The reign of Emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519) is considered the golden age of German Renaissance art. In honor of Maximilian I, the artist and engraver Albrecht Dürer allegedly created the famous "Arch of Glory" in the 16th century. We spoke in detail about it and the problems and oddities associated with it in the book "Reconstruction", ch.18:8. The "Arch of Glory" consisted of 190 engravings, then assembled into a single image on a large flat shield about 3 by 4 meters in size. The engravings were made on wooden boards. The Arch of Glory was created, as historians write, on the model of "ancient" Roman triumphal arches, p.91. But only those were made in stone, and Dürer's Arch was drawn on paper.
As we showed in the book "Reconstruction", ch.18:8, most likely, the "Arch of Glory" has come down to us in an edited version of the 17th century. It is possible that the original "Arch of Glory" was indeed created in the 16th century on the direct orders of the Tsar Khan Basil III, reflected on the pages of Western chronicles as Maximilian I, see "Reconstruction", ch.13:19. It is believed that Vasily III ruled in 1505-1533 or in 1507-1534.
According to the demand of the Emperor, the "Arch of Glory" was supposed to reflect the history and genealogy of the Imperial House, that is, as we now understand, the history of the Great = "Mongolian" Empire. It was an official royal project, to which, presumably, great importance was attached. And of course, from beginning to end, he had to be under the vigilant supervision of the khan's officials, who jealously controlled the execution of the order, and first of all from the point of view of its absolute compliance with the wishes of the tsar-khan. The "Arch of Glory" reflected the views of the then Horde "Mongolian" court on the history of their Great Empire. We have published the "Arch of Glory" in full and in detail in [REC]:3. By the way, for the first time in Russia.
We repeat that the version of the "Arch of Glory" that has come down to us was, apparently, tendentiously edited in the 17th century after the split of the Great Empire and taking into account the new political demands of the reformers who came to power. They removed traces of the Great Empire, wiped out some inscriptions, coats of arms, replaced images. For details, see the book "Reconstruction", ch.18:8.
Let us now turn to the famous series of engravings called "The Triumphal Procession of Emperor Maximilian I". Since it was created at the same time and in general by the same German masters, the natural thought arises that later it could also be edited. For the same reasons as the "Arch of Glory". In particular, they tried to eliminate all traces indicating that Maximilian I was in fact the Russian-Horde Tsar-Khan Vasily III. And also that the Habsburg dynasty earlier than the 17th century is, simply, the dynasty of the Russian-Horde khans of the Great = "Mongolian" Empire, the metropolis of which was Russia-Horde. Let us now turn directly to these engravings in order to test our logical assumption about its late editing.
What is known about the "Triumphal Procession"? It makes up with the "Arch of Glory" a whole cycle, made by a single order. The original drawings for the "Triumphal Procession" were made by Jörg Kolderer (Jo "rg Ko" lderer), however, it turns out that they are ALL LOST. Then, allegedly between 1514 and 1516, Albrecht Altdorfer painted 109 large ink drawings, colored with watercolors. Only 62 of them survived. Then work began on creating drawings for woodcuts: 67 sheets were made by Hans Burgkmair, 39 sheets were made by Albrecht Altdorfer, and Hans Springinklee and Albrecht Du "rer also worked , Leonhard Beck and Hans Schaufelein.
At the same time, starting allegedly from 1516, twelve craftsmen, wood carvers, made 139 engraved boards. Of these, 135 have survived today (Albertina Museum, Vienna).
"Triumphal Procession" is a long ribbon composed of separate engravings. In full, all the engravings that have survived today were collected and exhibited in August 2005 at the Budapest Museum of Fine Arts (Fine Art Museum). A.T.Fomenko and T.N.Fomenko managed to visit this interesting exhibition. A long ribbon, composed of engravings, stretched out along the walls of the great hall, encircling it almost entirely. Hundreds of people participate in the "Triumphal Procession". They all move in the same direction, from left to right. Warriors, noble people, courtiers, captives, allegorical figures walk, ride in chariots, on horseback, carry banners and standards, spears, and various weapons. Horses, camels, fantastic animals take part in the procession. Before us is the most difficult and painstaking work, which required enormous work and time from the masters.
We fully reproduce the "Triumphal Procession" in fig.p1 , fig.p2 , fig.p3 , fig.p4 , fig.p5 , fig.p6 , fig.p7 , fig.p8 , fig.p9 , fig.p10 , fig. p11 , fig.p12 , fig.p13 , fig.p14 , fig.p15 , fig.p16 , fig.p17 , fig.p18 , fig.p19 , fig.p20 , fig.p21 , fig.p22 , fig.p23 , fig.p24 , fig.p25 , fig.p26 , fig.p27 , fig.p28 , fig.p29 , fig.p30 , fig.p31 , fig.p32 , fig.p33 , fig.p34 , fig.p35 , fig. p36 , fig.p37 , fig.p38 , fig.p39 , fig.p40 , fig.p41 , fig.p42 , fig.p43 , fig.p44 , fig.p45 , fig.p46 , fig.p47 , fig.p48 .
Even the first glance at this grandiose work of art, which was clearly given exceptional importance in its time, gave rise to bewildered questions, some of which we will now discuss.
When Emperor Maximilian allegedly died in 1519, work on the "Triumphal Procession" was interrupted, p.14-15. It is by this circumstance that today's commentators explain the fact that many cartouches, clearly intended for inscriptions, REMAINED EMPTY. Just take a look at our pictures. It is immediately clear that the entire "Triumphal Procession" is literally full of white, empty cartouches and banners. Nothing is written inside them. Moreover, there are no inscriptions on the very first cartouches and banners with which the "Triumphal Procession" opens, fig.p49. Most likely, there should have been some especially solemn, main inscriptions. For example, with the full title of the Emperor, indicating the lands he owned.
But the most amazing thing is different. Even more in the "Triumphal Procession" of BLACK cartouches and BLACK stripes on banners and standards. It is clear that something here was neatly painted over with black paint. Why? Let's calculate total number empty and black cartouches. Let's walk along the entire long tape of engravings from left to right, that is, from end to beginning. Let's make a simple table, indicating in the first place the number of the drawing - in our numbering: from 1 to 48. In the second place - the number of black, filled cartouches, in the third - the number of white, empty cartouches. Here's what happens.
3 - 1 - 1; 4 - 0 - 5; 5 - 10 - 2; 6 - 3 - 0; 10 - 0 - 5; 11 - 0 - 11; 12 - 0 - 3; 13 - 0 - 2; 14 - 3 - 4; 15 - 1 - 3; 16 - 1 - 5; 17 - 1 - 3; 18 - 3 - 0; 19 - 9 - 0; 20 - 9 - 0; 21 - 6 - 0; 22 - 1 - 0; 23 - 7 - 0; 24 - 8 - 0; 25 - 9 - 0; 26 - 9 - 0; 27 - 8 - 0; 28 - 9 - 0; 29 - 6 - 0; 34 - 0 - 2; 35 - 0 - 2; 37 - 0 - 2; 38 - 0 - 2; 39 - 0 - 2; 40 - 0 - 3; 41 - 0 - 3; 42 - 0 - 3; 43 - 0 - 2; 44 - 0 - 4; 45 - 0 - 2; 46 - 0 - 3; 47 - 0 - 2; 48 - 0 - 3.
A total of 79 white, empty cartouches and 104 black, filled cartouches come out. THERE ARE NO SIGNS ON THE "TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION" ENGRAVINGS AT ALL. Although it is quite clear that the creators of the engravings wanted to place quite a lot of text here. After all, the total number of all cartouches is 183, that is, about TWO Hundred. This is a lot. Moreover, many cartouches are quite large in size. Inside them, it was quite possible to write detailed comments on the images. Here one could briefly summarize the entire history of the reign of Maximilian I = Basil III and his ancestors. Most likely, something similar was originally planned.
Apparently, modern commentators are right in saying that at some point, allegedly in connection with the death of the Emperor, work on the giant "Triumphal Procession" was interrupted. And they never resumed. This is clearly indicated by empty, unfilled cartouches. But at the same time, commentators evasively avoid another and more striking circumstance, preferring for some reason not to discuss it at all. Namely, the presence on the "Triumphal Procession" of HUNDRED AND FOUR (!) Cartouches, obviously deliberately painted over with black paint. These black spots stand out sharply against the general background of exceptionally detailed and carefully executed engravings. "Black blots" immediately catch the eye. Although they were painted over carefully, they tried to carefully trace the contours of the cartouche so as not to stain the neighboring images, but the result was rather rough. Black spots "stick out" from the picture and immediately suggest that they wanted to hide something here.
Let's think. Let us assume that events unfolded as they explain to us today. The Great Emperor died, the money ran out, and work on the grandiose project was interrupted. However, it is clearly seen that up to this point, the masters have managed to engrave quite a lot of INscriptions. Namely, HUNDRED AND FOUR CARTOUS have already been filled with some text. It must be assumed that the text of the inscriptions was approved at the highest level, in the imperial office, or even by the king-khan himself, since he had to correspond to the ideas of the imperial court about his own history. Which they wanted to reflect in a series of engravings. But in this case, a reasonable question arises: WHY THESE COMPLETELY OFFICIAL AND APPROVED SIGNS WAS THEN COMPLETELY DESTROYED, PAINTED IN BLACK?
The answer is probably clear. The inscriptions were not destroyed at all in the era of Maximilian I = Basil III. It must be assumed that for some time they peacefully flaunted on unfinished engravings. The Horde heirs of the deceased Emperor-Khan respected the outstanding project and carefully kept the engravings. However, no money was given to complete the work. Probably because completely different concerns came to the fore, and the completion of the "Triumphal Procession" ceased to be a matter of paramount importance. After all, money in the treasury, as always, is not enough. So the wonderful engravings lay in the palace, in the royal store.
But time passed. The turbulent era of the Reformation of the 17th-18th centuries began. Great = "Mongolian" Empire split. The rebellious Western Europe began the total destruction of the memory of the Great Empire in order to prevent its possible restoration with all its might. And, presumably, many dreamed of restoration then. Including in Western Europe, for example, in Spain, see the book "Reconstruction". As we already understand, the reformers began a massive "cleansing" of historical evidence, annals, and written documents in general. Of course, they also remembered the unfinished "Triumphal Procession". Of course, the old inscriptions on it were Horde-"Mongolian", that is, they told about the history of the Russian-Horde Empire. The order was given to DESTROY. They decided to keep the engravings themselves, since the magnificent images of knights, chariots, elephants, camels, etc., are in themselves magnificent. were considered not dangerous for the rebellious Western European reformers. Only the old inscriptions were dangerous. Because now they began to contradict the new version of the past, just invented by the Scaligerian historians. And there was no place in this version of the Great Empire. Therefore, they acted simply. They took a jar of black paint, a brush and carefully painted over all the inscriptions on paper prints that the previous masters had already managed to make. As a result, a long strip of engravings was full of vulgar black blots. They grimaced in displeasure, but decided to leave it as it is. And don't comment. So, they say, of course, someone somehow succeeded. By the way, it would be interesting to look at the original wooden boards of the "Triumphal Procession", if they have been preserved. Maybe the inscriptions survived on them? Although very doubtful. Most likely, a similar editorial revision was carried out with wooden boards. It must be assumed that here, simply, a thin layer of wood was cut off inside the cartouches with already made inscriptions. As a result, flat depressions, shallow "lakes" with a more or less even bottom could have turned out in place of the previous inscriptions. When printing new paper prints from such boards, all such in-depth cartouches were completely filled with black ink and a large black blot was obtained on the paper attached to the board. What we see today.
Let us now pay attention to the fact that, for example, in fig.p28 we see three rulers whose crowns or caps are also painted over in black. Moreover, three scepters are also depicted here, the tops of which are again neatly smeared with black paint, fig.p50. Consequently, something was drawn here that did not suit the later reformers. Probably, there were some "harmful" Horde-"Mongolian" symbols, which now in Western Europe they everywhere tried to get rid of. Pretending that "they never existed."
After such an editorial correction, not a single inscription remained on the "Triumphal Procession" at all. NOT A SINGLE SENTENCE OR NAME OF ANY RULER! Only in some places rare letters survived, like those shown in fig.p51. Yes, in one place, on the chariot, the names of several muses have been preserved: Clio - from the top right, then Melpomene, Thalia, Terpsichore, Calliope, Urania, Polyhymnia, Erato and Euterpe, fig.p52. Apparently, the Scaligerian editors considered the names of the "ancient" muses not dangerous and graciously preserved them. They didn't scrape off.
In conclusion, let's go over the surviving images again. It is noteworthy that many coats of arms show a double-headed eagle, fig.p53. As we discussed in detail in the book "New Chronology of Russia", ch.14:24, it was the state symbol of the Great = "Mongolian" Empire. It was later announced that it was a symbol of the "ancient" Roman Empire. Which, by the way, is TRUE, but with one chronological amendment. As we showed in the book "Royal Rome in the Interfluve of the Oka and Volga", Russia-Horde of the XIV-XVI centuries and the "ancient" Roman Empire are one and the same.
From this, by the way, it follows that all such images could appear no earlier than the era of Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) and Copernicus (supposedly 1473-1543). In addition, in the book "Stars", ch.11, we substantiated the idea that the works attributed to Copernicus today were actually created about a century later than it is believed today, that is, in the epoch of the 17th century. Maybe even later than the work of Tycho Brahe. Therefore, most likely, both the "Arch of Glory" and the "Triumphal Procession" were made or edited not at the beginning of the 16th century, as we are assured, but a century later, in the era of the 17th century.
We have repeatedly discovered that many symbols known today are variations of the same original symbol, namely, the Ottoman crescent with a star = cross. It probably originated in memory of the Star of Bethlehem and the eclipse that marked the birth of Christ in 1152. These symbols include, in particular:
1) A Christian cross resting on a crescent. Here the star is the cross.
2) Double-headed imperial eagle with wings raised up. Raised wings are a crescent, and two eagle heads on a long neck symbolize a star, that is, a Christian cross.
The engravings of the "Triumphal Procession" clearly show the transitions into each other of a crescent with a star and a double-headed or single-headed eagle with raised wings, see, for example, fig.p59, fig.p60, fig.p61, fig.p62. We see an interesting symbol on the horse blanket in fig.p63. Before us is the same crescent with a star = cross, but depicted in a form resembling a sea anchor. Later, the original relationship of the symbolism was forgotten, and commentators began to argue that, they say, the anchor means ... then vague far-fetched arguments usually follow. Figure p64 shows an "ancient" cameo with ancient Christian images of a cross, a fish and a good shepherd. On the left, we again see a crescent with a star = cross in the form of an anchor.
On one of the engravings of the "Triumphal Procession" the date survived, see fig.p65. Written: I5I7. It is believed that this is an indication of 1517 in the modern sense of such a record of the date. However, as shown in The Foundations of History, ch. 6:13, earlier the first letter I was an abbreviation for the name JESUS. That is, the designation 1517, most likely, was understood as the 517th year from Jesus, that is, the 517th year from the birth of Christ. However, it may be that they sometimes counted from the year of his death. But, according to our results, set forth in the book "Tsar of the Slavs", Andronicus-Christ was born in 1152, and was crucified in 1185. Therefore, "the 517th year from Jesus" is either 1669, if counted from the birth of Christ, or 1702, if counted from the year of death. It turns out that the "Triumphal Procession" was created around the second half of the 17th century. This is in good agreement with other independent observations outlined above.
Here we will stop. The "Triumphal Procession" contains hundreds of figures. Further research is likely to reveal many more interesting things.
CONCLUSION. Apparently, on the "Triumphal Procession" in the era of the Reformation, HUNDRED AND FOUR inscriptions were deliberately destroyed, telling about the history of the Great = "Mongolian" Empire. In addition, there are traces that this remarkable work was created or edited not at the beginning of the 16th century, but a century later, in the epoch of the 17th century.
Original taken from mayak_parnasa to the Festival "Times and Epochs. ROME" - Triumph.
Last weekend in park Kolomenskoye there was a festival "Times and Epochs" dedicated to the reconstruction of the events of antiquity. Today we want to tell you about the most memorable event in the entire history of Ancient Rome - the meeting of the Triumphant. All guests could attend last Sunday and take part in the celebration of the victor and his legions.
Next, we will try to tell about this significant event.
Spectators gathered in the stands, where preparations began for a rare and solemn event - a triumph.
Vestals.
Triumph (lat. triumphus) in Rome - the solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, the Triumph began to be allowed only under the presence of a number of conditions. The triumph was considered the highest award to a military leader, which could only be awarded to those who had empires and waged war as a commander in chief, not subject to the authority of another commander.
The saviors of Rome, the geese, were the first to enter the sand of the arena. In ancient times, it was these birds that, with their cry, managed to wake up the guards and prevent the enemy from storming the Capitol.
The passage of geese through the arena, to the applause of the audience.
One of the beautiful birds managed to escape from the pen, and when trying to drive it back, this proud bird managed to take off and leave the arena to the approving roar of the crowd.
Freedom goose.
Flag bearers and dancers appeared next in the arena.
And then the fanfare sounded.
Fanfara (Italian fanfara, French fanfare) - natural brass wind musical instrument, used mainly for signaling, is an elongated pipe with a narrow scale, usually without valves. Also, a fanfare is a musical phrase of a solemn or militant nature, served with the help of this instrument.
To the sounds of fanfare, lictors appeared, carrying fasces, personifying power.
Lictor with fascia.
Lictor (Latin lictor) - a special type of civil servants; are mentioned in history since the reign of the Etruscan kings in Rome (VII century BC). Originally, the lictors were the executors of the orders of the magistrates cum imperio. Subsequently, they carried out only ceremonial and security functions with them, which consisted in escorting the highest magistrates and observing that they were given proper honors. They were armed with fascias.
Fasces (lat. Fasces) (otherwise chamfers, fascias, also lictor bundles) - an attribute of the power of kings, in the era of the Roman Republic - the highest magistrates. Bunches of elm or birch twigs tied with a red cord or tied with straps. Initially, they symbolized the right of the magistrate to enforce their decisions by force. Outside the city, an ax (often an ax) was stuck in the fascia, symbolizing the right of the magistrate to execute and pardon subjects (inside the cities, the people were the highest authority for death sentences). The right to wear fascias was assigned to lictors. Subsequently, in heraldry, lictor fasces began to symbolize state and national unity, they are also perceived as a symbol of the protection of statehood. In this interpretation, they are used in our time by many states and organizations.
The fragrance of one-time oil filled the air, and rose petals covered the sand of the arena.
It's time to join the whoops" Io triumphe" of the hero of the occasion himself.
triumphant.
A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Field of Mars, where the victor was staying in a public building (Latin villa publica) at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He put on a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga (lat. toga picta) adorned with golden stars, gilded shoes, took a laurel branch in one hand, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
Empires (Latin imperium, from the Latin verb imperare - to command) in Ancient Rome- a public law concept that characterizes the highest executive power in the Roman community. Empires were used in the military (militiae) and civil (domi). Those who were given empires could act on behalf of the state in all areas of public life.
Triumphant and state slave.
The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was only a mortal (said memento mori), and he should not be too proud.
The victor was followed by wagons with trophies and booty. In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Military booty.
Tablets with captured cities and countries.
Outlandish animal, leopard.
The enemy of Rome is the leader of the barbarians.
Notable prisoners.
Notable prisoners.
For trophies and slaves, the victorious legions of Rome entered the arena, carrying the power of the Senate and the People throughout the Oecumene.
Again, the attention of the audience was captured by beautiful dancers. Meanwhile, the priestesses of Vesta were preparing a triumphal arch of flowers, passing under which the troops were cleansed. Before the passage of the arch, the wars were disarmed and civilians entered the city. But in the days of the professional army, the legionnaires again took up arms to protect the interests of the Empire.
Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. The gifts for the soldiers were general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).
The victor makes a sacrifice to Jupiter.
Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other generals in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (Latin ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of winners among the statues of victors.
Here is the triumph. Like everything bright and solemn, it is as short-lived as everything in this world. The triumph is over, but the celebration will still last.
This is how our weekend went, we managed to immerse ourselves in Roman history, look at the victor, see the battles of the legions. Once again, the Ratobortsy club gave Moscow a wonderful holiday, we hope that this tradition will not be interrupted.
For the Roman soldier, triumph was everything. To be awarded a triumph by the Senate of Rome in recognition of merit in the military field was the greatest honor a soldier could hope for. The triumph brought him fame, wealth and the admiration of fellow citizens. If a soldier had political ambitions, the triumph guaranteed him the votes he needed for high office. Moreover, a person was elevated to the semi-divine status of a triumphant, leader of the sacred ceremonies held in honor of victory in the temple of Jupiter, the most sacred place in Rome. Even after the lapse of time, the victor continued to surround the halo of the majestic, almost divine.
For Roman citizens, the triumph was the culminating triumph of the city, the state, and society. Parades and celebrations celebrating the splendor and power of Rome became a symbol of what it meant to be a Roman. It was a time when the gods descended from heaven to earth to celebrate the greatness of Rome and its people.
Of course, nothing in this world could compare to Triumph.
Surprisingly, for a ceremony as significant and magnificent as the triumph was, there is very little information about it. The main religious duties of the triumphant were clear and rarely changed, but the scenario for the triumph could change, and quite significantly. The point is not only that some details of the holiday are a complete mystery to us, it seems that the Romans themselves, who organized these holidays, did not fully understand their meaning. For example, we know that for the solemn ceremony of the triumph, the face of the victorious commander was painted red, but we do not know why.
We know that the crowd shouted obscenities at the marching cavalcade, but we do not know why.
Initially, the triumph was a simple procession, arranged by the soldiers of the Roman army upon returning home in honor of another victory. According to the testimonies of ancient writers, the very first triumph was held in 740 BC. e. Romulus, the first king of Rome. The city of Rome, being at that time more like a large village - its population was only a few hundred people - was at war with the neighboring village of Tsenina, located a short distance to the northeast. Before the battle began, Romulus promised to dedicate his victory to Jupiter for his participation in the role of Feretrius, the crusher of the enemy. Romulus killed Akron, king of Caenina, in the first battle and defeated the enemy. Then he ordered the defeated people to destroy their village and go to live in Rome, thus increasing the population of their own kingdom.
To fulfill his promise, Romulus cut down an oak tree, sacred to Jupiter, and carved a stand from it, on which he hung Akron's weapons and armor. Then he shouldered her and carried her to Rome, accompanied by his soldiers and the inhabitants of Tsenina. Romulus had a laurel wreath on his head, put on as a sign of victory, the soldiers sang songs. The procession headed straight for the Capitoline Hill, where Romulus erected his trophy and paid tribute to Jupiter.
The first triumph of Romulus was a relatively simple event based on Greek tradition. The offering of armor, weapons or things of the enemy to the god - the patron of the city celebrating the victory - was a long-established tradition. Romulus' innovation was that the procession of soldiers became part of the solemn ceremony. Indeed, the Romans made the procession the main event of the triumph, relegating the offering of trophies to the background.
Having defeated the antemanates, Romulus celebrated a second, similar to the first, triumph, but after defeating the powerful army of the Etruscan city of Veii, he introduced an innovation that lasted until imperial times. Veii's army was led by an old general wearing a purple robe to show his superiority. During the procession, this old man, chained, walked in front of a group of prisoners. After the completion of the triumph, the captives were sent to the slave market. Since then, the tradition has been that at the end of the triumph ceremony, one of the magistrates of Rome would lead a gray-haired slave through the Forum and take him to the Capitoline Hill. Then he had to turn to face the Forum and shout: "Etruscans for sale."
Numa, the second king of Rome, was too busy establishing trade and religious issues to wage wars of conquest, so he did not organize a single triumph. His follower, Tullus Hostilius, was more militant: he crushed the cities of Alba and Fidenae, defeated the Sabines. The only thing we know about his triumph is that the king of Alba, Mittius, after the fall of his city, was taken to Rome and executed. The fourth king, Ankh Marcius, fought only one war, in which he defeated the army of the Latins. He staged a triumph in which he and his soldiers marched through the streets of the city to the Capitol.
The details of this event are unknown, the only thing we know is that he gave Jupiter much more armor than anyone before him.
After the death of Ancus Marcius, the throne was vacant. The Romans held elections and proclaimed King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the son of an exiled Corinthian aristocrat. Tarquinius turned out to be not only a talented ruler and commander, but also a great lover of magnificent performances. He insisted that officials provided special clothing and special privileges. Tarquinius, being king, had more privileges and honors than anyone else. The city of Corinth was famous for its luxury and exorbitant wealth, so Tarquinius decided to bring a piece of his hometown to Rome.
The first thing that Tarquinius did in his “position” of the king was to begin the construction of a temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. He could not believe that the Romans honored their supreme god by erecting an oak pillar surrounded by trophies and several statues. The Temple of Tarquinius was made in the Greek style, and later it was destined to play an outstanding role in the celebrations of the triumph.
One of Tarquinius' innovations was to provide each magistrate with a servant, a lictor, to clear his way through the huge crowds that roamed the streets of Rome. The servant was armed with an ax to show everyone and everyone what an unenviable fate awaits the one who dares to offend the master. The hatchet was tied to a bunch of rods that symbolized the people of Rome, showing that together they were an invincible force. By itself, this object, called the fascia, was a symbol of Roman power. The lower magistrates had at their disposal one lictor each, the higher ranks more. Tarquinius took twelve lictors at his disposal.
In addition, Tarquinius gave himself and the higher magistrates a new type of transport - the chariot. Of course, he himself had the largest and most beautiful chariot. There was enough room in it to accommodate himself, a servant and a charioteer.
The body of the chariot was decorated with relief images of scenes from the life of the gods and trimmed with gold.
These innovations, as well as others, were used during the triumph of Tarquinius, around 600 BC. e., arranged in honor of his victory over the Latin city of Apiola. For his triumph, Tarquinius considered it humiliating to arrange a simple procession of soldiers returning from the war. For several days he prepared for his celebration, paying close attention to every little thing.
Senators walked ahead of the procession - Tarquinius, which was very wise of him, allowed the most respected citizens of Rome to take part in such processions. Following - trumpeters, playing a solemn march. Next came the captives from Apiol, who were now destined to become slaves. The prisoners were followed by wagons loaded with trophies captured as a result of the military campaign. Enthusiastic Romans looked at all the wealth that was brought to their city. They could not imagine that military campaign can bring in so much money. Behind the wagons marched twelve lictors, symbolically clearing the way through the city to the temple of Jupiter under construction on the Capitol. Further, dressed in a purple robe and seated in a luxurious chariot drawn by four horses, Tarquinius himself appeared. And finally, completing the procession, the Roman army marched, soldiers and officers returning from the war, who basked in the glory of the triumph in front of their relatives and friends.
After the completion of the triumphal procession, Tarquinius proceeded to the traditional ceremonies on the Capitol. Then he showed the people another innovation: he led the population of Rome to the valley of Murcia to watch the games that he organized. Subsequently, the great Circus Maximus would be built on this site, but at that time it was just an open valley.
Since Tarquinius was a fan of Greek culture, the games organized in honor of his triumph were a display of the achievements of Greek athletes. In Greece, athletes competed completely naked to show the harmony and perfection of their bodies to the people as part of the worship of the gods. In Rome, public exposure was severely condemned, so athletes competed in their underwear. The Romans liked horse races and performances, but as for athletics, it failed to gain popularity, and was soon removed from the program of festivities. But there was one exception: pugilatus - boxing.
Boxing, which exists in the era of antiquity, has some similarities with its modern counterpart. As today, punches could only be delivered with fists, kicks, edge of the palm or grabs were prohibited, and a boxer who applied a prohibited technique could be disqualified. Along with this, the rules of Roman boxing allowed punching to any part of the body, although there is evidence that low blows were later prohibited.
There were no rounds or time limits during the fight. The fight continued until one of the boxers was knocked out or gave up. Even when a person was lying on the ground, his opponent was allowed to hit him, thereby forcing him to surrender.
The Romans did not divide boxers into weight or height categories. Rivals in the ring could be boxers of different builds. Before the start of the competition, lots were drawn: for this, clay tablets were placed in a pot, which were then pulled out by boxers. In modern boxing, such a distribution would put the lightweight in a very difficult position. In the ancient analogue, due to the fact that the ring as such did not exist, a lightweight boxer could not be driven into a corner and forced to surrender. On the contrary, a small man could run, dive and squat to his heart's content, using the advantages of his own weight to wear out a larger and stronger opponent.
The basic stance of the boxer was similar to that of the archer. Left hand, palm forward, was exposed in front of her. This position allowed to interfere with the opponent and reflect his blow. The right hand was near the chest, ready to strike with crushing force.
The first boxers, like those who participated in the games of Tarquinius, fought with leather bandages on their hands. Approximately 400 BC. e. bandages turned into special gloves. The forearm was protected by a thick leather sleeve lined with fur, which made it possible to soften the missed blows. The palm was wrapped with several layers of leather. The knuckles, the main "shocking" points of the fist, were additionally equipped with a thick strip of rough, boiled leather with sharp corners. A D-shaped leather pad was clamped in the fist, protecting the fingers during the strike.
Injuries were common during pugilatus. Broken noses, broken teeth, black eyes and torn ears were common, and head injuries must have been more common than they are now. Deaths during boxing matches were not common. Basically, the damage to health received from boxing manifested itself after some time, since constant concussions adversely affected his work.
After the death of Tarquinius, his adopted son Servius Tullius took his place. As a Latin, Servius fought a series of wars with the Etruscans, as a result of which he celebrated three triumphs in the same manner as Tarquinius Priscus. Servius was killed by his own son-in-law, the grandson of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, known as Tarquinius the Proud. Tarquinius II celebrated two triumphs, but his most important contribution to the development of this ceremony was the completion of the temple of Jupiter. The building was built in the Etruscan style, but later it was remodeled several times.
With the completion of the construction of the temple, the triumph ceremony turned into the most grandiose procession. But it was near the temple that a large number of sacrifices were destined to take place and rivers of human blood were shed.
Late Republican period. The triumphal procession of the victorious commander marches through the streets of Rome. The victor sits in a parade chariot drawn by white horses. Soldiers who have shown particular courage during a military campaign walk in front of the chariot, carrying the flags of the units that participated in the war. The stone arch - the famous Arc de Triomphe - marked the beginning of the triumphal procession through the city.
Ambassadors were sent to Rome and asked to arrange a triumph. The Senate gave permission for its holding only with really significant successes of Roman weapons. Subsequently, clear boundaries of triumph arose: it could be obtained if the enemy lost at least 5,000 killed in one battle. On ceremonial occasions, the victor received an award weapon, a toga decorated with gold and a laurel crown. The triumph of the military is a parade. It was a colorful and rather rare sight, for the entry of troops into the sacred boundaries of the city of Rome was strictly forbidden by Roman laws and was considered as sacrilege. By the way, on the Field of Mars, outside the city, there was an ancient altar of the god of war Mars. There the power belonged to the military. In Rome itself, civilians, the magistrates, held power. The people possessed the highest form of power - the empire. The popular assembly handed over the empires to the highest officials, and in the era of the Empire, they began to give it to the emperor upon accession to the throne. "Empire" meant "power" and eventually came to mean the territory over which the rule of the magistracy extended. It was possible to obtain the right to triumph only if the commander completely and finally completed hostilities. Mandatory was not just a victory, but a major one, as a result of which the Roman state expanded its borders.
The triumph was not only an important social stimulus, but also a psychological tool in the education of the people, the formation of the entire system of Roman values. Emperor Augustus, who restored old monuments, specially placed statues of prominent people of Rome in triumphal attire in the forum. He said that this was done for one purpose: so that the people themselves, in the performance of their duty, would encourage him and other rulers to take an example from the winners. Such victorious commanders were glorified by statues, tombstones and special inscriptions (elogies). So, in the temple of Mater Matuta, a plaque was installed listing the exploits of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (174 BC). Warriors were also awarded various kinds of wreaths (for saving citizens, for bravery, etc.).
The encouragement with wreaths at that time was accepted by the Romans, Macedonians, and in other armies of the world. The award for outstanding bravery in battle was a golden wreath. Such wreaths were awarded to those who set examples of courage to others, for example, by climbing the fortress wall first during the siege of a city or storming a fortified enemy camp. After the capture of Carthage, Scipio awarded a golden wreath to two at once - the centurion of the legion and the soldier of the boarding team, who were the first of the Romans to climb the wall of the city. The warrior who saved the life of a comrade in battle (whether a Roman or their ally) was awarded an oak wreath. The wreath was personally handed to him by the man he had saved. At the same time, the one who was saved had to treat the warrior who saved him as his own father until the end of his life. These heart connections usually lasted a lifetime. An example of this is Socrates and Themistocles. The commander of the Roman cavalry, Minucius Rufus, treated the dictator Fabius Maximus Cunctator in this way, for he saved him from Hannibal at the battle of Gerunia (217 BC). The person who provided decisive help army and saved her, like Fabius, they usually awarded the highest of the awards - the "wreath for liberation from the siege" (corona obsidionalis). This herbal wreath was considered by the Romans the most coveted of all awards. Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) counted only eight people awarded such a wreath. In the case of the manifestation of traditional courage and courage by any warrior in battle (killing a commander, seizing an enemy’s weapons), the brave man was awarded a cup, a weapon. The simplest and most understandable reward for a soldier was a vegetable marrow and a woman.
Heroes were also paid tribute to in works of literature, science, and art. The theme of triumph, wrote the historian of architecture V. Poplavsky, was reflected in the work of historians, painters, sculptors, architects, and masters of decorative and applied arts. Descriptions of the most famous triumphs of the republican period are known - by Plutarch (Lucius Aemilius Paulus), Appian (Cornelius Scipio Africanus), Pliny (Gnaeus Pompey the Great). Such descriptions can be found in Tacitus, Suetonius, Flavius. The triumphal festivities and military victories of the Romans were often depicted in arts and crafts and fine, monumental art. Of course, it was a purely commissioned art, but the Romans considered it absolutely in the order of things. The conqueror of Greece, Aemilius Paul, even specially brought the Greek painter Metrodorus with him from Athens and set him the task of creating large battle scenes that would glorify the exploits of the Roman legionnaires ... This kind of battle scenes are sometimes found in Rome during archaeological research. During the triumphal procession, the soldiers carried the mentioned scenes and paintings, kept them at home, exhibited them in public places, including for education. The same plots will later adorn large architectural and sculptural ensembles (such as the ensemble of the Forum of Augustus). 
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Order writing a unique work
">Moscow State University
">culture and arts
"> Theater and Directing Department
">Department of directing theatrical performances
"> Essay on the subject "Direction"
">Theme: Ancient Rome - Triumphs
"> Completed by student
"> Konoplyov M. Yu.
"> 3 courses s / o TRF
"> group 10304
">Moscow, 2011
">Ancient Rome
">Triumphs
">Triumphal facts were published around 12 BC. They contained a list of triumphs from the founding of Rome to the reign of Augustus. As a historical phenomenon, this is the kind of phenomenon that covers almost the entire Roman history of this 12th century.
"> According to legend, the first triumphant was Romullus, the legendary first king, the founder of Rome (753 - 716 BC). The last triumph took place in 403 BC, when the empire was bursting at the seams, it was the beginning of the end, times Emperor Ganori and commander Stili Hon. Romulus, brother Remus, was the first to celebrate a triumph over the city of Cinir, which he did not enter in a chariot, but walked alongside. lapwing After Amulius imprisoned them in a basket and threw them into the Tiber (a river on the Apennine Peninsula, the third longest among the rivers of Italy), and the basket was washed ashore. Subsequently, all these animals became sacred to Rome. Then the brothers were picked up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. His wife, Akka Larentia, who had not yet consoled herself after the death of her child, took the twins into her care.When Romulus and Remus grew up, they returned to Alba Longa, where they learned the secret of their origin.They killed A Mulia and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne.
"> The triumph originated in imperial Rome smoothly passed into the era of the republic of its heyday to the imperial era and survived Rome itself as an Empire. Byzantine Emperors celebrated triumphs. If you pay attention to our parades, these are like echoes of triumphs. triumph of the civil war.
"> There were also " "> Hellenistic">" Triumphs are "> Tsar's own triumphs."> Triumphs were generally described by Greek writers, they were better at writing.
"> Aspects of the triumph stand out primarily as a religious act, gratitude to the God of war for the victory and in general as pagan gods. There is a version that the Romans borrowed this procession as "> Triumph at the Etruscans">, the ancient tribes that inhabited the northwest of the Apennine Peninsula in the first millennium BC. The Etruscans were a very developed country, culture, painting, literacy, etc.
"> The Romans throughout the ages were very warlike people. They fought almost constantly. Why Emperor August boasted that before him the temple "> Janus "> has only been closed twice over the centuries,"> it meant - there is no war">, and in his time three times. War is an imbalance, a serious shock for the people. When the Roman warriors returned home in blood, they had to be washed - cleansed of spilled blood so that the Gods would forgive them. This rite was done in order to so that the Gods would not be angry, otherwise the community could suffer. In order to restore this balance, the relationship of people with the Gods, the triumph of Triumph procedure was invented. It was necessary to bring cleansing sacrifices to the Gods, and the sacrifice itself took place at the end of the procession. In particular, the passage under the Arc de Triomphe. To date, there are about 280 arches, throughout the entire space of the former Roman Empire.A real triumph could only take place in Rome, because at the culmination of the Triumph there was a sacrifice, in the temple of Jupiter-Capitol, and he was only in Rome, and victorious celebrations could Although Antony and Cleopatra did this, in Rome this Triumph was not recognized, although it was a rich, magnificent action, as it were">quasi-triumph ">.
"> The very fact of passing under the arch or what symbolized it, as it were, three spears standing in the field, it symbolized ritual cleansing from spilled blood. There is a belief that pomerium is a sacred feature in the city, where wars could not appear.
"> At that time, the construction of cities was accompanied by various ceremonies. From the beginning, they dug a hole where they put fruits and cereals useful for humans. Then everyone threw a handful of earth brought into the hole, brought from the places where he came from. This symbolized the unity of the future citizens of the city. Then Romulus harnessed a bull and a cow to the plow and plowed a deep furrow, where the city wall was supposed to grow.In those places where he lifted the plow, gaps formed in the furrow and, as it were, outlined the future gate.After the ceremony, the wall was considered sacred.One of the first inviolable shelter for fugitives was built in the city, dedicated to "> God Aliz ">. Fugitive slaves, debtors found shelter and protection in this shelter. Rome accepted exiles and newcomers. Nobody was interested in their past.
">Triumphant "> is a person, a person who wins victories for the sake of the state. This Day (Triumph), was granted to this person to feel like Jupiter. Jupiter as we know in ancient mythology"> god "> sky, daylight, thunderstorms, father of the gods, supreme deity of the Romans. Husband of the goddess"> Juno ">. Corresponds to Greek"> Zeus ">. The god Jupiter was revered on the hills, the tops of the mountains in the form of a stone. The days of the full moon are dedicated to him -"> ides ">.
">Temple "> Jupiter the Capital stood on">Capitols "> where Jupiter is with Juno and"> Minervoy "> was one of the three main Roman deities.
"> It was a very honorable gift to one person this title of Triumphant" "> Primus-interparus">" - the first among equals, an outstanding commander who won the battle. Signed by the Senate and, as it were, by the people, the Romans, as it were, developed this practice of reconciling personal interests with public ones.
"> And after that, lay down your power and never stutter about it after that. Perhaps the Triumphant dressed in Jupiter's costume imitating him, a purple cloak with stars, a golden wreath, in general, it is covered with the darkness of the unknown.
"> Only the triumphant Pompey was granted the privilege of appearing in a costume in public. But a special decree was required.
">As you know, "> Pompey - Roman general">, a political and statesman. Almost at the end of his victories and life in the civil war, he defeated Caesar, but then he himself was defeated by Caesar at Farsad and killed in Egypt, where he sought refuge:
"> The 1st Triumph Pompey celebrated in 81 over the African king Yarba;
"> 2nd Triumph over the Spanish tribes in the 71st year;
"> 3rd in the year 61 over Pirates and Metridators and celebrated the most magnificent Triumph in the history of the Roman Empire.
"> The kings originally had the right to triumph, and their attire was, as it were, Jupiter, "> a red cloak is the color of blood - red is the color of Jupiter">. The clothes of the king are the clothes of Jupiter.">Purple tunic"> - (The so-called half-mat tunic) decorated with golden palm leaves around the edges. Also"> Toga picta "> - decorated with gold stars from the top and to">this one has a laurel wreath on his head">. But the Romans constantly modified this practice, it cannot be said that it was always there.
"> When the Triumphant rode in a chariot, he could also sit in an ivory-covered chair on wheels, and in addition to the laurel wreath on his head, his Arab servant held a golden wreath over his head. And only deserved Triumphals like Pompey and Caesar had the right to wear a golden wreath on their heads in other solemn situations, and even constantly.Caesar, who became a lifelong dictator, he could afford almost everything.
"> There were many different triumphs, both large and small, which were called "ovations." There were postscripts, the Roman aristocrats had the right to masks. in costumes, masks of victors, consuls, Caesars, they walked and this played on the prestige of the family.
"> After the kings, the highest"> magistracies "> had the right to triumph, "> half a master's degree">, ">consuls ">, ">proconsuls ">, "> praetors ">, ">propraetors "> who commanded the army and won. It was believed that at least 5000 thousand enemies should have been killed in a major battle. Then the senate decided to give him this right of triumph or not.
"> The right to triumph, the commander had, who had the highest military power, commanded himself, and not under someone else's command. The Senate allocated funds for this. True, the commander gave something to his soldiers, although the soldiers themselves could rob themselves on the campaign.There is also a version that the soldiers were against the commander being given the title of Triumphant if they did not like him because he did not share with them .
"> Example: Consul Aemilius Paul Lucius won in 168 BC, with Macedonia, it was a chic victory, Macedonia was defeated. Emil Paul was awarded a Triumph, and the soldiers were against it, because they did not like their commander, because didn't want to share with them. ">. He introduced, as it were, a complete charter. He died in complete poverty, a completely poor man. Although he captured fantastic booty in the war with Macidonia.
"> Emily Pavel Lucius, Roman commander in 172 BC Was elected consul and received a triumph for the victory over the tribe of Ligos to complete the 3rd Macedonian War. The Romans re-elected him consul and gave him command and on June 22, 168 to Aemilius won a brilliant victory over Macedon, King Perseus, which decided the outcome of the war.Aemilius returned to Rome and celebrated his 2nd Triumph, one of the magnificent triumphs in the 2nd century BC. It was celebrated for three days For two days only trophies were carried, and even then not all the treasures, works of art, hundreds of wagons, jugs of silver and gold.After this victory, Roman citizens did not pay taxes for 200 years.
"> And when the commander returned with a victory, it was as if a test was being prepared for him on the Field of Mars, where fate was decided, as it were, the fate of the hero who won with his army to give him a Triumph or not. And right there he could become immediately after the decision of the Senate equal among equals if he does not receive a triumph. The Senate gathered there on the Champ de Mars on a hill in the temple "> Bellona"> - this "> Temple of the Goddess of War">. And the question of whether to give him a triumph or not was discussed. The applicant made a report and presented his achievements to them in the best possible way. Of course, here they could turn. The army, along with their commander, was also waiting. They had no right to enter the city armed not cleansed after shed blood.Of course, there were such cases when the enemies were taken by surprise, they immediately surrendered and, accordingly, there was no battle, there were no defeats and there could be no talk of triumph.Warriors, as it were, should have helped their commander, if he was one They voted for him, as if agitation was carried out in the national assembly in order for him to be granted a triumph. If a position was taken to award him this triumph, a day was appointed, the day of entry into the city. the building where the secretaries sat in. Although there was a case when Siteke and his colleagues gave a triumph over surrendered enemies, they were most likely helped by good acquaintances of influential people.
"> Day of triumph.
"> The victor was supposed to receive an award and pleasure, in fact, try on the role of Jupiter when they allegedly painted his face, maybe it was the Greeks, i.e. the Greek writers lied, they owned a feast well, but they did not know everything about the Romans. Maybe they were influenced " "> Hellenistic triumphs" it seems to have been in Greece.
"> Next, it was necessary to go through the Field of Mars, through the Arc de Triomphe (gate) and the whole city, always without weapons, having cleansed in hands with palm branches in full dress, singing songs. We moved around the city, where citizens in wreaths were decorated with flowers, garlands of flowers, along these streets for previously occupied places, in the windows too.The route was calculated so as to pass the most crowded places.It is obligatory to pass through the Circus Flaminius, built by order "> Gaius Flaminius and was named after him. This"> - an ancient Roman politician and commander, consul, through"> Big circus "> (lat. " xml:lang="la-Latn" lang="la-Latn">Circus Maximus">. Circus Maximus) - the most extensive;vertical-align:super"> "> the hippodrome in Ancient Rome. It was located in the valley between the Aventine and the Palatine. Twelve chariots could simultaneously take part in the competitions at the hippodrome. Bypass the theaters and go to the forum and there is the most solemn part,">Via Sacra "> or as a sacred road. Behind the temples of Soturn, rise to the Capitol (sacred mountain), the captives were separated in front of it, not all the captives were executed, those who were the most noble were taken to the right, where there was a prison (punishment cell) and given death. Some of the outstanding captives Jugurtha, with whom they fought for a long time, then the famous Verzen Gitorik.Then the triumphant rode, standing on a round gilded chariot, climbed the Capitol in one hand was a rod, in the other a palm branch, and there he sacrificed to Jupiter.For this purpose, bulls with gilded horns were driven at the beginning After that, he took off his luxurious clothes, as they called her">Tunico-Palmata"> ("> Tunic "> - clothing in the form of a bag with a hole for the head and arms, usually covering the entire body from shoulders to hips, a toga-picta decorated with golden stars (">Toga "> - outerwear of male citizens in ancient Rome - a piece of white woolen fabric of an elliptical shape, draped around the body. Persons who did not have the status of citizens were not allowed to wear a toga,"> gilded shoes, laurel wreath"> ">, rod (scepter) with an eagle - royal ivory rod"> and then after that he became a simple one of the people - he arranged an ordinary citizen with and not one, for his own, senators, colleagues, people, comrades-in-arms, warriors. Depending on how much the Triumphant could afford, thousands of tables in the city for the entire Roman people Especially Pompey and Caesar could afford this huge and luxurious Triumphs at Pompey - 4 and Caesar 5 Triumphs. And as it was known that the commander on the battlefield was already proclaimed Emperor - the bearer of the empire. This was already, as it were, an application for triumph and if the Senate confirmed the application, then he could celebrate the Triumph.
"> I wanted to remember the Arc de Triomphe. The arch of Titus is one-span 71st year, the field of how Titus captured Jerusalem, there were Jews who later built the Colosseum. But this arch was already finally built 10 years later (the current one). What it was originally made of It is not known that they were made of wood before, like the Triumphal Arch of Ukhtomsky, the current Red Gate arch through which Elizaveta Petrovna was crowned in 1742. That is, the arches were built in honor of the Emperors, the arches were different, four, three, two , single-span and always at the top were "> statues"> or "> quadriga">.
"> The Romans were superstitious and, in order to avoid the evil eye, the soldiers were allowed to mock the commander, sing insulting songs about him, compose ditties and recall all the troubles in the campaign.
"> The order of the procession. The column was divided into three parts:
">a) "> at the beginning, musicians, trumpeters, flutists, sacrificial animals up to a hundred bulls, and maybe more with gilded horns, sounded most likely solemn marches, military songs. Perhaps these were various noises because they played, tops sang songs noise was grand everyone screamed">EVUE-TRIUMPHS ">, most likely the word triumph from this came "hey triumph." The emperor himself had to slaughter at least one bull.
"> b) "> (in Hellenistic times there were more trophies), then they carried trophies captured in battle, sets of weapons, then paintings, bronze, a work of art, images of cities in miniature. It could be a reality of tapes with inscriptions, banners, stretch marks, models, everything that could give to understand about the conquest of the city that they captured.Of course, the matter could not do without lies, as it probably happened with Julius Caesar, that he conquered 1 million, killed 1 million and captured 1 million.
">c) "> and after the trophies there were prisoners, the more honorary prisoners, the better, several dozen commanders. As, for example, in the Triumph of Emil Paul, the king of Macedonia Perseus himself walked, all in black clothes, next to him were three children, two boys and one girl and interestingly, the audience was touched, shed tears of tenderness, imbued with compassion, the children did not even understand what was happening.By the way, it is not necessary that all the prisoners were executed, they were released, imprisoned, although for the prisoners who were held in triumph it was a great shame, especially as for Perseus, although Perseus was offered to resolve this issue by killing himself, but he did not dare, or as the famous Palmer queen"> Zenobia Septimius -"> the second wife of the king of Palmyra, Odenathus II, then lived out her days in the villa that the emperor gave her.
"> d) "> After the prisoners, the Triumphant himself marched, standing on a chariot harnessed by four white horses with a red face, i.e. full likeness to Jupiter.
"> As they wrote that Pompey would like to pass under the arch on elephants.
"> If you take the uprising of Spartacus, Krasus defeated him and he counted on a triumph. But the triumph was not given with an unworthy opponent, although the soldiers of Spartacus were worthy, but from the political side they were ordinary gladiator slaves and Krasus ( "> Mark Licinius Crassus"> - an ancient Roman commander and political figure, triumvir, one of the richest people of his time) offered "Ovation". The victor walked on foot or on horseback, only Kras was allowed to sit on"> horse"> and instead of "> myrrh"> wreath ("> Myrtle "> - a genus of southern evergreen woody plants with white fluffy flowers containing essential oil, also myrtle used to be called a wreath of flowers and leaves of such a tree or its branch - a symbol of silence, peace and pleasure) to wear laurel. In Ovations, they did not sacrifice a bull, but only one sheep and it was a modest procession.For all the time there were only 23 applause, and there were an order of magnitude more triumphs.
"> There were three types of Triumphs:
">Great Triumph;
"> Triumph on the Alban Mountain "> - the most high point her, the top of Monte Cavo, a temple to Jupiter was built on it. In this shrine, the Latins celebrated their celebrations, and the Roman consuls sometimes celebrated their triumphs;
"> Ovations - "> was a reduced form of triumph in Ancient Rome. Ovations were awarded when an enemy was defeated, but not in the case of a war declared at the state level, but in the case of less significant enemies (slaves, pirates), or when the conflict was resolved with little blood or little danger to the army.
"> The general celebrating an ovation did not enter the city on chariots drawn by two white horses, as in the case of a triumph, but usually walked in a magistrate's toga with purple stripes. During the triumph, the generals wore a completely purple toga, decorated with gold embroidery.
"> The decorated general also put on a wreath of myrtle (dedicated to Venus), while in triumph they put on a laurel wreath. Roman senators did not go ahead of the general, the soldiers also did not participate in the procession.
"> And there was also a very rare naval triumph - this is a kind of great Triumph. But it took place on land. The Romans did not fight very actively at sea. It consisted in the fact that after the procession, after the feast of the Triumphant, a flutist and a torch-bearer accompanied this honor to the commander Hyde Willie.
"> After the 19th year BC, the republican triumph ordered a long life, because everything already belonged to the monarch, i.e. the emperor who became the monarch and after that there were fewer and fewer triumphs. Basically, these were the triumphs of one person and the Monarch, on special occasions, encouraged his commanders, bestowed on them the "Uronomento-Triumphal" i.e. Triumphal decorations.On special occasions, they could appear in a purple tuga with a wreath.
"> The concept of "Triumph" seems to consist of three parts: The people;
"> Emperor and Triumphant.
Order writing a unique work triumphus) in Rome- solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, the Triumph began to be allowed only under the presence of a number of conditions. The triumph was considered the highest award to a military leader, which could only be awarded to those who had empires and waged war as a commander in chief, not subject to the authority of another commander. The triumph could be received by both ordinary magistrates (consuls, praetors, proconsuls and propraetors), as well as dictators and persons who received the highest command by virtue of a special popular decree (lat. imperium extraordinarium). Triumph was determined by the senate, but sometimes, if the senate refused to triumph, the military leader managed to get it by virtue of the decision of the people's assembly, as was the case, for example, with the dictator Marcius Rutilus (the first of the plebeians).
Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century BC
A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was at that time a victor. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The victor rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four horses. When Camillus harnessed white horses for the first time during his triumph, this was met with a murmur in the public, but subsequently white horses during the triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.
In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, gave many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the triumph. Golden wreaths were also carried, presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paul there were about 400 of them, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa - about 3000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the triumph in the eyes of the Roman commanders were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. Some of the captives during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison that lay on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such a beating of prisoners was common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be given from a later era: Jugurtha and Caesar's opponent in Gaul, Vercingetorix, perished in this way. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fascias entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd.
The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave reminded the triumphant from time to time that he was only a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens liberated by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. They exclaimed "Jo triumphe" and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).
Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of victors among the statues of victors. The last triumph seems to have been accomplished by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called "ovation".
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TRIUMPH(Triumphus). The word "triumph" probably comes from the exclamation " triumphe» (associated with θρίαμβος), issued by soldiers and people during the procession (Varro, L. L. VI. 68, is also found in the chant of the Arval brothers), but is possibly an early transliteration of the word θρίαμβος itself (see also Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, with. 394).
Initially, the triumph was no doubt simply the return of the victorious army, led by the general, the first event of which, naturally, was the offering of a sacrifice to the supreme god of the city. A notable feature of this entry into the city was the display of captives and booty. This is the essence of triumph. (Varro, l. c. : « Triumphare appellatum quod cum imperatore milites redeuntes clamitant per urbem in Capitolium eunti Io triumphe» . An early triumph of this kind is described in Liv. III. 29, 4.) It happened after every successful campaign, as a matter of course. After the ceremony had been worked out, and the importance of the triumph increased as a result, there naturally arose a tendency, coinciding with the weakening of power, to limit it to cases of exceptional success, and gradually a set of rules arose to condition and limit the receipt of what became a desired favor. First of all, the consent of the Senate became necessary.
The triumph had two aspects: religious and military.
1. Before a general set out from Rome for the theater of war, his last business was to visit the Capitol, where he (if he was a magistrate) received the auspices without which the war could not be properly started, and every time he took vows for success in war (Liv. xlv. 39, &c.; Caes. B. C. I.6; plin. Pan. 5). If the campaign was successful and he was granted a triumph, then he took the form of a procession to the Capitol, where he was to fulfill his vows and make a sacrifice to Jupiter. This religious character of the triumph was emphasized by the fact that the commander appeared in the procession in the form of a god. His clothes were the same as those of a god, and belonged to the temple, from where they were delivered on such an occasion. (Therefore, she is referred to as exuviae Jovis: Suet. Aug. 94; cf. Juv. X. 38; Liv. X. 7, 10. Gordian was the first to own these clothes as his own: Vita Gord. 4; cf. Vita Alex. Sev. 40.) God also owned a golden crown (Tertull. de Coron. 13) and a scepter with an eagle; the general's body (at least in early times) was painted red, like a statue in a temple (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111); and the white chariot horses used by the emperors, and earlier by Camillus, resembled the white horses of Jupiter and the Sun (Liv. V. 23, 5, and v. inf.). For the importance of this identification of the priest (which in this case was the triumphant) with the deity, see S ACERDOS.
2. The triumph was also a military event, the last one performed by the commander in the course of command; therefore, it was important that during its commission the commander possessed the entirety of the military empire; this was inherent in the offices of the highest magistrates (consul, praetor, dictator). If these magistrates were triumphant while in office, they already possessed the necessary quality (although it was usually suspended in the city) and thus in this case were able (with the prior permission of the senate) to exercise a military empire within the city. (For problems associated with loss of auspices in certain cases, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 124, approx. 5.) As long as the command of the army was usually held by one of the higher magistrates during the term of his office, the right to triumph belonged exclusively to this class (in an exceptional case, for example, in the case of Qua. Publilius Philo, consul of 327 BC. e., when the command was extended beyond the usual term, the right was not lost: Liv. VIII.26, 7); therefore, when during the second Punic War it became necessary to appoint commanders who did not occupy one of the ordinary higher magistracies, in such cases the triumph was denied (for example, P. Scipio in 206 BC, Liv. XXVIII. 38, 4; L. Manlius Acidinus in 199 BC, Liv. XXXII.7, 4; Mr. Cornelius Blasio in 196 BC, Liv. XXXIII.27; and L. Lentulus in 200 BC, Liv. XXXI. 20, 3, " exemplum a majoribus non accepisse ut qui neque dictator neque consul neque praetor res gessisset triumpharet» . This rule is also formulated in Plut. Pomp. 14, ὑπάτῳ ἢ στρατηγῷ μόνῳ [θρίαμβον] δίδωσιν ὁ νόμοσ ). Later, when the custom arose (eventually legalized by Sulla) that the command of an army in the provinces was taken only after the expiration of a year's office in Rome, it was deemed necessary to relax the rule, for the practical reason that if none of the ordinary magistrates had a chance win, then no triumph could be granted. Accordingly, the triumphs celebrated in the late Republic are usually those of proconsuls and propraetors. The fact that these persons already held one of the highest magistracies in the city no doubt facilitated the change in the old rule; however, even if this were not the case (as in the exceptional case of Pompey in 81 and 71), the triumph was not denied. In the case of proconsuls and propraetors of empires, granted (by prorogatio) strictly for command in the provinces only; to facilitate the triumph, Sulla legalized the custom of keeping the empires active until the general had reached the city (Cic. ad fam. I. 9, 25: cf. Liv. XXXIV. ten; Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 619, approx. 1 and 2). However, this expansion could only be useful up to the pomerium, and in order to keep the current empires inside the city on the day of triumph, a special law was required ( privilege accepted by the people ex auctoritate senatus, Liv. XXVI. 21, cf. XLV. 35). Until his acceptance, the commander remained outside the walls, for if he entered the city, then the continuity of his empire would be lost and he would become privatus not entitled to triumph. (Therefore Lucullus remained outside the city walls for three years: Cic. Acad. pr. II. 1, 3: cf. the case of Cicero in 50 BC. e., ad Att. VII. ten.)
After an important victory, the troops proclaimed their general as emperor (a frequent but not universal first step to triumph: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 123); He took fasces laureati(Cic. Pro League. 3, 7, ad Att. VII. 10) and sent to the Senate litterae laureatae(Liv. v. 28, 13; Plin. H. N. XV. § 40; zone. VII. 21; cf. Tac. agr. 18), i.e., a report announcing victory. If this information turned out to be satisfactory, p. 895 the senate declared public prayers, which were so often harbingers of triumph that Cato considers it necessary to remind Cicero that this was not necessarily the case (Cic. ad fam. XV. 5, 2). After the general returned with an army in the vicinity of Rome, the next step was to obtain the consent of the senate; but it could only be given under certain conditions.
1. Until the end of the ceremony, the victor had to have the supreme power of the magistrate, i.e., the empire of the consul, praetor, dictator, proconsul and propraetor, and this empire had to be received in the right constitutional way (thus, for tribunes with consular power, the possibility of a triumph was excluded ; it was different with the triumvirs, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 126 c). This point has already been discussed, but it remains to mention a few exceptions and consequences. When a pro-magistrate was elected consul during his command, his triumph took place on the day he took office (for example, Marius in 104 BC: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 124, approx. 4). The empire outside of Rome was unlimited, therefore, at one time and in one territory, only one person could carry it out; if there were two commanders, then only one triumph could be given; therefore it was granted either to a general of a higher rank (for example, a dictator, not a consul; a consul, not a praetor: Liv. II.31, IV.29, 4; Ep. xix), or, in the case of two consuls, to the one whose turn it was to hold the empire and the auspices on the day of the battle (for example, the Battle of the Metaurus: Liv. XXVIII.9, 10). A commander, therefore, could not claim a triumph if he won a victory in a territory where a foreign empire was active (Liv. l. c. The Battle of Metaurus took place in the province of M. Libya: cf. Liv. X. 37, XXXIV. ten). Exceptions to these rules appear after the First Punic War, and a small triumph ( ovatio) was usually granted if more significant honors were denied. In accordance with the same principle, the one who commanded alienis auspiciis, i.e., as a representative of an absent general or a subordinate of one present, had no right to a triumph (Dio Cass. XLIII.42). Caesar broke this rule towards the end of his life with regard to his legates (Dio Cass. l. c. , sq. Fabius Maxim and Kv. Pedia: cf. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 127, approx. 3). This example was followed during the reign of the triumvirate (for example, P. Ventidius, legate of Antony: Dio Cass. XLVIII. 41, 5). Finally, despite the rule formulated by Cicero ( de leg. agr. II. 12, 30) on the necessity of a curate law for a military empire, at the end of the republic there is an example of a triumph obtained by a man to whom an empire was never thus awarded (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16, 12; C. I. L. I. s. 460, XXVII).
2. Victory must be won in a just struggle against the enemies of the state ( justis hostilibusque bellis, Cic. pro Deiot. 5, 13), and not in a civil war and not in a slave revolt (Val. Max. II.8, 7; Dio Cass. XLIII.42; Florus, II.10, 9; Lucan. I.12; Gell. V 6, 21; Plut. Caes. 56). Therefore, there were no triumphs after the capture of Capua in 211 BC. e., or Fregell in 125 BC. e., although the first city did not have full citizenship, and the second was only a Latin colony (the reason given in Val. Max. l. c. as if Capua belonged to Rome, and triumph was granted only pro aucto imperio, incorrect: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 129, approx. 3). The triumphs of Caesar after Thapsus and Munda and Octavian after Actium did not violate this rule, for in each case the victory was presented as won over foreigners; although, on the other hand, Caesar did not celebrate a triumph for Pharsalus. This attitude is found even in Septimius Severus (Herodian, III. 9, 1).
3. Victory must be won in a major battle (Gell. V. 6, 21); and, according to Valerius Maximus (II. 8, 1), the law stipulated that the enemy must be injured not less than 5,000 men in one battle. (The plebiscite of 62 BC obliged the commander to confirm his information under oath and established fines for falsification). This rule was clearly established recently, and even after that many examples are known of granting triumphs for general results (in the case of P. Cornelius and M. Bebius, Liv. XL. 38, there was no war. Cf. VIII. 26, 7; XXXVII. 46 Cic. in Pis. 26, 62).
4. The war had to be brought to an end ( debellatum) so that the army can be withdrawn ( deportatio exercitus); the presence of victorious soldiers was an essential part of the ceremony (Liv. XXVI.21; XXXI.49). Therefore, initially, the transfer of the army to a successor in the theater of operations deprived the right to triumph. Later, when circumstances demanded the presence of standing armies at a great distance from Italy, the condition of deportation was abolished, in case the war was brought to a conclusion (Liv. XXXIX.29, 4).
Decisive victories in a large-scale or prolonged war could be rewarded with a triumph, that is, they were considered as the end of individual wars: for example, in the war with Hannibal - the battle of Metaurus and the capture of Tarentum. Claims to triumph after the conquest of Sicily and Spain in the same war were rejected for other reasons (cf. Tac. Ann. I.55; II. 41).
Given that the supreme magistrate had the absolute right to use unlimited empires within the city on the day of his triumph, the existence of a set of rules implies the recognition of some authority other than the general himself, who must decide on their applicability. As a matter of fact, we see that from the earliest times this right was recognized to the senate (Liv. II.47, 10; III.29, 4; 63, 9: cf. Polyb. VI.13; Sen. de Ben. V. 15) that his decisions were always regarded as final (e.g., Liv. X. 36, 19; Dionys. IX. 26) and only exceptionally reversed by appeal to the people (Liv. III. 63, 8; VII. 17 9; Zon. VIII.20) or by force (the cases of L. Postumius Megella, Liv. X. 37; and Appius Claudius, Cic. pro Cael. 14, 34; Suet. Tib. 2). There is not a single case known where the Senate was not first addressed. No doubt the point where this body made its power felt was the decree of the senate, without which public funds could not be allocated for the expenses of the triumph (Polyb. VI.15, 8; Liv. XXXIII.23, 8: cf. Dio Cass. LXXIV.2). In the case of pro-magistrates, whose empires were founded on prorogatio, followed by the consent of the Senate privilege, permitting p. 896 the preservation of the empire inside the city for triumph (see above). Probably due to confusion with this, it is sometimes said that the consent of the senate must be confirmed by the people: for example, Suet. Fr. VIII. ed. Roth. See Willems, Le Senat de la Republique Romaine, vol. II. with. 672, approx. 2. But the early reference to the participation of the people in Liv. IV. 20, in 437 BC. e. (cf. Dionys. III.59) perhaps indicates that things were different in earlier times. For these discussions, the senate met outside the city walls, usually in the temple of Bellona (Liv. XXVI.21, XXXVI.39) or Apollo (Liv. XXXIX.4), so that the general might have an opportunity to defend his claims in person. After Augustus erected a temple to Mars Avenger in his forum, at least the last session was held there (Suet. Aug. 29).
When the appointed day came, all the people poured out of their houses in festive clothes; some stood on the steps of government buildings, while others climbed onto the scaffolding erected to give an overview of the spectacle. Every temple was open, flower garlands adorned every temple and statue, and incense burned on every altar. (Plut. aem. Paul. 32; Ov. Trist. IV. 2, 4). Meanwhile, the commander, who arrived at night on the Field of Mars (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4), addressed his soldiers on contio and announced the rewards to be distributed to the officers and soldiers (Liv. X. 30, 46; XXX. 45, 3; XXXIII. 23, &c.; Plin. H. N. XXXVII. § sixteen; Dio Cass. XLIII. 21).
Then the procession lined up on the Champ de Mars, where it was met by the senate and magistrates (Josephus, l. c.). The following order was usually observed, but naturally there could be deviations in certain circumstances (a good example of such is the triumph of Aurelian, described in Vita Aurel. 33).
1. Magistrates and Senate (Dio Cass. LI. 21, 9).
2. Trumpeters ( tubicines: Plug. aem. Paul. 33; appian, Pun. 66).
3. Tangible fruits of victory, including captured weapons, objects of material or artistic value, images of conquered countries, cities, rivers, etc., in the form of pictures, models, and allegorical figures (Liv. XXVI.21, 7; Cic. Phil. VIII. 6, 18;. Tac. Ann. II. 41; plin. H. N. V. § 5. On one of the internal reliefs of the Arch of Titus, all the bearers of these objects are crowned with laurel wreaths), as well as tables on which the names of conquered peoples and countries are written. At the same time were exhibited the golden wreaths presented to the general by the cities of the conquered province (Liv. XXVI.21, XXXIV.52; Plut. aem. Paul. 34. In early times they were made of laurel: Gell. V. 6, 7).
4. White bull, intended for sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated vitae and Serta, who is accompanied by the priests with their paraphernalia, and followed by the camillas, carrying pateras and other sacred vessels and instruments in their hands (Plut. aem. Paul. 33).
5. The most important captives in chains (eg, Perseus, Jugurtha, Vercingetorix, Zenobia. The image represented the dead Cleopatra: Dio Cass. LI. 21, 8).
6. Lictors of the commander in red tunics, with fasces decorated with laurel (Appian, Pun. 66. Probably the fasces were without axes; so on the relief of the arch of Titus. See, however, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129; L ICTOR p. 66 a).
7. Cytharists ( citharistae) or ludiones, dancing and singing, as if triumphing over a defeated enemy (Appian, l. c. : cf. Dionys. VII. 72).
Triumphal chariot: from a relief. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. IV. pl. CV).
See above for the use of white knights. After Camillus (Liv. v. 23; Dio Cass. LII. 13; Plut. Cam. 7), not a single commander is known to have decided to use them before Caesar (Dio Cass. XLIII. 14, 3), but his example, apparently, was constantly followed by emperors (Suet. Nero.25; plin. Pan. 22. Poets of the August era mention this as a common detail: Ovid, A. A. I. 214; Property. V. 1, 32). Both the chariot and the horses were adorned with laurel (Suet. Aug. 94; Ov. Ex Pont. II. 1.58; Flor. I. 5, 6; zone. VII. eight). In the 3rd century, if a triumph was celebrated over the Parthians ( triumphus persicus), the chariot was driven by four elephants ( Vita Alex. Sev. 57, 4; Gord. Tert. 27, 9; and cf. coin of Diocletian and Maximian described in Cohen, Medailles Imperiales, VI. with. 479, 3). Pompey unsuccessfully tried to obtain permission to do so during the African triumph (Plut. Pomp. 14: cf. marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, II. with. 586, approx. 7). Incense was burned in front of the chariot (Appian, Pun. 66). The dress of the general (see above about his general character) consisted of a tunic decorated with a floral pattern ( tunica palmata) and a gold-embroidered mantle ( toga picta), both are purple (Plut. aem. Paul. 34; Liv. X. 7, 9). In his right hand he held a laurel branch (Plut. aem. Paul. 32; plin. H. N. XV. § 137), and in the left, an ivory scepter surmounted by an eagle (Dionys. III.61, V.47; Val. Max. IV.4, 5; Juv., X.43). In ancient times his body was apparently painted red (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111, and see above). He had a laurel wreath on his head (Plin. H. N. XV. § 137). Behind him stood a government slave, holding above his head the heavy golden crown of Jupiter in the form of an oak wreath (Juv. X. 39; Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 11, XXXVIII. § 7; zone. VII. 21; Tertull. de Cor. thirteen). So that this culmination of human and almost divine honors does not have such bad p.897 consequences as pride, invidia, and the evil eye, the commander put on an amulet ( fascinus) or attached it to the chariot, together with a small bell and whip (Plin. H. N. XXVIII. § 39; zone. VII. 21; macrob. Sat. I. 6, 9); and the slave riding behind him whispered in his ear: "Respice post te, hominem te memento" (Tertull. Apollo. 33, confirmed in Arrian, Diss. Epict. III. 24, 85, and Plin. H. N. l. c. : cf. Juv. X. 41). It can hardly be assumed that the slave was present at the triumph of the emperor. On the monuments, Victory is almost always depicted behind the emperor, holding a laurel wreath above his head. Apparently, the triumphant also owned the state chair ( sella), for it is mentioned in connection with other triumphal honors (Liv. x.7, 9; Dio Cass. XLIV.6; Suet. Jul. 76; Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 423). The minor children of the victor (both boys and girls) rode with him in the chariot or on horseback (Liv. XLV. 40, 8; Val. Max. V. 7, 1; 10, 2; Tac. Ann. II. 41; Vita M. Ant. Phil. 12, 10; cic. pro Mur. 5, 11; Suet. Tib. 6). His adult sons rode behind (Liv. xlv. 40, 4), after the apparitors (Appian, Pun. 66), along with his legates and tribunes (Cic. in Pis. 25, 60; appian, Mithr. 117). Then sometimes came the Roman citizens whom he had saved from slavery by his victory, in the form of freedmen (Liv. XXX.45, 5; XXXIII.23, 6; XXXIV.52, 12). The procession was completed by the whole mass of infantry in marching order, with spears decorated with laurel (Plin. H. N. XV. § 133), shouting "Io, triumph!" (Varro, L. L. v. 7; Hor. Od. IV. 2, 49; Tibull. II. 6, 121) and singing songs, both with praises and with the grossest obscenities to the general (Liv. IV. 20; 53, 11, &c.; Suet. Jul. 49, 51; mart. I. 5, 3; other references are given in Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. with. 588, approx. 2. See also Munro, Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus, with. 90).
The procession entered the city through the Triumphal Gate. Here sacrifices were made to certain deities (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4). The procession then passed through the Circus Flaminius and through, or at least past, the theaters in the same area, which held crowds of spectators (Plut. Lucull. 37, Joseph. B. J. l. c.), and probably entered directly into the city through the Carmental Gate, since we know that it crossed the Velabre (apparently the Etruscan street) and the Bull Market (Suet. Jul. 37; cic. Verr. I. 59, 154). Further, the procession went around the Palatine Hill through the Circus Maximus (Cic. l. c. ; Plut. aem. Paul. 32) and along the street between Palatine and Caelium, reaching at the end of the Sacred Way, which led the procession to the Forum (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 35; epod. 7, 8). The route probably ran along the south side of the forum (Jordan, Capitol, Forum, Sacra Via, Berlin, 1881). At the end of the Sacred Way began the Capitoline descent, and as the general approached it, the chief captives were led aside to a nearby prison, and there they were executed (Cic. Verr. v. 30, 77; Liv. XXVI. thirteen; Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 22. Initially, they cut off their heads with an ax, later they strangled them: cf. Liv. XXVI. 13, 15 with Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 22, 8, and see Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129). Saving the life of such captives was possible only as an exception. The earliest case is Perseus pardoned by Aemilius Paulus (Plut. 37), whose example was followed by Pompey (Appian, Mithr. 117), Tiberius in a Pannonian triumph in 12 CE. e. (Ov. ex Pont. II. 1, 45) and Aurelian in regard to Zenobia (Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 30, 27). The sacrifice in the temple could not begin before the execution had taken place (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 6).
Then the commander went up to the Capitol (Alexander Sever went on foot, Vita, 57, 4). When he reached the temple, a laurel branch and wreaths from the fasces were placed on the knees of the god (Sen. Console. ad Helv. ten; plin. H. N. XV. § 40; plin. Pan. eight; Sil. ital. XV. 118; stat. Silv. IV. 1, 41; Pacatus, P aneg. in Theod. 9, 5), and later - a palm branch (cf. Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. with. 589, approx. 2). Then the sacrifice was made. Insignia triumphi, i.e., the most significant booty (for example, the returned banners of Crassus, Dio Cass. LIV. 83, and, undoubtedly, Vara, Tac. Ann. II. 41), were subsequently placed in the temple of Mars the Avenger (Suet. Aug. 29). Finally, the general and the senate feasted at a public feast in the temple (Liv. xlv. 39). It was the custom to invite the consuls to this feast, and then send them a letter asking them not to come, no doubt so that the victor would be the most distinguished person among those assembled (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 80; Val. Max. II. 8, 6). The same feast was given to soldiers and citizens in the temple of Hercules (Plut. Lucull. 37; Athens. V. s. 221f).
All these procedures were generally completed within one day, but when the amount of booty was very large and the troops very numerous, a longer time was required for the presentation. Thus the Macedonian triumph of Flaminius continued for three consecutive days (Liv. XXXIX.52; cf. Plut. aem. Paul. 32).
The honors of the victor did not end on this day. At public spectacles he appeared wearing a laurel wreath (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and in exceptional cases - in vestis triumphalis(e.g., L. Aemilius Paul and Pompey; Auctor, de Vir. ill. 56; Well. II. 40). There was a custom to give him a place for a house at public expense; such mansions were called triumphales domus(Plin. H. N. XXXVI. § 112). His name was entered in the Triumphal fasts ( C. I. L. I. s. 453); he was allowed to decorate the entrance to his house with trophies (Plin. H. N. XXXV. § 7; cic. Phil. II. 28; Liv. X. 7, 9), and a statue in a laurel wreath, standing in a triumphal wagon, exhibited in the vestibule, transmitted his glory to posterity (Juv. VIII. 3). Finally, after death, his ashes could be buried inside the city walls (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 79; Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 426, approx. one).
Triumph on the Alban Mountain (triumphus in Monte Albano) was a procession to the temple of Jupiter Latiarius on the Alban mountain. It was held jure p.898 consularis imperii(Liv. XXXIII.23, 3), sine publica auctoritate(Liv. XLII.21, 7), but it was resorted to only when the senate refused the usual triumph, and was considered an honor of a lower order (Liv. XXXIII.23). Although it was recorded in the Triumphal fasts, it was not tantamount to a triumph in the city, for when Marcellus in 211 BC. e. refused a big triumph, but gave permission for a small one ( ovatio), he nevertheless celebrated a triumph on the Alban mountain on the eve of an ovation (Liv. XXVI.21, 6). The first example of such a triumph was given by G. Papirius Mason in 231 BC. e. (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and many others followed his example (Liv. XXVI.21, 6; XXXIII.23, 3; XLII.21, 7; XLV.38; - Plut. Marc. 22).
Naval triumph (triumphus navalis). - The earliest known was celebrated by G. Duilius for a naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 BC. e. (Liv. Ep. XVII; Flor. I. 8, 10; plin. H. N. XXXIV. § 20). Other examples are M. Aemilius Paulus in 254 BC. e. (Liv. XLII. 20, 1), G. Lutatius Catulus in 241 BC. e. (Val. Max. II.8, 2), Sq. Fabius Labeo in 189 BC e. (Liv. XXXVII.60, 6), Gn. Octavius in 167 BC e. (Liv. xlv. 42, 2); and see Triumphal fasts to 497, 498, 513, 526. Nothing is known about specific features. G. Duilius and M. Aemilius Paulus erected rostral columns in memory of their victories (Liv. XLII.20, 1).
Camp Triumph (triumphus Castrensis). - Procession of soldiers through the camp in honor of an officer subordinate to the commander-in-chief, who accomplished a brilliant feat (Liv. vii.36).
In the era of the empire, when the monarch became the sole owner of the empire, and all the commanders were only legates acting under his auspices, the above condition regarding the possession of the empire was strictly observed, and the precedent set by Caesar in favor of his legates was followed only by Augustus at the beginning of his reign (Dio Cass. LIV. 12; Suet. Aug. 38). Even among holders of a subordinate proconsular empire, the triumph became rare and then granted only if they were members of the imperial family (Dio Cass. LIV. 24 gives 14 BC as the date of the change when Agrippa renounced the triumph, as he entered in BC 19, Dio Cass. liv. 11). Triumphs were celebrated by Tiberius (BC 7, Vell. II.97, Dio Cass. LV.6; and AD 12, Vell. II.121, Suet. Tib. 20), Germanicus (A.D. 26)
On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where the victor was staying in a public building at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches, a purple toga adorned with golden stars, gilded shoes, he took a laurel branch in one hand, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with the image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The victor rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four horses. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. The musicians followed. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.
On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Priests and young men accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the triumph in the eyes of the Roman commanders were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fasces entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd.
The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was only a mortal, and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens liberated by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. They exclaimed "io triumphe" and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice.
Despite the fact that it was September, the sun shone brightly, like in summer. Dense crowds of festively dressed people filled the entire space from the temple of the Roman goddess of war - Bellona - on the Field of Mars to the Capitol itself.
On the third day, Rome celebrated the triumph of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, who captured the Macedonian king Perseus himself. From early morning, columns of troops passed through the Roman streets. The trumpeters in front played the same formidable warlike march, to the sounds of which the legions usually went into battle. The sounds of trumpets were mixed with joyful cries, with which the crowds of people greeted the passing troops. "And about! Triumph! ”, - the people shouted without ceasing (the exclamation “io” among the Romans corresponded to our “cheers”).
It seemed as if there had never been such rejoicing since the founding of Rome. The troops of the consul captured an unprecedentedly rich booty. Even the Romans, accustomed to such magnificent spectacles, were amazed. The first day of triumph was barely enough to transport all the works of art, statues and paintings captured from the enemy on 250 wagons. The next day they carried the weapons that the winners got: gilded shields and long Macedonian spears - sarissas, Thracian weapons and horse harness, swords, armor, helmets ... Then 3 thousand people followed, carrying 750 vessels filled with silver coins. Each vessel contained 3 talents - about 80 kg of silver. Therefore, each vessel was carried by 4 people. 750 warriors carried richly decorated, finely crafted bowls and vases. The last, third day of the triumph was supposed to be the most interesting and brilliant.
As soon as the troops passed under the menacing march and the shouts of the crowd, young men in festive, richly embroidered clothes followed them. They were leading 120 white bulls intended for sacrifice. They were accompanied by boys with gold and silver vessels for victims - pateras. They were followed by people who carried 77 vessels with gold coins, 3 talents of gold in each.
The crowd expected the most interesting spectacle: the captives walking in front of the victor's chariot.
Finally, they carried a sacred cup of gold, adorned with precious stones, intended as a gift to Jupiter, and a line of prisoners appeared from around the turn of the street. They walked with bowed heads, with sad, mournful faces. Among them were women and very young children taken prisoner with their parents. The crowd was silent. Only the rattling of chains was heard: all the captives were in chains. But here again solemn cries thundered deafeningly: the Romans saw King Perseus in the crowd of prisoners. It seemed that he was so immersed in his woeful reflections that he could not see anything around him at all. Beside him were his children: two boys and a girl. They were still too small to understand what was happening around, and only fearfully looked around, surprised by loud screams and a huge crowd of people. The Macedonian king had already disappeared around the corner when the lictors appeared - the bodyguards of the consul - with bundles of rods entwined with laurel branches. Behind them moved a golden triumphal chariot harnessed by four white horses.
Consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus, according to custom, sat in an armchair, and behind him stood a state slave who held over his head a golden wreath adorned with precious stones. The consul was wearing a purple cloak woven with golden palm leaves. In one hand he held an ivory staff adorned with a golden eagle, and in the other a laurel branch. The triumphant's face was painted bright red. The ancients said that this was done so that it would not be visible how the paint of joy came out from the honors shown to him. The slave holding the wreath from time to time shouted out to the victor: “Don't be proud! Remember that you are only human! A bell and a whip were tied to the chariot, which were supposed to remind the victor that fate is changeable and, despite today's honors, in the future he may be subjected to the most severe punishments (a bell in Rome was hung around the neck of those condemned to death). Despite these gloomy reminders, the commander's face showed undisguised pride.
It is strange that the soldiers do not sing songs glorifying the commander, - a man in the rough, unpainted toga of a commoner was saying in the crowd.
Still, - a neighbor in a short military cloak answered him, - there is hardly another commander whom the soldiers would hate so much. For the sake of today's triumph, each ordinary soldier was given a hundred denarii. The victor would give them three times as much if they agreed to glorify him, but they did not even want to participate in his triumph at first.
How could it happen that the soldiers were against participation in such an honorary procession for them? - surprised a man in a dark toga, probably a visiting peasant, unfamiliar with the latest city news.
You know that the right to celebrate a triumph is granted to the victorious commander by the Senate, - the man in the military cloak, obviously a former warrior, began his explanation. - The one who received this high distinction until the end of his days bears the honorary title of emperor. That is why the decision of the senate must be approved by the people's assembly. So that the commander, using his military power, could not influence the decision of the people's assembly through the soldiers subordinate to him, he must disband his army and himself, until the issue of triumph is resolved, be outside the city. The soldiers of Aemilius Paul were also dismissed to their homes and received the right to participate in the people's assembly. The aristocrats thought that the decision of the senate to triumph, as always, would easily be approved by the people. But when the people's tribunes submitted a proposal to approve the resolution of the Senate, we decided to show the aristocrats that victory was not only the work of the commander. After all, battles are won with our swords, and only warriors should decide whether the commander is worthy of honors. Let him not expect our favor if he has not earned it.
Why is Aemilius Paul bad? Rome has not yet seen such a rich booty from the very foundation of the city, - said the surprised peasant.
But we got nothing from this booty, we who conquered it with our blood! the warrior shouted in anger. “Take the case of Epirus, for example. 70 cities were destroyed, 150 thousand people were sold into slavery, and we, the soldiers, got such an insignificant reward, as if we were not the ones who fought the war.
But that's not even the point," he continued gloomily. - None of the Roman generals mocked the soldiers like that. He even took away the shields from the soldiers on guard duty. How many warriors died because they were forced to fight without shields!
Well, of course, it was very convenient for your sentries to doze off at the post, leaning on shields. Pavel did the right thing by taking them away, - some aristocrat in a white toga made of thin wool, who was attentively listening to the whole conversation, chuckled.
And what happened in Amphipolis? - not answering him, the warrior continued to be indignant. - Our military tribune allowed the removal of tiles from city buildings in order to cover the winter quarters for the troops. Aemilius Pavel ordered the tiles to be taken to their place.
You forgot what kind of commander this is! said the aristocrat. - He himself led the legions against the Macedonian phalanx. How wisely he did the night before the fight, keeping you out of the fight and leaving the Macedonians to attack first. He knew that, advancing over uneven terrain, the phalanx would upset its indestructible ranks and be defeated. Remember that on his behalf you were informed on the eve of the battle about the upcoming eclipse of the moon. How calm were you, warned of this by a prudent leader, and how terrified the eclipse plunged the Macedonians! The commander who managed to conquer the great Macedonian kingdom for Rome and who leads the king himself, the heir of Alexander the Great, in his triumphal procession, is worthy of all honors. It is right that the Senate nevertheless forced the people's assembly to approve this triumph. Shame would have fallen on the entire Roman people if, for the sake of the self-will and selfishness of the soldiers, the great commander would have been deprived of a well-deserved reward.
The peasant and the warrior listened incredulously to the words of the aristocrat.
The victor's chariot disappeared behind the triumphal arch. The crowd slowly followed. The aristocrat, without saying goodbye, turned aside, and the warrior continued to say to the peasant:
Why, do you think, did this Aemilius Paul hand over all the booty to the state treasury? After all, this treasury is managed by the senate, the same aristocrats. That is why they fought for the triumph of Emilius Paul, to once again show that the opinion of the people, ordinary soldiers, means little in our state.