Physiological features of speech. Speech, its functions and physiological mechanisms. Speech disorders in damage to various areas of the brain. What will we do with the received material?

The doctrine of higher nervous activity is based on the idea of two signal systems. The first signal system it is a system that reflects our immediate sensations, perceptions, impressions from specific objects, phenomena of the surrounding world. She is about equally presented in higher animals and humans. However, human GNI differs significantly from that of animals. A person has a fundamentally new signal system - speech, which occurs in the process of his social and labor activity and reaches high level development. At the core second signal system lies the word which is "signal of signals". The second signal system arises and develops on the basis of the first signal system and is closely interconnected with it. Since the word is determined by the socially developed meaning of the object, it plays a leading role in the social life of a person.

With the help of words, a person can cognize the surrounding reality, generally and indirectly reflecting its essential properties. The word can act as a conditioned stimulus and have the same power as the immediate stimulus, and the temporary human neural connections associated with it can be stable and persist without reinforcement for many years. The word can influence not only mental, but also physiological processes, as, for example, in suggestion and self-suggestion. Any word: heard or spoken, read or written belongs to the second signaling system.

Speech functions

– communicative - the use of speech as a means of communication between people;
– conceptual - lies in the fact that speech is an instrument of the abstract and conceptual thinking. With the help of speech, not only the analysis and synthesis of incoming information can be carried out, but also judgments and conclusions can be formulated;
– regulatory - is the ability to regulate the activity of various organs and systems of the body with the help of words. Verbal stimuli can change the intensity of metabolic processes, the functioning internal organs, affect the muscular and sensory systems. The action of a word is closely related to its semantic meaning.

Forms of speech activity

Speech can be represented in three forms: acoustic, optical and kinesthetic.

Acoustic form of speech associated with the perception of sound signals, which is realized when the speech stream is split into certain sound complexes - phonemes perceived by auditory and speech analyzers. When pronouncing words, integration occurs individual sounds th elements in the speech stream. The acoustic form of speech is the basis for the implementation of speech communication.

Optical form of speech implements the analysis and integration of individual alphabetic characters.

Kinesthetic form of speech realizes the sound expression of speech with the help of the muscular apparatus of the articulating organs. The muscle tension of the organs of articulation is quite high even when a person is silent. Physiologically, the ego is connected with the work of speech organs in the process of thinking. The kinesthetic form of speech is also actualized in the processes of writing, carried out by subtle differentiated movements of the hands.

Physiological basis of speech

The physiological basis of speech is the second signal system. Words in their sound (oral speech) or visual form ( written language) become conditioned stimuli of the second signaling system. The process of forming a conditioned reflex connection is based on the fact that, being initially neutral stimuli, sounds and written words in the process of re-combining them with stimuli of the first signal system, i.e. with the direct perception of objects, receiving sensations from their properties, become conditional speech stimuli. As a result, words become signals of direct stimuli, with which they were combined, acquiring semantic meaning. At the same time, temporary neural connections are formed, which are further strengthened by constant speech reinforcement, become strong and acquire a multidirectional character, i.e. the appearance of an object causes, as a reaction, the appearance of an image of a word, and vice versa, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the image of the object denoted by this word.

Systems that provide speech can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central structures include certain structures of the brain, and the peripheral ones include the organs of hearing and the vocal apparatus.

All speech analyzers are laid in both hemispheres, but as speech center develop on one side only. The lateralization (location on the right or left side) of the speech center corresponds to the functional lateralization of the hemispheres and, as a rule, corresponds to the lateralization of the dominant hand (the so-called right-handers and left-handers). Speech center formed speech circle, which combines three brain speech zones (Fig. 13.1):

Rice. 13.1.

– Broca's motor speech center which is responsible for the implementation of the speech act, controlling the speech muscles. Broca's area is located in the lower part of the frontal gyri (field 44, see Fig. 11.11), this is the motor center of the muscles of the speech apparatus. With the defeat of the motor center of speech, the so-called kinetic motor aphasia develops, in which a person understands speech, but cannot speak;
– Wernicke sensory center responsible for the perception of oral speech. It is localized in the temporal zone in the posterior sections of the superior temporal gyrus (fields 22,37,42 of the left hemisphere). The function of this center is to recognize the phonemes of the language in oral speech, both in impressive and expressive. With the defeat of the center of Wernicke, the so-called sensory aphasia occurs, when a person cannot recognize and differentiate speech sounds in oral speech, at the same time, both the understanding of someone else's speech and the implementation of one's own suffer, since its perception is also disturbed. Field 37, which is part of the Wernicke center, is responsible for memorizing words. When this field is affected, people do not remember the names of objects and so-called amnestic aphasia occurs;
– association center, located on the border of the temporal and parietal lobes, is responsible for the formation of the structure of sentences.

In addition to the three centers combined into a speech circle, there are center of perception writing. It is localized on the border of the temporal, parietal and occipital lobes (field 39, see Fig. 11.11) and is responsible for the recognition and storage of images of written speech. If this center is damaged with intact vision, a disorder of recognition of written words occurs.

Speech is not an innate ability, but develops in the process of ontogenesis in parallel with the physical and mental development child and serves as an indicator of his overall development. The speech of the child is formed under the influence of the speech of adults and to a large extent depends on the presence of a normal speech environment that provides sufficient speech practice, on the processes of education and training from the first days of the child's life. The sensitive period of the formation of the second signaling system falls on the first years of life and requires the following conditions: a certain level of maturity of the cerebral cortex, the formation of the articulatory apparatus, intact hearing, a full-fledged speech and emotional environment from the first days of a child's life.

Speech is the most important means of communication between the child and the outside world, it is the most perfect form of communication. The formation of speech in childhood is one of the main characteristics of the overall development of the child, reflecting his intellectual, emotional and social development.

Physiological basis speech illustrates fig. four.

Rice. 4. Physiological basis of speech

To peripheral speech systems relate:

§ the energy system of the respiratory organs, necessary for the appearance of sound - the lungs and the main respiratory muscle - the diaphragm;

§ generator system - sound vibrators (voice cords of the larynx), during the vibration of which sound waves are formed;

§ resonator system - nasopharynx, skull, larynx and chest.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlova, a person has two signaling systems irritants: the first signal system - ϶ᴛᴏ direct impact of the internal and external environment to various receptors (animals also have this) and a second signaling system (speech) . Moreover, only a small part of these words denotes sensory effects on a person. The work of the second signal system consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

Special studies It has been established that a person's ability to analyze and synthesize speech is associated with the left hemisphere of the brain. There are four brain centers of speech: Brocca's center (located in the superior frontal gyrus), is responsible for the volume of speech pronunciation; Wernicke's center (located in the temporal gyrus) - associated with understanding the meaning; visual center (located in the occipital lobe) - associated with the process of reading; the center of writing (located in the middle frontal gyrus) is associated with written speech.

At the same time, speech is provided by the functioning of certain physiological mechanisms.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic mechanisms of speech.Syntagmatic mechanisms reflect the dynamic organization of speech utterance and its physiological characteristics during the work of the cerebral cortex. paradigmatic are responsible for the connection of the posterior parts of the left hemisphere with speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic, etc.).

Mechanisms of speech perception. Transition to comprehension voice message possible only after the speech signal has been converted. It is analyzed on the basis of detector coding, phonemic interpretation of the received information by the brain. This means that neurons are sensitive to different sound signals and act on the basis of building a certain model of word recognition.

Mechanisms for organizing a speech response. In an adult who speaks a language, perception and pronunciation are mediated by internal physiological codes that provide phonological articulatory, visual and semantic analysis of words. At the same time, all the codes listed above and the operations carried out on their basis have their own brain localization.

The complex process of verbal communication is based on the action of the sequential activation of the mechanisms that provide it.

First step The formation of speech structures is the programming of speech - the construction of the backbone of a speech statement. For this, important information is selected and unnecessary information is eliminated.

Second phase- construction of the syntactic structure of the sentence. The general construction of the phrase, its grammatical form are predicted, mechanisms are turned on to ensure the search for the desired word, the choice of sounds that most accurately reproduce it. Finally, pronunciation, the real sound of speech, is carried out. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the process of ʼʼspeakingʼʼ unfolds, during which the communicator encodes the information to be transmitted.

In the process of listening, the interlocutor decodes the received information, which in turn is a gradual translation of the sounds of audible speech into the meaning of words, and this provides an understanding of what the communicator wanted to say.

Physiological bases of speech - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Physiological foundations of speech" 2017, 2018.

- Physiological basis of speech.

Language is an objective phenomenon of the life of society, it is one for the whole people and covers all the variety of phenomena known to people. Speech and language. Stages of development and physiological foundations of speech. Speech and language Language is the most...

- Physiological basis of speech

The physiological basis of speech is the activity of auditory and motor analyzers. In the cerebral cortex, temporary connections are closed between various stimuli from the outside world and movements of the vocal cords, larynx, tongue and other organs that regulate ...

Language, speech and thought.

1. Thinking and speech.

2. Speech and language. Stages of development and physiological foundations of speech.

3. Classification of types of speech.

4. Speech properties of personality.

1. Thinking and speech.

Thinking is a process that first proceeds as an expanded objective activity, uses a language system with an objectively concluded system of semantic connections and relations, and only then takes folded, abbreviated forms, acquiring the character of “internal” mental actions.

The highest form of thinking is verbal-logical thinking, through which a person, relying on language codes, becomes able to reflect complex connections, relationships, form concepts, draw conclusions and solve problems. Human thinking is impossible without language. The thinking of animals is visual, deals with objects that are in front of their eyes. The speech of a person allows him to be distracted from the cognized object, expressing its property in a word. It has been proven that the problem is easier to solve if it is formulated aloud.

Stages of preparing the statement of thought:

The emergence of the motive of the utterance.

The emergence of thought.

inner speech- transcoding mechanism common sense into speech. This is the generation of a detailed speech statement, including the original idea in the system of grammatical codes of the language. This is the stage when the speaker knows what he wants to say, but has not determined in what form and in what speech structures he will be able to express his thought. Inner speech has a curtailed, abbreviated character, which genetically originated from the gradual curtailment, reduction of the child's expanded speech, through whispered speech, turning into inner speech. This is a designation of the general scheme of the statement, and not a complete reproduction of it. It is knowing what needs to be said.

Expanded external speech expression of thought.

Thus, the coding of a thought in a speech statement is important not only for transmitting information to another person, but also for clarifying a thought for oneself. Therefore, expanded speech is not only a means, but also an instrument of thinking.

However, as we learned from the lecture on thinking, thinking and speaking are not the same thing. Thinking does not mean talking about yourself. We can say that speech is in the service of thinking, being, on the one hand, a condition of this process, on the other hand, its tool.

2. Speech and language. Stages of development and physiological foundations of speech.

The word and speech are the most important content and structural components of the psyche. Studies by psychologists and physiologists have shown that the word is associated with all manifestations of the human psyche. At the level of sensations, speech affects the thresholds of sensitivity, that is, it determines the conditions for the passage of the stimulus. The structure of language leaves an imprint on the structure of perception. The selection of an object from the background, the formation of a holistic image depends on the task of perception, set verbally. Representation is evoked by the word and is closely connected with it. Human feelings are caused not only by objects of the material world: a word can encourage a person and hurt, humiliate and elevate. Intentions as a component of personality and will are expressed in the word. A particularly close connection exists between thinking and speech. The thought exists in the word.

The concept of language and speech.

Language is a system of signs functioning as a means of communication and a tool of thought.

The language includes words with their meanings and syntax (a set of rules by which sentences are built). The means from which a linguistic message is built are phonemes (oral speech) and graphemes (written speech). Words and sentences are built from them, fixing the experience of mankind.

The vocabulary of a language contains knowledge about the world of a given community of people who use it.

A language that is not used for live speech communication, but which is preserved in written sources, is called dead, it can be the most valuable cultural monument of a lost civilization.

Speech- the process of communication through language. The subject of psychological study is speech. Speech, in turn, is the subject of study of psycholinguistics (a special section of psychology).

The differences between language and speech are as follows:

Language is an objective phenomenon of the life of society, it is the same for the whole people and covers all the diversity of phenomena known to people.

There are normative rules for pronunciation and grammar, stylistics of a given language.

(By the way, in communication a person uses an insignificant part of the language wealth. Even in the language of great writers, there are from 10,000 to 20,000 words, while the language contains several hundred thousand words). The speech of an individual has features of pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence structure. By these signs of speech, a person can be identified.

Stages of speech development

The development of speech went along the line:

Complex kinetic speech (about 0.5 million years ago) - the transfer of information using body movement; at the same time, the movements of communication and the movements associated with labor are not differentiated from each other;

Manual kinetic speech (sign language) is more differentiated (and now it is actively used by the deaf and dumb);

Sound speech (more than 100,000 years ago) - in the form of individual words;

Creation of writing.

In turn, the stages of development of writing are as follows:

Picturesque pictographic writing (c. 4000 BC)

Story in pictures;

Ideographic writing (by means of hieroglyphs) (for example, the Chinese character meaning "crisis" consists of two characters: one means "danger", the other - "opportunity";

Actually letter writing (It was invented by the ancient Phoenicians and was called alphabetic writing and is closely related to oral speech: a phoneme (sound of speech) is indicated by a grapheme (letter).

A small number of graphemes can express any idea in writing.

Physiological bases of speech.

Speech support systems are divided into peripheral and central.

The central structures include the structures of the GM, and the peripheral ones include the vocal apparatus (respiratory organs, larynx, oral cavity and nose) and hearing organs.

The irritant of this signaling system is not objects and their properties, but words. As a stimulus, the word exists in three forms: the audible, the visible, and the spoken word.

The second signaling system works in unity with the first. Violation of interaction leads to the fact that speech turns into a meaningless stream of words.

In the cerebral cortex, the auditory speech center (Wernicke's center) is isolated (left hemisphere, temporal lobe). With its defeat, the patient hears words, but does not understand their meaning (sensory aphasia).

There is also a motor center (Broca's center) (left hemisphere, frontal lobe). With its defeat, the patient understands speech, but cannot speak with the complete preservation of the peripheral speech production apparatus (motor aphasia). Understanding the meaning of speech is associated with the functioning of the associative zones of the cortex, the defeat of which leads to a misunderstanding of the meaning of speech when understanding its individual words.

Organ development sound speech took place simultaneously with the general physical and mental development man as a species. One of the biological prerequisites for the development of the ability to pronounce articulate sounds was the presence in the humanoid ancestors of people of much greater mobility of the lips and tongue than in other animals, which later increased more and more. The increase in the mobility of the lips and tongue was due to a number of anatomical changes: the shortening and expansion of the lower jaw, so that its shape gradually turned from an acute-angled to a horseshoe-shaped; the development of the chin protrusion (which is the site of attachment of some muscles involved in speech movements); a decrease in fangs, etc. Thanks to these changes, an increase in the free oral cavity occurred, which, in turn, ensured an increase in the mobility of the tongue and the possibility of a more perfect resonation of the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal cords of the larynx, on which various sound vowels primarily depend.

It should be noted that speech systems can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central ones are

The vocal apparatus (Fig. 13.1) consists of three main systems: the respiratory organs, larynx, oral cavity and nose. The respiratory organs provide a current of air, causing the vocal cords of the larynx to vibrate, the vibration of which creates a sound wave. The respiratory organs include the lungs and the muscles that set them in motion, including the diaphragm (abdominal obstruction), which, arching dome-shaped upwards, presses from below on the lungs and produces separate expiratory shocks of different strengths, which ensures the pronunciation of syllables of speech. The same system includes the bronchi and the windpipe, through which air is supplied to the larynx.

The larynx (A) is a continuation of the windpipe (B). It is formed by four cartilages, in the space between which the vocal cords are located in a horizontal plane. The vocal cords (B) are two elastic muscles that are brought into oscillating motion airflow from the windpipe. The vocal cords, due to their location and the mobility of the cartilage to which they are attached, can bring about two kinds of changes. First, the vocal cords may or may not stretch. Secondly, they can be closed together or diverge at their ends so that a space is formed between them, called the glottis. Due to these features, the following happens: if the vocal cords are stretched and brought together, that is, the glottis is closed, then the exhaled air, breaking through between the edges of the cords facing each other, leads them into an oscillatory movement, which forms a vocal wave; if the ligaments are not stretched and the glottis is not closed, then the air passes freely, without causing any sound.

Passing through the larynx, the current of air generates a sound wave. It enters the mouth and nose, which act as a resonating tube. The oral cavity is the main resonator sound waves arising in the larynx. By changing the size and shape of the oral cavity, various sounds of vowels are formed. The oral cavity is also an organ that creates barriers to the flow of air, which, overcoming these barriers, generates sounds called consonants.

The development of the ability to pronounce articulate sounds is associated with the development of the ability to perceive them. It is unlikely that a person could achieve such a level of command of the vocal apparatus, when he can speak articulately, if the organs of hearing had not developed at the same time. By learning to speak articulately, a person learned to understand what he was saying. Speech activity is always under control, and the necessary adjustments can be made to it only thanks to hearing. The development of human hearing occurred due to the development of the central apparatus, which is expressed in the complication of the cerebral cortex.

If we compare the monkey brain and the human brain, we find that the human auditory cortex is relatively larger than the similar cortex of the monkey brain. However, these differences are expressed not only in quantitative indicators - an increase in the area of \u200b\u200bthe auditory zone. A person has specific speech centers in this zone (Fig. 13.2).

The nerve pathways that connect the organ of Corti located on the eardrum with the brain end in the convolutions of Heschl. If there is a violation of the functions of one or another section of these convolutions, then the person experiences a loss of the corresponding auditory sensation. For example, damage to their inner part entails hearing loss in relation to high sounds, and a violation of their outer parts leads to hearing loss in relation to low sounds. Thus, this area is a projection of the organ of Corti and is the center with which auditory sensations are primarily associated. The integration of these sensations occurs in adjacent areas of the temporal lobe, located in the first and partially in the second temporal gyri. It is here in the left hemisphere that the specific auditory center of speech, the Wernicke center, is localized. If the activity of this center is disturbed, a person loses the ability to distinguish (recognize) words, although individual auditory sensations remain intact. This phenomenon is called Sensory aphasia. Therefore, we are fully confident

Stew, we can argue that it is this nerve center that provides the discrimination of speech sounds. At the same time, it should be noted that such a nerve center is absent in animals, which once again proves the validity of the statement that speech is a specifically human function.

Wernicke's auditory center is connected to another specific speech center of the cortex - Broca's center, which is located in the back of the third frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere. This is the motor center of speech. Violation of the normal functioning of this center is expressed in the fact that a person loses the ability to pronounce words. Outwardly, he retains the ability to pronounce any sounds, retains the ability to move his tongue, since the center responsible for the movements of the vocal apparatus is located in the anterior central gyrus, but he, as it were, loses his “memory of pronunciation of words”, i.e., the integration of individual sounds into words. Therefore, Broca's center is also a product historical development human and is closely related to the process of speech. This nerve center is also present only in humans, and the disease associated with the violation of its functions is called motor aphasia.

The relationship between the anatomical structures of the brain and the functions of speech is most clearly manifested when the corresponding parts of the brain are damaged or impaired. As mentioned above, speech is closely related to the auditory (Wernicke's center) and motor (Broca's center) zones that ensure its implementation. Damage to any of these areas leads to one of the varieties of aphasia. To characterize these disorders, we use the descriptions of patients observed by Gardner in 1975.

So, with Broca's aphasia, the patient has intermittent speech. The following is an interview taken from a patient by a doctor. The interviewer's phrases are marked with the letter "I", and the patient's phrases with the letter "P".

I. Did you serve in the Coast Guard?

P. No, uh, yes, yes, ... ship ... Massachus ... chussetts ... coast guard ... years. (Raises hands twice, showing "19" on fingers)

I. Ah, you served in the Coast Guard for nineteen years. P. Ah… oh… right… right. I. Why are you in the hospital?

P. (Points to a paralyzed hand.) The hand is not good. (Pointing to mouth.)

Speech... can't say... speak, you see.

I. What happened, because of which you lost your speech?

P. Head, fell, Lord, I'm not well, beat ..., beat ... oh. God… blow.

I. Could you tell me what you did in the hospital?

P. Yes, of course. I have to go, uh, uh, nine o'clock, talk...twice... read... not a... ditch, mm, cap, mm, write... classes... getting better.

As we can see, the patient's speech is very uneven. Even in simple sentences many pauses and confusions. In contrast, the patient with Wernicke's aphasia is fluent. The speech of such a patient is given below:

“Ugh, I'm sweating, I'm terribly nervous, you know, somehow I caught it. Can't mention the tarripoi, a month ago quite a bit, I did a great job, I put a lot on it, but on the other hand, you know what I mean, I have to make a circle, look around, trebin and all that.

Besides fluency, there are other notable differences between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias. The speech of a patient with Broca's aphasia consists mainly of significant

words. She has little complex sentences, and in general it has a telegraphic style, reminiscent of the two-word stage of language acquisition. Conversely, in patients with Wernicke's aphasia, speech retains syntax but is markedly devoid of content. They clearly have problems finding the right noun, and from time to time words are invented on occasion (for example, "tarriioi" and "trebin"). These observations indicate that in Broca's aphasia the disturbance occurs at the syntactic level, while in Wernicke's aphasia the disturbance occurs at the level of words and concepts.

Written speech is also associated with the auditory centers of speech. It was found that in situations of violation of the functions of auditory speech, written speech is also impaired. Of course, this does not mean that written speech depends only on the centers of auditory speech. The processes of writing also require the normal operation of the centers of integration of subtle movements of the hand, including those located in the occipital lobes of the centers of integration of visual perceptions; responsible for correlating visual perception with sound images of the centers of the temporal lobes; centers of the frontal lobes that regulate eye movements. This suggests that all forms of speech activity are regulated not by individual brain centers, but by their complex system, which unites many parts of the cerebral cortex.

Thus, the ability to sound speech is a specific property of the human psyche. Having arisen in the presence of a brain more developed than that of animals, in conditions of collective labor, speech had a significant impact not only on human labor, but also on the development of the human brain itself.

The development of the organs of sound speech took place simultaneously with the general physical and mental development of man as a species. One of the biological prerequisites for the development of the ability to pronounce articulate sounds was the presence in the humanoid ancestors of people of much greater mobility of the lips and tongue than in other animals, which later increased more and more. The increase in the mobility of the lips and tongue was due to a number of anatomical changes: the shortening and expansion of the lower jaw, so that its shape gradually turned from acute-angled to horseshoe-shaped; the development of the chin protrusion (which is the site of attachment of some muscles involved in speech movements); a decrease in fangs, etc. Thanks to these changes, an increase in the free oral cavity occurred, which, in turn, ensured an increase in the mobility of the tongue and the possibility of a more perfect resonation of the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal cords of the larynx, on which various sound vowels primarily depend.

It should be noted that speech systems can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central ones include certain structures of the brain, and the peripheral ones include the vocal apparatus and hearing organs.

Fig.4.1. The structure of the peripheral organs of speech.

The vocal apparatus (Fig. 4.1) consists of three main systems: the respiratory organs, larynx, oral cavity and nose. The respiratory organs provide a current of air, causing the vocal cords of the larynx to vibrate, the vibration of which creates a sound wave. The respiratory organs include the lungs and the muscles that move them, including the diaphragm (chest).

abdominal obstruction), which, arching dome-shaped upwards, presses from below on the lungs and produces separate expiratory shocks of different strengths, which ensures the pronunciation of syllables of speech.

The same system includes the bronchi and the windpipe, through which air is supplied to the larynx.

The larynx (A) is a continuation of the windpipe (B). It is formed by four cartilages, in the space between which the vocal cords are located in a horizontal plane. The vocal cords (B) are two elastic muscles that are set in oscillatory motion by the flow of air leaving the windpipe. The vocal cords, due to their location and the mobility of the cartilages to which they are attached, can bring about two kinds of changes. First, the vocal cords may or may not stretch. Secondly, they can be closed together or diverge at their ends so that a space is formed between them, called the glottis. Due to these features, the following happens: if the vocal cords are stretched and brought together, that is, the glottis is closed, then the exhaled air, breaking through between the edges of the cords facing each other, leads them into an oscillatory movement, which forms a vocal wave; if the ligaments are not stretched and the glottis is not closed, then the air passes freely, without causing any sound.

Passing through the larynx, the current of air generates a sound wave. It enters the mouth and nose, which act as a resonating tube. The oral cavity is the main resonator for sound waves generated in the larynx. By changing the size and shape of the oral cavity, various sounds of vowels are formed. The oral cavity is also an organ that creates barriers to the flow of air, which, overcoming these barriers, generates sounds called consonants.

The nasal cavity performs the function of an additional resonator, the passage to which can be opened or closed by a palatine curtain (the posterior movable part of the palate). In the first case, the so-called nasal sounds are obtained - m, n. In the second case, the sounds are non-nasal. The development of the ability to pronounce articulate sounds is associated with the development of the ability to perceive them. It is unlikely that a person could achieve such a level of command of the vocal apparatus, when he can speak articulately, if the organs of hearing had not developed at the same time. By learning to speak articulately, a person learned to understand what he was saying. Speech activity is always under control, and the necessary adjustments can be made to it only thanks to hearing. The development of human hearing occurred due to the development of the central apparatus, which is expressed in the complication of the cerebral cortex.

If we compare the monkey brain and the human brain, we find that the human auditory cortex is relatively larger than the monkey cortex. However, these differences are expressed not only in quantitative indicators - an increase in the area of \u200b\u200bthe auditory zone. A person in this zone has

specific speech centers (Fig. 4.2).

reading center

memory field
P - the center of the letter

B - Broca's center

C-center of Wernicke (posterior part of the first temporal gyrus)

A - primary center of vision

Rice. 4.2. Central organs of speech (according to V. V. Kramer).

The nerve pathways that connect the organ of Corti located on the eardrum with the brain end in the convolutions of Heschl. If there is a violation of the functions of one or another section of these convolutions, then the person experiences a loss of the corresponding auditory sensation. For example, damage to their inner part entails hearing loss in relation to high sounds, and a violation of their outer parts leads to hearing loss in relation to low sounds. Thus, this area is a projection of the organ of Corti and is the center with which auditory sensations are primarily associated. The integration of these sensations occurs in adjacent areas of the temporal lobe, located in the first and partially in the second temporal gyri. It is here in the left hemisphere that the specific auditory center of speech, the Wernicke center, is localized. If the activity of this center is disturbed, a person loses the ability to distinguish (recognize) words, although individual auditory sensations remain intact. This phenomenon is called sensory aphasia. Therefore, we can state with full confidence that it is this nerve center that provides the distinction between speech sounds. At the same time, it should be noted that such a nerve center is absent in animals, which once again proves the validity of the statement that speech is a specifically human function.

Wernicke's auditory center is associated with another specific speech center.

bark - Broca's center, which is located in the back of the third frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere. it motor center of speech. Violation of the normal functioning of this center is expressed in the fact that a person loses the ability to pronounce words. Outwardly, he retains the ability to pronounce any sounds, retains the ability to move his tongue, since the center responsible for the movements of the vocal apparatus is located in the anterior central gyrus, but he, as it were, loses his “memory of pronunciation of words”, i.e., the integration of individual sounds into words. Consequently, Broca's center is also a product of the historical development of man and is closely connected with the process of speech. This nerve center is also present only in humans, and a disease associated with a violation of its functions is called motor aphasia.

The most striking relationship between the anatomical structures of the brain and the functions of speech

manifests itself in damage or disorders of the corresponding parts of the brain. As mentioned above, speech is closely related to the auditory (Wernicke's center) and motor (Broca's center) zones that ensure its implementation. Damage to any of these areas leads to one of the varieties of aphasia. To characterize these disorders, we use the descriptions of patients observed by Gardner in 1975.

Yes, at Broca's aphasia The patient has speech intermittency. The following is an interview taken from a patient by a doctor. The interviewer's phrases are marked with the letter "I", and the patient's phrases with the letter "P".

I. Did you serve in the Coast Guard?

P. No, uh, yes, yes... ship... Massachus... chussetts... coast guard... years. (Raises hands twice, showing "19" on fingers)

I. Ah, you served in the Coast Guard for nineteen years.

P. Ah... oh... right... right.

I. Why are you in the hospital?

P. (Points to a paralyzed hand.) The hand is not good. (Pointing to mouth.)

Speech... can't say... speak, you see.

I. What happened, because of which you lost your speech?

P. Head, fell, Lord, I'm not good, beat ..., beat ... oh, God ... blow.

I. Could you tell me what you did in the hospital?

P. Yes, of course. I have to go, uh, uh, nine o'clock, speech... twice... read... pi... ditch, uh,

cap, uh, writing... classes... getting better.

As we can see, the patient's speech is very uneven. Even in simple sentences there are many pauses and confusions. In contrast, in a patient with aphasia Wernicke fluent speech. The speech of such a patient is given below:

Besides fluency, there are other notable differences between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias. The patient's speech Broca's aphasia consists mainly of significant words. It has few complex sentences, and generally has a telegraphic style, reminiscent of the two-word stage of language acquisition. In patients with aphasia Wernicke on the contrary, speech retains syntax but is noticeably devoid of content. They clearly have problems finding the right noun, and from time to time words are invented on occasion (for example, "tarripoi" and "trebin"). These observations indicate that in Broca's aphasia the impairment occurs at the syntactic level, while in Wernicke's aphasia the impairment occurs at the level of words and concepts.

Written speech is also associated with the auditory centers of speech. It was found that in situations of violation of the functions of auditory speech, written speech is also impaired. Of course, this does not mean that written speech depends only on the centers of auditory speech. The processes of writing also require the normal operation of the centers of integration of subtle movements of the hand, including those located in the occipital lobes of the centers of integration of visual perceptions; responsible for matching visual perception with sound images of the centers of the temporal lobes; centers of the frontal lobes that regulate eye movements. This suggests that all forms of speech activity are regulated not by individual brain centers, but by their complex system, which unites many parts of the cerebral cortex.

Basic types of speech.

Human speech is very diverse and has a variety of forms (Fig. 4.3). However, whatever form of speech we use, it will refer to one of the two main types of speech: oral and written. However, both species have certain similarities. It lies in the fact that modern languages written speech, like oral speech, is sound: the signs of written speech do not express the immediate meaning, but convey the sound composition of words.

Main source speech is a type of speech flowing in the form of a conversation. This speech is called colloquial, or dialogic (dialogue). Its main feature is that it is a speech actively supported by the interlocutor, that is, two people participate in the process of conversation, using the simplest turns of language and phrases. As a result, colloquial speech in psychological terms is the simplest form of speech. It does not require a detailed expression of speech, since the interlocutor in the process of conversation understands well what in question, and can mentally complete the phrase uttered by another interlocutor. In such cases, one word can replace the whole phrase.

Figure 4.3. general characteristics speeches

Another form of speech is a speech delivered by one person, while the listeners only perceive the speaker's speech, but do not directly participate in it. This speech is called monologue, or monologue. Monologic speech is, for example, the speech of a speaker, lecturer, speaker, etc. Monologic speech is psychologically more complex than dialogic. It requires the speaker to be able to coherently, strictly consistently express their thoughts. At the same time, the speaker must evaluate how the information transmitted to him is absorbed by the listeners, that is, he must monitor not only his speech, but also the audience.

When characterizing these two types of oral speech - dialogical and monologue - one must keep in mind not their external, but psychological difference. In their external form, these two types of speech can be similar to each other. So, for example, a monologue can be built according to its external form as a dialogic speech, i.e. the speaker periodically addresses either the audience or an imaginary opponent.

Both dialogical and monologue speech can be active or passive. Both of these terms, of course, are conditional and characterize the activity of a speaking or listening person. active form speech is speech talking person, the speech of the listening person appears in passive form. The fact is that when we listen, we repeat to ourselves the words of the speaker. At the same time, this does not appear outwardly, although speech activity is present. It should be noted that in children the development of active and passive forms of speech does not occur simultaneously. The child first of all learns to understand someone else's speech, and then begins to speak himself. However, in more adulthood people differ in the degree of development of active and passive forms of speech. It often happens that a person understands well the speech of another person, but poorly conveys his own thoughts. Conversely, a person can speak well enough, but does not know how to listen to another at all.

Another type of speech is written language. Written speech differs from oral speech not only in that it is depicted graphically, with the help of written signs. There are more complex, psychological differences between these types of speech.

One of the most important differences between oral and written speech is that in oral speech words strictly follow one another, so that when one word sounds, the preceding one is no longer perceived by either the speaker or the listeners. In written speech, the situation is different - both the writer and the reader have a number of words in their field of perception at the same time, and in cases where there is a need for this, they can again return several lines or pages back. This creates certain advantages of written speech over oral speech. Written speech can be built more arbitrarily, since what is written is always in front of our eyes. For the same reason, written language is easier to understand. On the other hand, written speech is a more complex form of speech. It requires a more thoughtful construction of phrases, a more accurate presentation of thoughts, because we cannot give written speech emotional coloring,

accompany it with the necessary gestures. In addition, the process of forming and expressing thoughts proceeds differently in oral and written speech. This may be evidenced by the fact that it is often easier for some people to express their thoughts in writing, and for others - orally.

It should be noted that there is another type of speech - kinetic speech. This type of speech has been preserved in humans since ancient times. It was originally the main and probably the only kind speech, he performed all speech functions: designations, expressions, etc. Over time, this type of speech has lost its functions and is currently used mainly as emotional and expressive elements of speech - gestures. Very often we accompany our speech with gestures, which gives it additional expressiveness.

Nevertheless, there are quite large groups of people for whom kinetic speech is still the main form of speech. This refers to people who are deaf and mute from birth or who have lost the ability to hear or speak as a result of an accident or illness. However, in this case kinetic speech differs significantly from kinetic speech ancient man. It is more developed and has a whole system of sign signals.

There is another general division of types of speech into two main types: internal and external speech. External speech is associated with the process of communication, information exchange. Inner speech is primarily associated with the provision of the process of thinking. This is a very complex phenomenon from a psychological point of view, which provides the relationship between speech and thinking.

It should be noted that any type of speech, including oral and written speech, has its own purpose, that is, it performs certain functions. The main functions of speech are expression, impact, message, designation.

Function expressions It consists in the fact that with the help of speech a person expresses his attitude to a certain object, phenomenon and to himself. As a rule, when expressing our attitude to something, speech has a certain emotional coloring, which helps others to understand our attitude to the subject in question.

Function impact lies in the fact that with the help of speech we are trying to induce another person or group of people to a certain action or form a certain point of view on something in the listeners. Usually, given function speech is carried out through an order, appeal or persuasion. The physiological basis for the implementation of this function of speech is the special position of the second signaling system in the structure mental regulation body and human behavior. So, with the help of suggestion, a psychotherapist can evoke certain sensations in a person, including those associated with a therapeutic effect. For example, suggesting a feeling of warmth often relieves an asthma attack. With the help of suggestion, you can also help a person to stop smoking, drinking alcohol, etc.

Function messages is the exchange of ideas and information between

people with words. This function ensures the implementation of contacts between people. In the process of these contacts, we organize not only the exchange of information, but also our interaction. It can be assumed that this function in historical terms was the main primary source of the development of human speech.

Function designations is the ability to give names to objects and phenomena. Thanks to this function, we are able to think abstractly using abstract concepts, as well as to exchange information with another person. It can be assumed that this function is the highest function of speech, its implementation became possible only at the highest levels of speech development.