tsar and his guards.

In accordance with the "Code of Service" in 1556, the military-local system received legal registration. According to the Code, from every 50 acres, at the first request, one person must be put up "on a horse in full armor, and on a long trip about two horses." The size of the land 50 acres (100 quarters) was called "local salary". The Code did not distinguish service from estates and estates, the norms for the boyars were the same. The military service of the nobles, in accordance with the Code of 1556, began at the age of 15 and was lifelong and hereditary. (Give an example from " captain's daughter"). The acquisition of the noble army was carried out by recording in the regimental lists. The lists were compiled at the reviews of all service nobles and boyar children. Reviews were conducted by "Moscow ranks" and local governors. The procedure for conducting reviews was regulated by the law "On the inspection and analysis of nobles and boyar children" 1678 d. Men-nobles, obligated to military service, were divided into 4 groups:

* service nobleman - a person enrolled in the service and provided with a local salary (during a campaign - a cash salary);

* "undergrowth" - a person who has not reached the age determined for service;

* retired - a person dismissed from service due to age or illness;

* "novik" - i.e. a nobleman, fit for service, but not yet made up for review in the regimental lists.

At the parades, lists were compiled by category, and a clear record of each of them was kept. Moscow officials made sure that the nobles did not hide from service, did not hide the size of their land holdings, the number of sons. They were assisted by "payers" or "kind and righteous and knowledgeable people". They took an oath and had to report information known to them. The law obliged them "to a friend - not to be friends with an enemy not to take revenge", i.e. to report which sons of nobles are fit for military service and what composition of armed persons a nobleman should exhibit.

A nobleman, having entered the service, took an oath (a cross-kissing record) for the faithful service of the king. Noble service could be regimental (marching) or city

(siege). Young and trained servicemen were recorded in the regimental service "with the head and service of the good."

AT Peaceful time regimental service was to protect the borders of the state. Local monetary salaries were also paid for this service. The city (siege) service carried out the protection of cities, fortresses, structures. This service was carried out by the nobles, who, for health reasons, were not capable of field service.

Accordingly, no monetary salaries were paid for the city service. Noble regiments were divided into 2 categories:

The first category included "Moscow ranks", i.e. "sovereign regiment", which was discussed earlier. The regiment included court boyars and nobles who had estates near Moscow. Occupying a privileged position under the sovereign, they had a large manor court and a monetary salary.

The Russian centralized state can be characterized as a feudal state in terms of its social system, and as an early feudal monarchy in terms of the form of government.

Thus:

• - The composition of the class of feudal lords is changing. A group of service princes appears, who made up the feudal elite. These are former appanage princes, who, after joining their appanages to the Muscovite state, lost their independence, but retained the right to own land.
• - During this period, the meaning of the term "boyar" itself changes. It means not only belonging to a certain social group, but a court rank granted by the Grand Duke. The second court rank was the rank of roundabout.
• - A new one is being formed social group- nobility. These are petty feudal lords, endowed by the Grand Duke with land under the condition of performing service (primarily military). The nobles needed strong power to protect their interests. Therefore, they become the mainstay of the grand duke's power.
• - Significant changes are also taking place in the legal status of the peasantry. The peasants were divided into two categories: the black peasants, who were not dependent on any particular owner - the feudal lord; possessory, who lived on lands belonging to one or another patrimony or landowner. The latter consisted of old-timers, newcomers, silversmiths, beans, ladles.

The feudal-dependent population included monastic peasants - monastic cubs, dependents and others.

At the lowest stage of the social ladder were serfs who worked in the courts of princes and feudal lords (tiuns, housekeepers). Their number has decreased markedly, as some of them were planted on the ground. In addition, the Sudebnik of 1497 limits the sources of servility. They became serfs only in the case of marriage to persons of a similar state, with self-sale, under a will. Admission to the rural Tiunism also entailed servitude, but the rest of the family members remained free. In the cities, the situation was different - entering the service "by the city key" did not entail a servile state.

In the 14th-15th century, the position of the peasantry was very difficult. Factors that increased exploitation were:

• - the need for funds to pay tribute;
• - the desire of the feudal lords and the state to extract the maximum profit from peasant labor;
• - distribution of state lands to the noble army;
• - the routine state of feudal technology, etc.

All this prompted the peasants to search for those places where feudal oppression was more moderate. Peasant transitions ("natives"), and even simply flights to the southern and northern lands, became more frequent. There was a need to limit the "outputs" of the peasants. At first, the prohibition of the transition was stipulated in between princely treaties. In the 15th century, serfdom took on an orderly character, as a result of the registration of a dependent population. The transition of the peasant was only once in a year - a week before St. George's Day and within a week after it. This provision was enshrined in the Sudebnik of 1497 in Art. 57.

During the period of centralization Russian state There is also a change in the state system.

First of all, it should be noted the strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke. This was facilitated by the restriction of the immune rights of the feudal lords, especially the specific princes. The political isolation of the principalities is being liquidated. The fall of Byzantium led to the exaltation of the Moscow sovereign. The flight of the Horde army on the Ugra in 1480 meant the formation of the independence of the Russian land. State attributes of the Byzantine type are being formed - the coat of arms and regalia. The marriage of Ivan 3 with the niece of the Byzantine emperor Sophia Palaiologos strengthened the historical continuity from Byzantium. On January 19, 1547, Ivan 4 was married to the kingdom. The word “tsar” was added to his title “sovereign and grand prince of Moscow”, which equated Ivan the Terrible with the emperor of the “Holy Roman Empire”. The Byzantine patriarch and all the eastern clergy recognized his royal title. The liquidation of independent principalities and appanages meant the abolition of the system of vassalage. The entire population became subjects of the Grand Duke of Moscow and had to serve the sovereign. Jurisdiction over the most important cases on the ground was transferred to state bodies.

Grand Duke as the head of state was endowed with a wide range of rights, possessed the highest legislative, judicial and executive powers.

By the 15th century formed such a body as the Boyar Duma. It was a permanent body with a stable composition, which included Duma ranks. The Boyar Duma did not have a clearly defined competence, but could make decisions on the most important issues in the life of the state.

Feudal congresses begin to die out as the state centralizes.

At the end of the 15th century the development of the palace and patrimonial system into the order system begins, which was an indicator of the further centralization of the Russian state.

The judicial system was cumbersome and complex and consisted of a number of instances: the court of governors (voivode), the court of orders, the Grand Duke or the court of the Boyar Duma. Local government consisted of governors in counties and volostels in volosts.

The role of the church in state organization. Her attitude to the problem of the centralization of the Russian state was contradictory. Among the church hierarchs of that time were both ardent supporters of strengthening the state unity of Russia, and forces that stubbornly resisted this process.

Organizationally, the Church was a complex system. The Metropolitan was at its head. In 1448, the Russian Orthodox Church became autocephalous - independently in relation to the ecumenical patriarch, who sat in Byzantium. The entire territory was subdivided into dioceses headed by bishops. Until the 15th century Russian metropolitans were appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Now they began to be elected by the council of Russian bishops, first in agreement with the secular authorities, and then on the direct instructions of the Grand Dukes of Moscow.

At the turn of the 14th-15th centuries. in Russia, a centralized state was formed, marking the end of the period of feudal fragmentation. Now the Russian state is gaining power, expanding its borders.

Form of state unity. Muscovy was still an early feudal monarchy. Because of this, relations between the center and the localities were built initially on the basis of suzerainty-vassalage.

However, over time, the situation gradually changed. Moscow princes, like all others, divided their lands among their heirs. The latter received ordinary destinies and were formally independent in them. However, in fact, the eldest son, who acquired the "table" of the Grand Duke, retained the position of the eldest prince. From the second half of the XIV century. an order is introduced in which the eldest heir received a larger share of the inheritance than the rest. This gave him an economic advantage. In addition, he, along with the grand-ducal "table" necessarily received the entire Vladimir land. Gradually, the legal nature of relations between the great and specific princes also changed. These relations were based on letters of immunity and treaties concluded in large numbers. Initially, such agreements provided for the service of the specific prince to the Grand Duke for a reward. Then she became associated with the possession of vassals of their fiefdoms. It was believed that the specific princes receive their lands from the Grand Duke for their service. And already at the beginning of the XV century. a procedure was established according to which the specific princes were obliged to obey the Grand Duke simply by virtue of his position. The Russian state was subdivided into counties - the largest administrative-territorial units. Counties were divided into camps, camps - into volosts. However, complete uniformity and clarity in the administrative-territorial division has not yet been developed. Along with the counties, lands were preserved in some places. There were also categories - military districts, lips - judicial districts. Grand Duke. The head of the Russian state was the Grand Duke, who had a wide range of rights. He issued laws, exercised state leadership, had judicial powers. Real princely power intensifies and changes over time. With the fall of the power of the specific princes, the Grand Duke became the true ruler of the entire territory of the state. Ivan III and Vasily III did not hesitate to throw into prison their closest relatives - specific princes who tried to contradict their will. Thus, the centralization of the state was internal source strengthening of royal power. The external source of its strengthening was the fall of the power of the Golden Horde. At first, the Moscow grand dukes were vassals of the Horde khans, from whose hands they received the right to the grand prince's table. From the Battle of Kulikovo, this dependence became only formal, and after 1480 the Moscow princes became not only in fact, but also legally independent, sovereign sovereigns. The new content of the grand duke's power was also given new forms. Beginning with Ivan III, the Grand Dukes of Moscow called themselves "sovereigns of all Russia." Ivan III and his successor tried to appropriate the royal title for themselves. , do not have to. The power of the monarch was still limited by other bodies of the early feudal state, primarily by the Boyar Duma. Boyar Duma. An important body of the state was the Boyar Duma. It grew out of the council under the prince, which existed in the Old Russian state. . The Boyar Duma differed from the previous council in its greater legal and organizational formality. It was a permanent body, had a relatively stable composition. The Duma included the so-called Duma ranks - introduced boyars and roundabouts. The competence of the Duma coincided with the powers of the Grand Duke, although this was not formally recorded anywhere. The Grand Duke was not legally obliged to reckon with the opinion of the Duma, but in fact he could not act arbitrarily, for any decision of his was not carried out unless it was approved by the boyars. Through the Duma, the boyars pursued a policy that was pleasing and beneficial to them. True, over time, the Grand Dukes are increasingly subjugating the Boyar Duma, which is associated with common process centralization of power. This applies especially to the reign of Ivan III and Basil III . The significant role of the Boyar Duma in the system of state bodies and the dominance of large feudal lords in it are characteristic features of the early feudal monarchy. feudal congresses. They had the same character as in the times of Ancient Russia, but as the centralized state strengthened, they gradually died out. Palace and patrimonial management system. Continuing to remain an early feudal monarchy, the Muscovite state inherited from the previous period the central administration, built according to the palace-patrimonial system. However, the expansion of the territory of the state and the complication of its activities led to a clash with the old forms of government, prepared for the gradual withering away of the palace and patrimonial system and the emergence of a new, command administration. The transformation of the old system begins with its complication. It is divided into two parts. One is the administration of the palace, headed by the butler (court), who has at his disposal numerous servants. The butler was also in charge of plowed princely peasants. The other part was formed by the so-called paths, which provided for the special needs of the prince and his entourage. Their names speak eloquently about the purpose of the paths: falconer, trapper, stable, steward, chalice. Following the complication of the system of palace and patrimonial bodies, their competence and functions increased. From bodies serving primarily the personal needs of the prince, they increasingly turned into nationwide institutions that performed important tasks in managing the entire state. So, the butler from the 15th century. to a certain extent, he began to be in charge of issues related to the land ownership of church and secular feudal lords, to exercise general control over the local administration. At the same time, the performance of certain duties in public administration lost its former character as a temporary princely assignment and turned into a permanent service. The complication of the functions of the palace organs required the creation of a large and branched apparatus. From the composition of the palace service, the grand ducal treasury stood out, which became an independent department. A large palace office was created with an archive and other divisions. All this prepared the transition to a new, command system of government, which grew out of the old one. This development began at the end of the 15th century. But as a system, command administration took shape only in the second half of the 16th century. At the same time, the term "order" itself was established. The stable path turned into the Stable Order, now not only serving the personal needs of the prince, but also associated with the development of the equestrian noble militia. At the beginning of the XVI century. the Discharge (Discharge Order) was formed, which was in charge of accounting for service people, their ranks and positions. The development of the palace and patrimonial system into a command system was one of the indicators of the centralization of the Russian state, for the palace bodies, which had previously been essentially in charge of only the princely domain, were now becoming institutions governing the entire vast Russian state. At the head of the administrative divisions were officials center representatives. Counties were headed by governors, volosts - by volosts. These officials were kept at the expense of the local population - they received "feed" from it, that is, they carried out in-kind and monetary requisitions, collected judicial and other fees in their favor. public service and the form of remuneration of princely vassals for their military and other service. Feeders were obliged to manage the respective counties and volosts on their own, that is, to maintain their own administrative apparatus (tiuns, closers, etc.) and to have. All the interests of governors and volostels focused mainly on personal enrichment through legal and illegal extortions from the local population. Local authorities did not extend their competence to the territory of the boyar estates. The princes and boyars retained immunity rights in their estates. They were not just landowners, but also administrators and judges in their villages and villages. Cities in this period did not have self-government. In the specific principalities, the management of cities was carried out on a par with the countryside. The cities were fortresses. The possession of them provided the grand dukes with both the retention of the former inheritance in their hands and defense against external enemies. Initially, the great princes ruled the cities in the same way as before the specific princes, that is, without separating them from their other lands. Governors and volosts, managing their county or volost, ruled to the same extent the cities located on their territory. Later, some special city government bodies appear. Their emergence is associated with the development of cities primarily as fortresses. In the middle of the XV century. the position of a township is created - a kind of military commandant of the city. He was obliged to monitor the condition of the city fortifications, the performance of duties related to defense by the local population. They are beginning to be called city clerks. Knowing a number of questions of a military-economic and simply economic order, the city clerks were subordinate to the grand ducal treasurers. Sometimes two or more such clerks were assigned to one city. In the person of city clerks, the nobles and boyar children received their local government, and the Grand Duke - reliable conductors of the policy of centralization. At the beginning of the period under review, the Russian Orthodox Church was a great force, not only supporting the state, but also competing with it. However, as the movement for the liberation of the Russian people rose, the best forces of the Orthodox Church took the path of fighting the Mongol-Tatars. Ordinary monks and church leaders joined the ranks of the fighters for the liberation of Russia. The church, represented by the metropolitan house, episcopal chairs, large monasteries and city cathedrals, possessed huge property, primarily land, acting as a feudal lord. Instead of the tithe, which she was endowed with even at the baptism of Russia, the church in the Muscovite state received other sources of income: receipts from certain items of princely income - city, trade, customs, judicial duties. Economic and ideological power allowed the church to feel independent of the state and even seek priority over it. However, by the end of the period under review, the grand dukes managed to gain the upper hand. In exchange for keeping its landed estates intact, the church recognized the supremacy of secular power. The Metropolitan was at its head. In 1448, the Russian Church arbitrarily became autocephalous, that is, independent in relation to the ecumenical patriarch, who was sitting in Byzantium. The entire territory was subdivided into dioceses headed by bishops. Until the 15th century Russian metropolitans were appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, from the 15th century. metropolitans began to be elected by the council of Russian bishops, first in agreement with the secular authorities, and then on the direct instructions of the Moscow grand dukes.

Cheat sheet on the history of the state and law of Russia Dudkina Lyudmila Vladimirovna

14. Political system during the formation of the Russian centralized state