Causes of the February Revolution
- The unfortunate participation of Russia in the First World War, accompanied by defeats on the fronts, the disorganization of life in the rear
- The inability of Emperor Nicholas II to rule Russia, which degenerated into unsuccessful appointments of ministers and military leaders
- Corruption at all levels of government
- Economic difficulties
- Ideological decomposition of the masses, who ceased to believe in the king, and the church, and local leaders
- Dissatisfaction with the policy of the tsar by representatives of the big bourgeoisie and even his closest relatives
“... For several days now we have been living on a volcano ... There was no bread in Petrograd - the transport was very disordered due to unusual snows, frosts and, most importantly, of course, because of the tension of the war ... There were street riots ... But it was, of course, not in bread… That was the last straw… The fact was that in this whole huge city it was impossible to find several hundred people who would sympathize with the authorities… And not even that… The fact is that the authorities did not sympathize with themselves… There was no , in fact, not a single minister who would believe in himself and in what he is doing ... The class of former rulers came to naught .. "
(Vas. Shulgin "Days")
The course of the February Revolution
- February 21 - Bread riots in Petrograd. Crowds smashed bakery shops
- February 23 - the beginning of the general strike of the workers of Petrograd. Mass demonstrations with the slogans "Down with the war!", "Down with the autocracy!", "Bread!"
- February 24 - More than 200 thousand workers of 214 enterprises went on strike, students
- February 25 - Already 305 thousand people were on strike, 421 factories were standing. Employees and artisans joined the workers. The troops refused to disperse the protesters
- February 26 - Continued riots. Decomposition in the troops. The inability of the police to restore calm. Nicholas II
postponed the start of meetings of the State Duma from February 26 to April 1, which was perceived as its dissolution - February 27 - armed uprising. The reserve battalions of Volynsky, Lithuanian, Preobrazhensky refused to obey the commanders and joined the people. In the afternoon, the Semyonovsky regiment, the Izmailovsky regiment, and the reserve armored division revolted. The Kronverk Arsenal, the Arsenal, the Main Post Office, the telegraph office, railway stations, and bridges were occupied. The State Duma
appointed a Provisional Committee "to restore order in St. Petersburg and to communicate with institutions and persons." - On February 28, at night, the Provisional Committee announced that it was taking power into its own hands.
- On February 28, the 180th Infantry Regiment, the Finnish Regiment, sailors of the 2nd Baltic Naval Crew and the cruiser Aurora revolted. The insurgent people occupied all the stations of Petrograd
- March 1 - Kronstadt and Moscow revolted, the tsar's close associates offered him either the introduction of loyal army units into Petrograd, or the creation of the so-called "responsible ministries" - a government subordinate to the Duma, which meant turning the Emperor into an "English queen".
- March 2, night - Nicholas II signed a manifesto on the granting of a responsible ministry, but it was too late. The public demanded renunciation.
"The Chief of Staff of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief," General Alekseev, requested by telegram all the commanders-in-chief of the fronts. These telegrams asked the commanders-in-chief for their opinion on the desirability under the circumstances of the abdication of the emperor from the throne in favor of his son. By one in the afternoon on March 2, all the answers of the commanders-in-chief were received and concentrated in the hands of General Ruzsky. These answers were:
1) From Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich - Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Front.
2) From General Sakharov - the actual commander-in-chief of the Romanian front (the king of Romania was actually commander-in-chief, and Sakharov was his chief of staff).
3) From General Brusilov - Commander-in-Chief of the Southwestern Front.
4) From General Evert - Commander-in-Chief of the Western Front.
5) From Ruzsky himself - the commander-in-chief of the Northern Front. All five commanders-in-chief of the fronts and General Alekseev (gen. Alekseev was the chief of staff under the Sovereign) spoke in favor of the abdication of the Sovereign Emperor from the throne. (Vas. Shulgin "Days")
- On March 2, at about 3 p.m., Tsar Nicholas II decided to abdicate in favor of his heir, Tsarevich Alexei, under the regency of the younger brother of Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. During the day, the king decided to abdicate also for the heir.
- March 4 - The Manifesto on the abdication of Nicholas II and the Manifesto on the abdication of Mikhail Alexandrovich were published in the newspapers.
“The man rushed to us - Darlings! - He shouted and grabbed my hand - Did you hear? There is no king! Only Russia remained.
He kissed everyone warmly and rushed to run on, sobbing and muttering something ... It was already one in the morning when Efremov usually slept soundly.
Suddenly, at this inopportune hour, there was a booming and short strike of the cathedral bell. Then the second blow, the third.
The blows became more frequent, a tight ringing was already floating over the town, and soon the bells of all the surrounding churches joined it.
Lights were lit in all the houses. The streets were filled with people. Doors in many houses stood wide open. Strangers, crying, hugged each other. From the side of the station, a solemn and jubilant cry of steam locomotives flew (K. Paustovsky "Restless Youth")
February 23 (March 8) - Demonstration of Petrograd workers at the call of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party against hunger, war and tsarism.
February 25-26 (March 10-11) - General strike of Petrograd workers.
February 26 (March 11) - Decree of Nicholas II on a break in the work of the State Duma.
February 27 (March 12) - Victory of the February Revolution in Russia; overthrow of the autocracy; the formation of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma, headed by M. V. Rodzianko.
March 2 (15) - Formation of the Provisional Government in Russia; abdication of Nicholas II from the throne.
March 4(17) - Creation of the Central Rada in Ukraine.
April 18 (May 1) - Note of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government P. N. Milyukov to the governments of the allied countries on the continuation of the war "to a victorious end."
April 20-21 (May 3-4) - Demonstration of workers and soldiers in Petrograd demanding Milyukov's resignation; the first crisis of the Provisional Government.
May 5 (18) - Formation of the first coalition Provisional Government headed by Prince G. E. Lvov.
June 18 (July 1) - The beginning of the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front, mass anti-war demonstrations of workers in Petrograd, Moscow and other cities.
July 24 (August 6) - Formation of the second coalition Provisional Government chaired by A.F. Kerensky.
In the summer of 1917, by decision of the Provisional Government, the All-Russian Agricultural and Land Census was carried out. At the same time, a population census was carried out in cities and urban-type settlements. The household card had the following sections: surname, first name of the householder, his age, marital status, land ownership, agricultural implements, livestock, commercial and industrial establishments, the number of hiring agricultural workers - a total of 187 points.
August 31 (September 13) - The transition of the Petrograd Soviet to the side of the Bolsheviks.
September 1 (14) - Formation of the Directory headed by A.F. Kerensky; declaration of Russia as a republic.
September 5 (18) - The transfer of the Moscow Soviet to the side of the Bolsheviks.
September 14-22 (September 27 - October 5) - "Democratic Conference" in Petrograd; resolution on the organization of the Pre-Parliament.
September 25 (October 8) - Formation of the third coalition Provisional Government headed by A. F. Kerensky.
October 24-25 (November 6-7) - Armed uprising of workers, soldiers and sailors in Petrograd.
October 25 (November 7) - Establishment of Soviet power in Petrograd; appeal of the Military Revolutionary Committee "To the citizens of Russia!".
October 25-27 (November 7-9) - 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies in Petrograd; the adoption of the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land; the formation of the Council of People's Commissars under the chairmanship of V. I. Lenin; election of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
October 26 (November 8) - Arrest of the Provisional Government in the Winter Palace.
October 29 (November 11) - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the introduction of an 8-hour working day.
October-November - suppression of opponents in Petrograd and near Petrograd.
November 1 (14) - Elimination of the counter-revolutionary rebellion of Kerensky - Krasnov near Petrograd.
November 2 (15) - Adoption of the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" by the Council of People's Commissars.
November 8 (21) - Election of Ya. M. Sverdlov as chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
Decree on the abolition of estates and civil ranks.
Art. 1. All classes and class divisions of citizens that have existed in Russia until now, class privileges and restrictions, class organizations and institutions, as well as all civil
ranks are abolished.
Art. 2. All titles (nobleman, merchant, tradesman, peasant, etc.), titles (princely, county, etc.) and the names of civil ranks (secret, state and other advisers) are destroyed and one common name of citizens for the entire population of Russia is established Russian Republic.
Art. 3. The property of noble class institutions is immediately transferred to the relevant zemstvo self-governments.
Art. 4. The property of merchant and petty-bourgeois societies shall immediately be placed at the disposal of the respective city self-governments.
Art. 5. All estate institutions, affairs, productions and archives are immediately transferred to the jurisdiction of the relevant city and zemstvo self-governments.
Art. 6. All relevant articles of the hitherto effective laws are repealed.
Art. 7. This decree shall enter into force on the day of its publication and shall be immediately enforced by the local Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.
This decree was approved by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies at a meeting on November 10, 1917.
Signed:
Chairman of the Central Executive Committee Ya. Sverdlov.
Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars Vl. Ulyanov (Lenin).
V. Bonch-Bruyevich, manager of the Council of People's Commissars.
Council Secretary N. Gorbunov.
November 11 (24) - November 25 (December 8) - Extraordinary All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasants' Deputies in Petrograd.
November 14 (27) - Adoption of the regulation on workers' control by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
November 20 (December 3) - Liquidation of the Headquarters of the Supreme Commander in Mogilev; the beginning of negotiations in Brest-Litovsk on an armistice between the Soviet Republic and the countries of the German bloc; appeal of the Council of People's Commissars "To all working Muslims of Russia and the East".
November 22 (December 5) - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the organization of courts and the establishment of revolutionary tribunals.
December 2 (15) - Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and Council of People's Commissars on the organization of the Supreme Economic Council; signing of an armistice with Germany in Brest-Litovsk.
On December 5 (November 22, O.S.), 1917, the Council of People's Commissars adopted Decree No. 1 “On the Court”, which abolished the former judicial system. Local (general) courts and revolutionary tribunals were introduced. Any citizen exercising political rights could act as accusers and defenders. The congresses of local judges served as the court of cassation. Revolutionary tribunals consisted of a judge and six assessors elected by the Soviets.
December 7 (20) - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the organization of the Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Offenses) headed by F. E. Dzerzhinsky.
December 11-12 (24-25) - 1st All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets in Kharkov; formation of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic.
December 14 (27) - Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on the nationalization of banks.
December 16 (29) - Decrees of the Council of People's Commissars on the democratization of the army.
December 18 (31) - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the recognition of the state independence of Finland.
Decrees of the Soviet government on the establishment of the People's Commissariat of Education headed by A. V. Lunacharsky, on the press, on the organization of the State Publishing House.
ACT TRAGEDY
On December 18, 1917, the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On civil marriage, on children and on the maintenance of books of acts of state" was adopted, which destroyed the old procedure for maintaining act records. The church marriage procedure was cancelled. Husband and wife were endowed with equal rights and duties. Religious functions were left behind the church, that is, baptisms, weddings and funerals were later registered there, but since then the state itself intended to register births, marriages and deaths, although it did not yet have the appropriate authorities for this. As a result, some birth records have been lost, some births, marriages, and deaths have not been registered;
Troops with a large number of Poles fought as far as possible from the Polish lands. After divided Poland ceased to exist in 1916, the formation of Polish formations was allowed, which led to the creation in 1917 of several Polish corps. The Poles had a relatively high percentage of deserters since the beginning of the war.
- January
- February
- April
- August
- September
- October
- November
- December
January Strikes in Petrograd, rescue of Riga and the suffragette at the White House
The revolution On January 22 (January 9 according to the old style), on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday, the largest strike during the war began in Petrograd, more than 145 thousand workers of the Vyborg, Narva and Moscow regions took part in it. The demonstrations were dispersed by the Cossacks. Strikes also took place in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov and other major cities of the Russian Empire; in total, more than 200,000 people went on strike in January 1917.
War On January 5 (December 23, 1916, old style), the Russian army launched an offensive on the Northern Front in the Mitava region (modern Jelgava in Latvia). An unexpected blow made it possible to break through the line of fortifications of the German army and move the front from Riga. The initial success of the Mitav operation could not be consolidated: the soldiers of the 2nd and 6th Siberian Corps rebelled and refused to take part in the hostilities. In addition, the command of the Northern Front refused to provide reinforcements. The operation was terminated on January 11 (December 29).
Picket at the gates of the White House. Washington, January 26, 1917 Library of CongressOn January 10, a suffragist movement known as the "Quiet Guards" began picketing outside the White House in Washington. For the next two and a half years, six days a week, women picketed the residence of the American president, demanding equal voting rights with men. During this time, they were repeatedly beaten, detained for “obstructing traffic”, and tortured during arrests. The picket ended on June 4, 1919, when both houses of Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution: "The right to vote of the citizens of the United States shall not be denied or restricted by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
February Submarine Warfare, Duma Opposition, and the Mexican Constitution
The revolution On February 27 (14), the first meeting of the State Duma in 1917 opened. It was supposed to take place in January, but at the beginning of the year, by decree of the emperor, it was postponed to a later date. A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace, many deputies at the meeting demanded the resignation of the government. The leader of the Trudovik faction, Alexander Kerensky, called for fighting the authorities not only by legal means, but also with the help of “physical elimination”.
War
German submarine U-14. 1910s Library of Congress On February 1, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. German submarines easily overcame barriers and attacked both military convoys and civilian ships. During the first week of February, 35 ships were sunk in the English Channel and on the western approaches to it. For the whole month, the German fleet lost only 4 submarines out of 34, and the British troops were cut off from supplies due to constant attacks on merchant ships in the strait and in the Atlantic.
World On February 5, Mexico published the text of the Constitution adopted in January by the Constituent Assembly. The new basic law transferred all land to the state, reduced the powers of the church to a minimum, separated the branches of government and established an eight-hour working day. Thus, the revolutionaries achieved the fulfillment of all their demands. However, the armed struggle between the government and the rebel leaders continued even after that. The revolution began in 1910 with the struggle against the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz. Then the peasants joined the movement, and land reform became the main goal.
March Renunciation in Pskov, the capture of Baghdad and the first jazz record
The revolution March 8 (February 23), International Women's Day, another strike began, which grew into a general one. Workers from the Vyborg side broke through to Nevsky Prospekt, the strike turned into a political action. On March 11 (February 26), as a result of clashes, demonstrators died, the guards regiments began to go over to the side of the rebels, and the riots could not be extinguished. On March 15 (2) in Pskov, Nicholas II signed an act of renunciation; in Petrograd, a Provisional Government was formed, headed by the leader of the Zemsky Union, Prince Georgy Lvov.
War
British troops enter Baghdad. March 11, 1917 Wikimedia Commons On March 11, British troops took Baghdad, forcing the Ottoman army to retreat. Great Britain took revenge for the defeat at El Kut in early 1916, when the defenders of the fortress were forced to capitulate after a long siege. In January 1917, British troops first recaptured El Kut and then moved north, delivered a surprise blow to the Ottoman army and entered Baghdad. This allowed the British to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia, and the Ottoman Empire lost control of another territory.
"Livery Stable Blues" performed by the Original Dixieland Jass Band. 1917On March 7, the first commercial jazz recording goes on public sale - the single "Livery Stable Blues" by the white orchestra of the Original Dixieland Jass Band. With the release of this record, an explosion in the popularity of jazz is associated. 1917 also saw the birth of future jazz musicians Ella Fitzgerald (April 25), Thelonious Monk (October 10), and Dizzy Gillespie (October 21).
April Lenin's Theses, Wilson's War and Gandhi's Nonviolent Protest
The revolution
Sketch of the "April Theses". Manuscript of Vladimir Lenin. 1917 RIA News" On April 9 (March 27), the Provisional Government sent a note to France and Great Britain, in which it assured the allies that Russia would not withdraw from the war and would not conclude a separate peace. In response, the Petrograd Soviet, which consisted of Bolsheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries, led soldiers and workers to an anti-war demonstration. The April crisis led to a split between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. At the same time, Lenin published his "April Theses" - the Bolsheviks' program of action: ending the war; refusal to support the Provisional Government; new, proletarian revolution.
War On April 6, the United States entered World War I. Up to this point, the United States had remained neutral, but American ships were increasingly becoming victims of the submarine war that Germany had been waging since February. The reason for the war was also a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann, in which he asked the German ambassador to the United States to achieve an alliance with Mexico. The British intercepted the telegram, deciphered it, and presented it to US President Woodrow Wilson, who made it public. Shortly thereafter, with several more American ships sunk in the Atlantic, Congress declared war on Germany.
World On April 10, 47-year-old lawyer and social activist Mohandas Gandhi launched the first civil disobedience campaign in India. Gandhi called this form of protest Satyagraha (from Sanskrit "satya" - "truth", and "agraha" - "firmness"). In the Champaran district, he began to fight against the colonial authorities, who forced the peasants to grow indigo and other commercial crops instead of cereals that could be eaten. The main goal was the independence of India from the British Empire. The first stage of peaceful resistance ended with Gandhi's arrest. Thousands of people demanded his release, calling him Mahatma - the Great Soul, and the police had to release Gandhi a few days later.
May Coalition Government, Commander-in-Chief Pétain and the Birth of Surrealism
The revolution The April crisis, above all, the statement of the Minister of Foreign Affairs Milyukov about the "war to a victorious end", led to a change of government. The new coalition included six socialists: the Socialist-Revolutionary Kerensky became the Minister of War and the Navy, the leader of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party Viktor Chernov became the Minister of Agriculture, the Mensheviks Irakly Tsereteli and Matvey Skobelev, the Trudovik Pavel Pereverzev and the People's Socialist Alexei Peshekhonov also entered the coalition.
War On May 15, General Henri Philippe Pétain became commander-in-chief of the French army. After the battle of Verdun, which lasted almost the entire year 1916, Pétain became one of the most revered generals of the soldiers. In the spring of 1917, Commander-in-Chief Robert Nivel sent troops to break through the German front, the losses of the French army reached 100 thousand people killed and wounded. A crisis began in the army - the soldiers rebelled. Pétain calmed the troops, promised to give up suicidal attacks, and shot the instigators of the rebellion. Later, in 1940, he would head the government of the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazis.
Leonid Myasin as a Chinese magician. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917
Horse. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American manager. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Acrobat. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American baby. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
French manager. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
On May 18, the term "surrealism" appeared. The poet Guillaume Apollinaire applied this definition to the ballet Parade. The performance with music by Eric Satie, script by Jean Cocteau, costumes by Pablo Picasso and choreography by Leonid Myasin, based on a parade of performers of a farce circus, caused a real scandal. The audience whistled, critics after the premiere called the production a stain on the reputation of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes and a blow to French society. Apollinaire ardently defended the ballet in his manifesto "Paradade and the New Spirit", explaining that this combination of scenery, costumes and choreography "led to a kind of sur-réalisme" in which the New Spirit could begin to take off.
June All-Russian Central Executive Committee, abdication of Constantine I and Act on espionage
The revolution On June 16 (3) the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd. The majority on it were Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Lenin's "April theses" on ending the war and transferring power to the Soviets were rejected. Following the results of the congress, the deputies elected their leadership - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (All-Russian Central Executive Committee), headed by the Menshevik Nikolai Chkheidze.
War On June 11, King Constantine I of Greece abdicated under pressure from the Entente. From the beginning of the war, the monarch remained neutral, despite opposition from the government. Constantine I was married to the sister of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, which gave rise to reproaches for the pro-German position of the king. Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos approved the British landing in Thessaloniki, was dismissed, but then formed the opposition Provisional Government of National Defense. Dual power arose in the country, and as a result, Constantine I abdicated and left for Switzerland, passing the throne to his son Alexander, who had no real power as a king.
Winsor McKay. Cartoon of the Espionage Act from the New York American. May 1917 Library of Congress On June 15, the United States passed the “Espionage Act,” a federal law that was intended to strengthen the national security of a country that had just entered the First World War, but was immediately perceived as an attack on freedom of speech. It specifically prohibits the dissemination of information that could harm the US military or advance its enemies. The Espionage Act is still in use today - in particular, its violation is blamed on Edward Snowden, who made public the data on how American intelligence agencies monitor people around the world.
July Government crisis, failed offensive and execution of Mata Hari
The revolution On July 17-18 (4-5) in Petrograd, demonstrations of anarchists and Bolsheviks lead to clashes with government troops. The armed uprising failed, the Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Zinoviev had to flee the capital. At the same time, a crisis is also taking place in the Provisional Government: first, the Cadets leave it in protest against the granting of broad powers to the Ukrainian Central Rada, and then the chairman of the government, Prince Georgy Lvov, also resigns.
War At the end of June, the Russian army began preparations for a large-scale strategic offensive. On July 1 (June 18), the offensive began on the Southwestern Front in the direction of Lvov. In the first two days, the troops advanced significantly, which allowed Kerensky, Minister of War and Marine, to declare "the great triumph of the revolution." On July 6 (June 23), the 8th Army of General Lavr Kornilov attacked the positions of the Austro-Hungarian troops. But a week later, the impulse dried up: fermentation began in the army, military committees decided to abandon hostilities. Meanwhile, the Austro-German command transferred additional forces to this sector of the front. The counteroffensive turned into a catastrophe for the Russian army: entire divisions fled from the front.
Mata Hari in stage costume. Card. 1906Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand
Mata Hari on the day of his arrest. 1917 Wikimedia Commons
On July 24, the trial of the Dutch dancer Marga-re-ta Gertrude Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, began in France. She was accused of spying for Germany and passing on to the Germans information that caused the death of several divisions of soldiers. The very next day, the court sentenced Mata Hari to death. She was shot on October 15, 1917, she was 41 years old.
August Mustard, the Bolshevik Congress and the miraculous appearance of the Virgin
The revolution On August 6 (July 24), a second coalition government was formed, already led by. The Provisional Government after the July days returned the death penalty and announced its intention to liquidate the Soviets. In Moscow, at the initiative of the government, a State Conference was convened with the participation of all political forces, except for the Bolsheviks, demanding the gradual liquidation of military committees, a ban on rallies and meetings, and the return of the death penalty. The Bolsheviks, in turn, held a party congress in Petrograd, at which they announced the need for an armed uprising.
War In August, the most difficult stage of the battle of Passchendaele in Belgium (the third battle of Ypres) began, which had been going on since July 11. British troops decided to break through the German front, the main goal was the base of German submarines. On the third day of the battle, the German army used a new poison gas - mustard gas: it hit the skin and eyes, the losses from it were greater than from any other chemical weapon during the war. In August, due to the rains, the area turned into an impenetrable swamp, in which the armies fought. The tanks got stuck in the mud. The British did not manage to overcome the German fortifications, and only in October they were able to move forward.
Lucia Santos, Francisco Marta and Jacinta Marta. Fatima, Portugal, 1917 Wikimedia Commons From May to October 1917, every 13th day, three children from the Portuguese city of Fatima - Lucia Santos and her cousins Francisco and Jacinta Marta - according to them, appeared to the Virgin Mary. The exception was August 13, when the children were arrested by a local official and journalist, Artur Santos, a well-known anti-clerical and anti-monarchist in the district. He tried to get them to admit that they had not actually seen any miracles, but in vain. Coming out from under arrest, the children witnessed another appearance of the Virgin on August 19. The field on which this took place, back in 1917, became a place of mass pilgrimage.
September Kornilov rebellion, surrender of Riga and bacterial viruses
The revolution September 8 (August 26) The Supreme Commander presented an ultimatum to the Provisional Government. He demanded to give him full power before the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. In response, Kor-nilov was called a rebel. Troops loyal to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief moved to Petrograd, but under the influence of agitators they stopped at the approaches to the capital. After the failure of the rebellion, the government collapsed: the Cadets, who supported Kornilov's speech, left it. During the transitional period, the highest authority was formed - the Directory, headed by Kerensky.
War
German infantry in Riga. September 1917© IWM (Q 86949)
Kaiser Wilhelm II and Leopold of Bavaria on the banks of the Western Dvina (Daugava). Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 70272)
Russian prisoners of war. Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 86680)
On September 1, German troops began shelling the positions of the Russian army near Riga. This was followed by a massive offensive, the purpose of which was to encircle the 12th Army. In two days, Russian troops lost 25 thousand people killed and already on September 3 left Riga. However, the 12th Army left the encirclement. The city was one of the main targets of the German army on the Eastern Front. After the capture of Riga, fears arose that the Germans would be able to occupy Petrograd. Panic arose in the Russian capital and preparations began for evacuation.
World On September 3, French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle, who works at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published a paper describing bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria. This is one of the most ancient and numerous groups of viruses, which is now used in medicine as an alternative to antibiotics, and in biology as one of the tools of genetic engineering. Initially, bacteriophages were described in 1915 by the Englishman Frederick Twort (calling them bacteriolytic agents), but his research went unnoticed, and d'Herelle made his discovery on his own.
October Attack on Petrograd, the capture of the Moonsund Islands and the navel of Cleopatra
The revolution On October 8 (September 25), the composition of the third coalition government was announced, with Kerensky remaining chairman. At this time, in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks began preparing an armed uprising. They received a majority in the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and on October 29 (16) the proposal of the head of the Petrograd Soviet, Lev Trotsky, to create a Military Revolutionary Committee was approved, formally - to protect against the Kornilovites and the German troops approaching the capital. After that, the Petrograd garrison came under the control of the Petrograd Soviet.
War On October 12, German troops launched an operation to capture the Russian-owned Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. The operation was a combi-ni-ro-bath: the ground forces, the navy, and aviation (airplanes and airships) participated in it. The German Navy unexpectedly encountered fierce resistance from the Russian fleet. Only by October 17 did the German dreadnoughts manage to get to the archipelago and gain control over it.
Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917)On October 14, Cleopatra, the most expensive film of its time, is released, with a budget of $500,000 (almost $10 million today). The title role was played by Theda Bara, one of the main sex symbols of the 1910s. The film was subjected to significant censorship - for example, during screenings in Chicago, a scene was cut from the first part in which Cleopatra stands in front of Caesar with a "bare navel" and "ambiguously bows" to the Roman ruler. The last two complete copies of the film burned down in a fire at the Fox Studios in 1937, it is currently considered lost, only minor fragments have survived.
November The Bolshevik coup, the battle from Farewell to Arms! and Jews in Palestine
The revolution November 7 (October 25) Petrograd was almost completely in the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which issued an appeal "To the citizens of Russia!", Reporting that power had passed to the Petrograd Soviet. On the night of November 7-8 (October 25-26), the Bolsheviks and their political allies took the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. The next day, the Second Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed the authorities and adopted decrees on peace and land.
War
The retreat of the Italian army during the Battle of Caporetto. November 1917 Italian Army Photographers/Wikimedia Commons On November 9, the active phase of the Battle of Caporetto in northeastern Italy ended. It began on October 24, when the 14th Army under the command of General Otto von Belov, consisting of German and Austro-Hungarian divisions, broke through the Italian front. The Italian army, demoralized by the chemical attack, began to retreat. The Entente allies transferred additional forces to this sector, but the German-Austrian troops continued to move forward. By November 9, the Italian army was forced to withdraw across the Piave River. Ernest Hemingway described this retreat in A Farewell to Arms. The defeat at Caporetto led to the resignation of the Italian government and commander-in-chief Luigi Cadorna, the army of the kingdom lost more than 70 thousand people killed and wounded.
World On November 2, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent an official letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, representative of the British Jewish community, for onward transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The purpose of the letter was to enlist the support of not only British but also American representatives of the diaspora, so that they would contribute to a more active US participation in the First World War. Minister Balfour stated that the government was "considering with approval the question of establishing in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people." This document was called the Balfour Declaration and became the basis for the post-war settlement in Palestine and for the UK to obtain a mandate over the territories, and in the future for the creation of the State of Israel.
December Peace talks, Cheka and NHL
The revolution By mid-December, the left SRs entered the new government, the Council of People's Commissars, and the highest authority, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. On December 20 (7), the Council of People's Commissars created the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK). And on December 26 (13), Lenin's "Theses on the Constituent Assembly" appeared in Pravda, which stated that the composition of the assembly (where the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries had a majority) did not correspond to the will of the people.
War
Meeting of the delegation of the RSFSR at the station in Brest-Litovsk. Early 1918 Wikimedia Commons December 3 (November 20) in Brest-Litovsk, negotiations begin between Germany and Soviet Russia on a truce. Having adopted, on the one hand, the Decree on Peace at the Second Congress of Soviets and hoping for an early revolution in the countries of Central Europe, on the other hand, the Bolsheviks initiated these negotiations, but tried their best to drag them out. Three months later, on March 3, despite the desperate inner-party struggle of the Bolsheviks, peace was concluded, but even the main supporter Vladimir Lenin called it "obscene": Russia agreed to pay colossal reparations and lose the western territories with a total area of 780 thousand square kilometers with a population over 50 million people. The Entente called the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk a "political crime". However, Russia, in fact, did not have to comply with his conditions: in November 1918, Germany was defeated in the First World War. Part of the seized territories became part of the USSR following the results of the Civil War, and part was occupied by the Soviet Union at the beginning of World War II.
World On December 19, the first match in the history of the National Hockey League took place, which arose as a result of disagreements within the National Hockey Association that existed since 1909. The Toronto Arenas and Montreal Wanderers played in the NHL opening game. Two more Canadian teams participated in the first championship - the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Sena Torz, which, unlike the first two clubs, still exist. Toronto became the champion of the first season. The NHL predicted an imminent collapse: in the third year of the war, many hockey players went to the front. However, the league proved to be a successful project and soon attracted clubs not only from Canada, but also from the United States.
Causes of the October Revolution of 1917:
- war weariness;
- industry and agriculture of the country were on the verge of complete collapse;
- catastrophic financial crisis;
- the unresolved agrarian question and the impoverishment of the peasants;
- delaying socio-economic reforms;
- the contradictions of the dual power became a prerequisite for a change of power.
On July 3, 1917, unrest broke out in Petrograd demanding the overthrow of the Provisional Government. Counter-revolutionary units, by government decree, used weapons to suppress the peaceful demonstration. Arrests began, the death penalty was restored.
The dual power ended with the victory of the bourgeoisie. The events of July 3-5 showed that the bourgeois Provisional Government did not intend to fulfill the demands of the working people, and it became clear to the Bolsheviks that it was no longer possible to seize power by peaceful means.
At the VI Congress of the RSDLP (b), which took place from July 26 to August 3, 1917, the party took a guide to the socialist revolution through an armed uprising.
At the August State Conference in Moscow, the bourgeoisie intended to announce L.G. Kornilov as a military dictator and time the dispersal of the Soviets to coincide with this event. But the active revolutionary uprising frustrated the plans of the bourgeoisie. Then Kornilov on August 23 moved troops to Petrograd.
The Bolsheviks, carrying out a great agitation work among the working masses and soldiers, explained the meaning of the conspiracy and created revolutionary centers for the struggle against the Kornilov region. The rebellion was suppressed, and the people finally understood that the Bolshevik Party is the only party that defends the interests of the working people.
In mid-September, V.I. Lenin worked out a plan for an armed uprising and ways to carry it out. The main goal of the October Revolution was the conquest of power by the Soviets.
On October 12, the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) was created - a center for preparing an armed uprising. Zinoviev and Kamenev, opponents of the socialist revolution, gave the terms of the uprising to the Provisional Government.
The uprising began on the night of October 24, the day the II Congress of Soviets opened. The government immediately succeeded in isolating it from the armed units loyal to it.
October 25 V.I. Lenin arrived at Smolny and personally led the uprising in Petrograd. During the October Revolution, the most important objects such as bridges, telegraph, government offices were seized.
On the morning of October 25, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the transfer of power to the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. On October 26, the Winter Palace was captured and members of the Provisional Government were arrested.
The October Revolution in Russia took place with the full support of the masses of the people. The alliance between the working class and the peasantry, the defection of the armed army to the side of the revolution, and the weakness of the bourgeoisie determined the results of the October Revolution of 1917.
On October 25 and 26, 1917, the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets was held, at which the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) was elected and the first Soviet government, the Council of People's Commissars (SNK), was formed. V.I. was elected Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. Lenin. He put forward two Decrees: the "Decree on Peace", which called on the warring countries to stop hostilities, and the "Decree on Land", expressing the interests of the peasants.
The adopted Decrees contributed to the victory of Soviet power in the regions of the country.
On November 3, 1917, with the capture of the Kremlin, Soviet power also won in Moscow. Further, Soviet power was proclaimed in Belarus, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, in the Crimea, in the North Caucasus, in Central Asia. The revolutionary struggle in Transcaucasia dragged on until the end of the civil war (1920-1921), which was a consequence of the October Revolution of 1917.
The Great October Socialist Revolution divided the world into two camps - capitalist and socialist.
1917 is the year of upheavals and revolutions in Russia, and its finale came on the night of October 25, when all power passed to the Soviets. What are the causes, course, results of the Great October Socialist Revolution - these and other questions of history are at the center of our attention today.
Causes
Many historians argue that the events that took place in October 1917 were inevitable and at the same time unexpected. Why? Inevitable, because by that time a certain situation had developed in the Russian Empire, which predetermined the further course of history. This was due to a number of reasons:
- Results of the February Revolution : she was greeted with unprecedented enthusiasm and enthusiasm, which soon turned into the opposite - bitter disappointment. Indeed, the performance of the revolutionary-minded "lower classes" - soldiers, workers and peasants, led to a serious shift - the overthrow of the monarchy. But this is where the achievements of the revolution ended. The expected reforms "hung in the air": the longer the Provisional Government put off consideration of pressing problems, the faster discontent in society grew;
- Overthrow of the monarchy : March 2 (15), 1917 Russian Emperor Nicholas II signed the abdication. However, the question of the form of government in Russia - a monarchy or a republic, remained open. The provisional government decided to consider it during the next convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Such uncertainty could lead to only one thing - anarchy, which happened.
- The mediocre policy of the Provisional Government : the slogans under which the February Revolution took place, its aspirations and achievements were actually buried by the actions of the Provisional Government: Russia's participation in the First World War continued; a majority vote in the government blocked the land reform and the reduction of the working day to 8 hours; the autocracy was not annulled;
- Russia's participation in the First World War: any war is an extremely costly undertaking. It literally "sucks" all the juices out of the country: people, production, money - everything goes to its maintenance. The First World War was no exception, and Russia's participation in it undermined the country's economy. After the February Revolution, the Provisional Government did not retreat from its obligations to the allies. But discipline in the army was already undermined, and general desertion began in the army.
- Anarchy: already in the name of the government of that period - the Provisional Government, the spirit of the times can be traced - order and stability were destroyed, and they were replaced by anarchy - anarchy, lawlessness, confusion, spontaneity. This manifested itself in all spheres of the country's life: an autonomous government was formed in Siberia, which was not subordinate to the capital; Finland and Poland declared independence; in the villages, the peasants were engaged in unauthorized redistribution of land, burned the landowners' estates; the government was mainly engaged in the struggle with the Soviets for power; the disintegration of the army and many other events;
- The rapid growth of the influence of the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies : During the February Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was not among the most popular. But over time, this organization becomes the main political player. Their populist slogans for an immediate end to the war and for reforms found great support among the embittered workers, peasants, soldiers and police. Not the last was the role of Lenin as the founder and leader of the Bolshevik Party, which carried out the October Revolution of 1917.
Rice. 1. Mass strikes in 1917
Stages of the uprising
Before speaking briefly about the revolution of 1917 in Russia, it is necessary to answer the question of the suddenness of the uprising itself. The fact is that the actually established dual power in the country - the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks, should have ended in some kind of explosion and in the future with the victory of one of the parties. Therefore, the Soviets began preparations for the seizure of power in August, and the government at that time was preparing and taking measures to prevent it. But the events that happened on the night of October 25, 1917 came as a complete surprise to the latter. The consequences of the establishment of Soviet power also became unpredictable.
As early as October 16, 1917, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party made a fateful decision - to prepare for an armed uprising.
On October 18, the Petrograd garrison refused to submit to the Provisional Government, and on October 21, representatives of the garrison declared their submission to the Petrograd Soviet, as the only representative of the legitimate authority in the country. Starting on October 24, the key points of Petrograd - bridges, railway stations, telegraphs, banks, power plants and printing houses - were captured by the Military Revolutionary Committee. On the morning of October 25, the Provisional Government held only one object - the Winter Palace. Despite this, at 10 o'clock in the morning of the same day, an appeal was issued, which announced that henceforth the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was the only body of state power in Russia.
In the evening at 9 o'clock, a blank shot from the Aurora cruiser signaled the beginning of the assault on the Winter Palace, and on the night of October 26, members of the Provisional Government were arrested.
Rice. 2. The streets of Petrograd on the eve of the uprising
Results
As you know, history does not like the subjunctive mood. It is impossible to say what would have happened if this or that event had not happened and vice versa. Everything that happens happens due to not a single reason, but a multitude that at one moment intersected at one point and showed the world an event with all its positive and negative aspects: a civil war, a huge number of deaths, millions who left the country forever, terror, the construction of an industrial power , the elimination of illiteracy, free education, medical care, building the world's first socialist state, and much more. But, but speaking about the main significance of the October Revolution of 1917, one thing should be said - it was a profound revolution in the ideology, economy and structure of the state as a whole, which influenced not only the course of the history of Russia, but of the whole world.