"Both in the main business of my life - colloidal chemistry, and in botany - my hobby, I have always chosen the wide expanses of the tundra."
Theodor Svedberg.
The Swedish chemist Theodor Svedberg was born August 30, 1884. in the estate of Flerang, near the town of Gavle. He was the only child of Elias Svedberg, engineer and manager of the local iron foundry, and Augusta (Alstermark) Svedberg. The boy's father often took long country walks with him, cultivating his interest in nature. He also allowed the young Svedberg to experiment in the small laboratory of the iron foundry.
While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became especially interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Despite the fact that he was most interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist, because he believed that this would allow him to "look" deeper into biological processes. AT January 1904 Theodor entered Uppsala University and from that time connected with him almost all his life. He studied with great perseverance and showed extraordinary ability to natural sciences. Here Svedberg got acquainted with the newly published "Theoretical Chemistry" by V. Nernst, as well as new works. "Nature of colloids" and G. Bredig "Inorganic enzymes". The science of colloids fascinated him and gave him confidence that the study of colloidal systems would help explain the processes in living organisms. Comparative analysis crystalloids and colloids also seemed important to him, since the existence of molecules was still disputed by some scientists, led by W. Ostwald. AT 1905 Svedberg received a bachelor's degree and became an assistant at the Uppsala Institute of Chemistry, two years later - a master's degree and began lecturing in chemistry at the university, and in December 1907. he received his Ph.D. Already in its first scientific work in 1905 Svedberg, using an induction coil to spray metals in an electric spark during an oscillatory discharge in liquids, obtained more than 30 organosols of various metals and thereby laid the foundations for deep physicochemical studies of sols, which constituted his main interest in the next 15 years. Photographing traces of colloidal particles in a Zsigmondy ultramicroscope, Svedberg conducted ( 1906 ) on colloidal objects direct experimental verification of the theory of fluctuations and . These results are described in a doctoral dissertation. "The doctrine of colloidal solutions" ( 1907 ), were of great theoretical importance for proving the reality of the existence of molecules and for substantiating modern molecular kinetic concepts. Svedberg carried out a thorough determination of the diffusion coefficients in colloidal solutions of gold, sulfur, etc. In a review of Svedberg's dissertation, Ostwald pleaded defeated: "First proof of kinetic theory obtained".
AT 1912 Svedberg became the first teacher physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in that job for 36 years. He became famous for his research physical properties colloid systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring the rate of their precipitation, as shown ( Nobel Prize in physics 1926 ), and yet most colloidal particles are deposited slowly, and the same technology seemed impractical. To determine the size of particles in colloidal solutions S. used designed by Richard Zsigmondy. He managed to prove that colloidal solutions obey the classical physical and chemical laws for dilute solutions. However, in most cases, this method did not make it possible to establish the sizes of the smallest particles and the particle size distribution.
There was a need to speed up the process, and thus to develop a more perfect method, which led to the creation of an ultracentrifuge. Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles would be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During his time at the University of Wisconsin 1923, where he was a visiting professor for 8 months, Svedberg set about creating an optical centrifuge in which the deposition of particles would be recorded by photographing. Since the particles moved not only by settling, but also by the action of conventional currents, Svedberg could not determine the size of the particles using this method. He knew that the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could help eliminate temperature differences, and hence convection currents. Having designed a wedge-shaped cell and placed a rotating cell in a hydrogen atmosphere, Svedberg 1924, having already returned to Sweden, together with his colleague Herman Rinde, he achieved deposition without convection.
In December 1924 published their first article on the ultracentrifuge, in which the authors wrote: "The centrifuge we have designed allows us to determine particles that are not visible in an ultramicroscope with great accuracy."
A year later, Svedberg discovered that biological macromolecules (proteins) could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He proved that all molecules of a given protein are monodisperse (i.e., have the same size), in contrast to the particles of metal colloidal systems, which are polydisperse, since their sizes are completely different. Moreover, the rate of protein deposition can also be used to infer the size of the molecule. This conclusion was the first indication that protein molecules have a well-defined mass and shape. As a result of Swedberg's discoveries, the centrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical research. Now the precipitation rate is measured in units named after Svedberg. AT 1926 Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work in the field of disperse systems". In his opening speech on behalf of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, H. G. Söderbaum said: "The movement of particles suspended in a liquid ... clearly indicates the real existence of molecules, and consequently of atoms - a fact all the more significant because until recently, an influential school of scientists declared these material particles a figment of the imagination."
In his Nobel Lecture, which he gave the following year, Svedberg, reviewing the technical and theoretical problems associated with his work, described the great potential importance that he believed the ultracentrifuge would have for progress in many fields, including medicine, physics , chemistry and industry.
In a new physical chemistry laboratory specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government, he spent another 15 years perfecting the design of his centrifuge. AT January 1926 the scientist tested a new model of ultracentrifuge with oil rotors, in which he achieved 40,100 revolutions per minute. And 5 years later he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 g acted on the settling system.
Thanks to the discoveries of Svedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical research for decades. analytical research, and the agility of precipitation of biopolymers is measured in units called " swedberg" [
1 swedberg = 10 −13 sec]Throughout his life, Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His teamwork with Daniel Strömholm proved that some radioactive elements, previously considered different, are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the periodic table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by Frederick Soddy. In the end 20s. Svedberg studied the action of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances, on protein solutions. After opening in 1932. James Chadwick of a neutron - a particle that does not have electric charge, Svedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study the effects of neutron irradiation and to produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
During World War II, he developed industrial methods for producing synthetic rubbers in Sweden.
Svedberg's research, along with the works of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948 ) by electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger's definition (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980 ) their amino acid sequences and for the crystallographic work of Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962 ). It has been proven that all proteins have molecules that are round, monodisperse and have a large molecular weight. Expanding the field of study with the help of an ultracentrifuge to other biological macromolecules, Svedberg discovered that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint service with Daniel Strömholm showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from friend to friend and occupy the same location in Periodic table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921 ). In the end 1920s Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After opening in 1932 James Chadwick of the neutron, Swedberg designed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, and yet, by a special decree, he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, which had been created at Uppsala University shortly before, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.Considering science to be international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.Working at the intersection of sciences, Svedberg made a significant contribution to the unification of physics, chemistry and biology.
Svedberg has published 228 articles and 12 books on colloid chemistry and macromolecular substances, nuclear chemistry and radiobiology. The latest publication (on proton radiotherapy) was published in 1965 when he was 81 years old.. He constantly maintained contacts with foreign scientists, visited laboratories in Germany many times ( 1913 ), Austria ( 1916 ), England, France, Denmark, USA and Canada ( 1920-1923 ).
Svedberg, Theodor (1884-1971) (Sweden). Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1926.
Born August 30, 1884 in the estate of Flerang, near Gävle (Sweden), the only child of Elias Svedberg, manager of the iron foundry, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to experiment in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist in order to "look" deeper into biological processes.
In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 received a bachelor's degree. In the same year, his first article was published. Svedberg continued to study at Uppsala University, and in 1907 he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on colloidal systems, in which he described a new method of using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory brownian motion Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic and molecular structure of matter.
In 1912 Svedberg became the first teacher of physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He gained fame through research on the physical properties of colloidal systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring their precipitation rate, as shown by Jean-Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), but most colloidal particles settle slowly and this method was not practical. There was a need to speed up the process, and, consequently, to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of an ultracentrifuge.
Svedberg believed that the settling of colloidal particles could be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he set about building an optical centrifuge in which the settling of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only settling, but also under the action of convection currents, Svedberg was unable to establish their dimensions. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature drops, and, consequently, convection currents, he, having designed a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).
A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to the polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, the rate of protein deposition can also be used to infer the size of the molecule.
In 1926, Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize "for his work in the field of dispersed systems."
In the new laboratory of physical chemistry, specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 F (where F is gravity) acted on the settling system.
The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It was proved that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a large molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg found that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Thanks to the discoveries of Svedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main tool for biochemical analytical research for decades, and the rate of precipitation of biopolymers in the sediment is measured in units called "swedberg".
Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948) on electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger's determination (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980) of their amino acid sequences and for crystallographic work Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962).
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm (1871-1961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. Following the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891–1974), Swedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, but by special decree he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, which had been created at Uppsala University shortly before, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.
Svedberg made a great contribution to strengthening the connection between academia and practical application scientific achievements. Second world war achieved the deployment in Sweden of the production of synthetic rubber.
Considering science to be international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.
He was a man of a lively mind and varied interests. An excellent amateur photographer, he seriously studied the process of photographing. 1920s, using different wavelengths when photographing the "Codex Argenteus", (Gothic Bible, 500 AD), he found that ultra-violet rays make visible that poorly distinguishable composition with which it is written.
He was interested in botany and was the owner of one of the best botanical collections in Sweden.
He died February 25, 1971 in Örebro (Sweden).
Works: Degeneration of energy. M. - L., 1927; The formation of colloids / Per. from English. L., 1927; Colloidal Chemistry 2nd ed. / Per. from English. M., 1930; The Ultracentrifuge. Oxford, 1940 (with K.O. Pedersen).
Kirill Zelenin
(b. 1950) - American sociologist, one of the world's most famous experts in the field of "new economic sociology". He specialized in legal sciences and sociology. He holds a law degree from Stockholm University and a degree in sociology from Boston College (1978). He currently teaches as a professor of sociological theory and economic sociology at the University of Stockholm. His area of interest is the history of economic sociology (since the mid-1980s) and sociological theory. According to S., sociology at this stage acquires the character of "comparative macrosociology." Its main features are an orientation towards comparative studies between countries, the formulation of questions that affect holistic social systems, problems of world ecology, organization of economic relations, demography. At the same time, according to S., economic sociology shared with economic history an interest in the emergence and variability of actual market systems and other economic institutions.
S.'s main contribution to the history of economic sociology is the creation of the concept of the market as a social structure, the essence of which is the integration of economic and sociological relations to the analysis of the market. S. justified the insufficiency of defining market relations through pricing mechanisms (which is typical for economic theory), since this does not give a complete picture of the basic interaction of individuals included in the market. In the analysis of the history of the market (from antiquity to the present), S. pays Special attention consideration of market relations through the concepts of "exchange" and "competition". Guided by the developments of the economists A. Marshall and D. Carlton and the ideas of the sociologists M. Weber and G. Simmel, S. created historical typologies of markets as social structures that differ significantly from each other in terms of the degree of development of exchange and depending on the level of development of competition. This approach made it possible to overcome the limitations of the traditional approach to the market as a mechanism for regulating the demand and supply of labor and to consider the market as a complex social phenomenon with the right to its own existence.
Main works: "Economic Sociology: Past and Future of Current Sociology" (1987); "Economics and Sociology - Rethinking Their Limits: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists" (1990); "Sociology of Economic Life" (1992, co-authored with M. Granovetter); "Textbook on economic sociology" (1994, co-edited with N. Smelser); "Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology" (1998); "Joseph Schumpeter - His life and work" (1999); "Entrepreneurship: A View social science"(2000) and others.
Fragments of his section "Markets as social structures", from the "Textbook on economic sociology" (in the journal: "Personality. Culture. Society" for 2002; translated by G.N. Sokolova).
G.N. Sokolova
Other related news.
In one of his rare public speeches, the outstanding Swedish physical chemist T. Svedberg described his activities as follows: “In the main business of my life - colloid chemistry, and in botany - my hobby, I always chose the wide expanses of the tundra." With these words, he not only expressed the style of his research, but also gave an analysis of the state of colloid chemistry at the beginning of the 20th century. As a result of “a breakthrough through the tundra in 1926, the Nobel Prizes were awarded to T. Svedberg (for work on dispersed systems), J. Perrin (for the discovery of sedimentation equilibrium) and R. Zsigmondy (for elucidating the heterogeneous nature of colloids, prize 1925) .
Theodor Svedberg, the only son of Elias Svedberg and Augusta Alshtermark, was born on August 30, 1884 in Valbo (Avleborg district, Sweden). His father was a steelworks manager in Sweden and Norway, so the family was often forced to move from place to place in Scandinavia. The father often took his son on trips, from which the boy endured a love of nature and a deep interest in botany, which did not fade throughout his life. In January 1904, Theodore entered the University of Uppsala and from that time connected with him by post all his life. He studied with great perseverance and showed extraordinary ability in the natural sciences. Here Svedberg got acquainted with the newly published "Theoretical Chemistry" by V. Nernst,
as well as new works by R. Zsigmondy "Nature of colloids"
and G. Bredig "Inorganic enzymes". The science of colloids
fascinated him and inspired confidence that the study of colloidal systems would help explain the processes in living organisms. Comparative analysis of crystalloids and colloids also seemed important to him, since the existence of molecules was still disputed by some scientists, led by W. Ostwald.
In 1905, Svedberg received a bachelor's degree and became an assistant at the Uppsala Chemical Institute, two years later - a master's degree and began lecturing in chemistry at the university, and in December 1907 he received his Ph.D.
Photographing traces of colloidal particles in a Zingmondy ultramicroscope, Svedberg carried out (1906) a direct experimental verification of the theory of fluctuations by M. Smoluchowski and A. Einstein on colloidal objects. These results, described in his doctoral dissertation "The Doctrine of Colloidal Solutions" (1907), were of great theoretical importance for
proof of the reality of the existence of molecules and to substantiate modern molecular kinetic concepts. Svedberg carried out a thorough determination of the diffusion coefficients in colloidal solutions of gold, sulfur, etc. In a review of Svedberg's dissertation, Ostwald admitted he was defeated: "The first proof of the kinetic theory has been obtained."
At the same time, Svedberg and D. Stremholm studied the phenomenon of isomorphism of radioactive compounds. The studies published in 1909 were so successful that the English chemist and physicist F. Soddy noted in his Nobel lecture in Stockholm (1922): "Stromholm and Svedberg, apparently, first expressed the idea of the existence of isotopes of radioactive elements." However, Svedberg focused on colloid chemistry. In 1909, he published a large monograph "Methods for obtaining colloidal solutions of inorganic substances." Three years later, another monograph, The Existence of Molecules, was published, and in 1927 his first book was republished. He also found time to write popular books. The first of them, "Matter" (1912), was devoted to a historical analysis of the emergence and development of the concept of "matter" from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century.
On June 29, 1921, Svedberg became the first professor of physical chemistry at Uppsala University. In subsequent years, Svedberg studied mainly the physicochemical properties of colloidal systems: particle size distribution, light absorption, diffusion, Brownian motion, production and stability (sedimentation) of colloidal particles.
In the summer of 1908, he undertook a new trip abroad, visiting Germany (where he worked with sulfur organosols in the laboratory of R. Zsigmondy and Siedentopf), Holland and France. The internship continued until 1912. In 1919, Svedberg proposed an ultramicroscopic method for studying electrophoresis (the movement of colloidal particles under the influence of a direct electric current).
Studying the distribution of colloidal particles in the process of sedimentation, Svedberg found that gravity is not enough for the sedimentation of finely dispersed colloids. So the idea arose to precipitate particles in a centrifuge. In 1923 (during an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin, USA), Svedberg and G. Rinde designed an ultracentrifuge for the dispersion analysis of sols by sedimentation rate and sedimentation equilibrium in the field of centrifugal forces. In December 1924, their first article on the ultracentrifuge was published, in which the authors wrote: "The centrifuge designed by us makes it possible to determine particles that are not visible in the ultramicroscope with great accuracy."
Svedberg constantly improved the centrifuge, bringing the number of revolutions in it to several thousand per second, and centrifugal acceleration to millions of days. With the help of an ultracentrifuge, he determined the molecular weights of hemoglobin, various protein bodies, high polymers, and others, contributing to the widespread introduction of his apparatus into laboratory practice. Currently, the study of sedimentation in an ultracentrifuge is one of the main methods for determining the molecular weight of macromolecules.
Svedberg was engaged in research on the effect of radiation on macromolecules, on photographic processes; contributed to the publication of the famous Codex Argenteus.
During the Second World War, he developed industrial methods for the production of synthetic rubbers, since 1950 he conducted research at the 185 MeV synchrocyclotron built at the G. Werner Institute of Nuclear Chemistry, where he worked (1949-1967) after resigning from his post as professor at Uppsala University .
Svedberg has published 228 articles and 12 books on colloid chemistry and macromolecular substances, nuclear chemistry and radiobiology. The last publication (on proton radiotherapy) came out in 1965, when he was 81 years old. He constantly maintained contacts with foreign scientists, many times visited laboratories in Germany (1913), Austria (1916). England, France, Denmark, USA and Canada (1920-1923). Svedberg was awarded many prizes and medals, was an honorary member of 30 scientific societies of the world, a member of the Swedish (from the age of 28) and other world academies, a member of the Nobel Committee, and in 1966 he was elected a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. According to A. Tiselius, "Svedberg was the head of all Swedish chemistry for 50 years." He brought up a whole galaxy of students.
Svedberg was married 4 times: in 1909 to the physician Andrea Andrin, in 1916 to Jane Frodi, in 1938 to Ingrid Blomkvist and in 1948 to Margrit Gallen. He has 6 sons and 6 daughters.
After retiring in 1967, he took up botany, traveling through Northern Scandinavia and Greenland. Being the greatest scientist, he was interested in almost all forms of art, the only exception was music. He had a huge library of old scientific, modern Swedish and French literature, he was an excellent watercolor painter, even in his old age he remained full of creative strength, energy and humor.
Svedberg died on February 25, 1971 in Kopparberg (Sweden) and was buried at the Lusnargberg cemetery.
Chemistry, 1926.
Born August 30, 1884 in the estate of Flerang, near Gävle (Sweden), the only child of Elias Svedberg, manager of the iron foundry, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to experiment in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist in order to "look" deeper into biological processes.
In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 received a bachelor's degree. In the same year, his first article was published. Svedberg continued to study at Uppsala University, and in 1907 he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on colloidal systems, in which he described a new method of using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory of Brownian motion by Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic and molecular structure of matter.
In 1912 Svedberg became the first teacher of physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He gained fame through research on the physical properties of colloidal systems.
The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring their precipitation rate, as shown by Jean-Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), but most colloidal particles settle slowly and this method was not practical. There was a need to speed up the process, and, consequently, to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of an ultracentrifuge.
Svedberg believed that the settling of colloidal particles could be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he set about building an optical centrifuge in which the settling of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only settling, but also under the action of convection currents, Svedberg was unable to establish their dimensions. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature drops, and, consequently, convection currents, he, having designed a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).
A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to the polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, the rate of protein deposition can also be used to infer the size of the molecule.
In 1926, Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize "for his work in the field of dispersed systems."
In the new laboratory of physical chemistry, specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 F (where F is gravity) acted on the settling system.
The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It was proved that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a large molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg found that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.
Thanks to the discoveries of Svedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main tool for biochemical analytical research for decades, and the rate of precipitation of biopolymers in the sediment is measured in units called "swedberg".
Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948) on electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger's determination (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980) of their amino acid sequences and for crystallographic work Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962).
Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm (1871-1961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. Following the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891–1974), Swedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.
In 1949, Svedberg retired, but by special decree he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, which had been created at Uppsala University shortly before, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.
Svedberg made a great contribution to strengthening the connection between academic science and the practical application of scientific achievements. During the Second World War, he achieved the deployment of synthetic rubber production in Sweden.
Considering science to be international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.
He was a man of a lively mind and varied interests. An excellent amateur photographer, he seriously studied the process of photographing. 1920s, using different wavelengths to photograph the Codex Argenteus, (Gothic Bible, 500 AD), he discovered that ultraviolet rays made visible the faint composition in which it was written.
He was interested in botany and was the owner of one of the best botanical collections in Sweden.
Works: Energy degeneration. M. - L., 1927; Colloidal formation/ Per. from English. L., 1927; Colloidal Chemistry 2nd ed. / Per. from English. M., 1930; The Ultracentrifuge. Oxford, 1940 (with K.O. Pedersen).
Kirill Zelenin