Head of the Prussian government
Bismarck was not an ambassador in Paris for long, he was soon recalled due to an acute government crisis in Prussia. In September 1862, Otto von Bismarck took over as head of government, and a little later became minister-president and head of the Prussian Foreign Ministry. As a result, Bismarck was the permanent head of the Prussian government for eight years. All this time, he carried out a program that he formulated in the 1850s and finally determined in the early 1860s.
Bismarck told the liberal-dominated parliament that the government would collect taxes on the basis of the old budget, since the parliamentarians, due to internal conflicts, could not pass the budget. Bismarck pursued this policy in 1863-1866, which allowed him to carry out military reform, which seriously increased the combat effectiveness of the Prussian army. It was conceived by Regent Wilhelm, who was dissatisfied with the existence of the Landwehr - territorial troops, which in the past played an important role in the fight against Napoleon's army and were the backbone of the liberal public. At the suggestion of Minister of War Albrecht von Roon (it was under his patronage that Otto von Bismarck was appointed Minister-President of Prussia), it was decided to increase the size of the regular army, introduce a 3-year active service in the army and a 4-year one in the cavalry, and take measures to accelerate mobilization measures And so on. However, these activities required a lot of money, it was necessary to increase the military budget by a quarter. This met with resistance from the liberal government, parliament and the public. Bismarck, on the other hand, formed his cabinet of conservative ministers, and exploited the “hole in the constitution”, which did not determine the mechanism of the government's action during the constitutional crisis. By forcing Parliament into submission, Bismarck also restricted the press and took steps to reduce the opposition's options.
In a speech before the Budget Committee of the Parliament, Bismarck uttered the famous words that went down in history: “Prussia must gather its forces and keep them until the favorable moment, which has already been missed several times. The borders of Prussia, in accordance with the Vienna agreements, do not favor the normal life of the state; not by the speeches and decisions of the majority, the important issues of the present are resolved - this was a major mistake in 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood. Bismarck consistently carried out this program - "with iron and blood" in the matter of uniting the German lands.
Bismarck's foreign policy was highly successful. The support of Russia during the Polish uprising of 1863 caused great criticism of the liberals. Russian Foreign Minister Prince A. M. Gorchakov and Adjutant General of the Prussian King Gustav von Alvensleben signed a convention in St. army - on the territory of Russia.
Victory over Denmark and Austria
In 1864, Prussia defeated Denmark. The war was caused by the problem of the status of the Duchy of Schleswig and Holstein - the southern provinces of Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were in a personal union with Denmark. At the same time, ethnic Germans predominated in the population of the regions. Prussia was already at war with Denmark for the duchies in 1848-1850, but then retreated under pressure from the great powers - England, Russia and France, which guaranteed the immunity of the Danish monarchy. The reason for the new war was the childlessness of the Danish king Frederick VII. In Denmark, inheritance through the female line was allowed, and Prince Christian of Glücksburg was recognized as the successor to Frederick VII. However, in Germany they inherited only through the male line, and Duke Friedrich of Augustenburg became the pretender to the throne of the two duchies. In 1863, a new constitution was adopted in Denmark, which established the unity of Denmark and Schleswig. Then Prussia and Austria stood up for the interests of Germany.
The forces of the two powerful powers and small Denmark were incomparable, and she was defeated. The great powers this time did not show much interest in Denmark. As a result, Denmark renounced its rights to Lauenburg, Schleswig and Holstein. Lauenburg became the property of Prussia for monetary compensation. The duchies were declared joint possessions of Prussia and Austria (Gastein Convention). Berlin ruled Schleswig and Vienna ruled Holstein. This was an important step towards the unification of Germany.
The next step towards the unification of Germany under Prussian rule was the Austro-Prussian-Italian War (or German War) of 1866. Bismarck had originally planned to use the intricacies of managing Schleswig and Holstein to conflict with Austria. Holstein, which came "under the control" of Austria, was separated from the Austrian Empire by a number of German states and the territory of Prussia. Vienna offered both duchies to Berlin in exchange for the most modest territory on the Prussian-Austrian border from Prussia. Bismarck refused. Then Bismarck accused Austria of violating the terms of the Gastein Convention (the Austrians did not stop the anti-Prussian agitation in Holstein). Vienna raised this issue before the Federal Sejm. Bismarck warned that this was only a matter for Prussia and Austria. However, the Sejm continued the discussion. Then on April 8, 1866, Bismarck annulled the convention and proposed to reform the German Confederation, excluding Austria from it. On the same day, a Prussian-Italian alliance was concluded against the Austrian Empire.
Bismarck paid great attention to the situation in Germany. He put forward a program for the creation of the North German Union with the creation of a single parliament (based on universal secret male suffrage), a single armed forces under the leadership of Prussia. In general, the program seriously limited the sovereignty of individual German states in favor of Prussia. It is clear that most of the German states opposed this plan. The Sejm rejected Bismarck's proposals. On June 14, 1866, Bismarck declared the Sejm "null and void". 13 German states, including Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Württemberg, opposed Prussia. However, Prussia was the first to mobilize, and already on June 7, the Prussians began to push the Austrians out of Holstein. The Diet of the German Confederation decided to mobilize four corps - the contingent of the German Confederation, which was accepted by Prussia as a declaration of war. Of the states of the German Union, only Saxony managed to mobilize its corps on time.
On June 15, hostilities began between the mobilized Prussian army and the non-mobilized allies of Austria. On June 16, the Prussians proceeded to occupy Hanover, Saxony and Hesse. On June 17, Austria declared war on Prussia in order to benefit Bismarck, who tried to create the most favorable political environment. Now Prussia did not look like an aggressor. On June 20, Italy entered the war. Austria was forced to wage war on two fronts, which further worsened her position.
Bismarck managed to neutralize two main external dangers - from Russia and France. Most of all, Bismarck was afraid of Russia, which could stop the war with one expression of discontent. However, the irritation with Austria, which dominated in St. Petersburg, played into the hands of Bismarck. Alexander II remembered the behavior of Franz Joseph during the Crimean War and the rude insult inflicted by Bouol on Russia at the Paris Congress. In Russia, they looked at this as a betrayal of Austria and did not forget it. Alexander decided not to interfere with Prussia, to settle accounts with Austria. In addition, Alexander II highly appreciated the "service" rendered by Prussia in 1863 during the Polish uprising. True, Gorchakov did not want to yield to Bismarck so easily. But in the end, the king's opinion prevailed.
With France, the situation was more complicated. The regime of Napoleon III, protecting its power, was guided by foreign policy adventures that were supposed to distract the people from internal problems. Among these "small and victorious wars" were the Eastern (Crimean) War, which led to heavy losses of the French army and did not bring any benefits to the French people. In addition, Bismarck's plans to unite Germany around Prussia were a real threat to France. Paris benefited from a weak and fragmented Germany, where small states were involved in the orbit of the policies of the three great powers - Austria, Prussia and France. To prevent the strengthening of Prussia, the defeat of Austria and the unification of Germany around the Prussian kingdom was a necessity for Napoleon III, which was determined by the tasks of national security.
To solve the problem of France, Bismarck visited the court of Napoleon III in 1865 and offered the emperor a deal. Bismarck made it clear to Napoleon that Prussia, in exchange for the neutrality of France, would not protest against the incorporation of Luxembourg into the French Empire. This was not enough for Napoleon. Napoleon III clearly alluded to Belgium. However, such a concession threatened Prussia with serious troubles in the future. On the other hand, a direct refusal threatened war with Austria and France. Bismarck answered neither yes nor no, and Napoleon did not raise the subject again. Bismarck realized that Napoleon III had decided to remain neutral at the start of the war. The clash of two first-class European powers, in the opinion of the French emperor, was to lead to a protracted and bloody war that would weaken both Prussia and Austria. In the "blitzkrieg" in Paris did not believe. As a result, France could get all the fruits of the war. Her fresh army, perhaps even without any struggle, could get Luxembourg, and Belgium, and the Rhine lands.
Bismarck realized that this was Prussia's chance. At the start of the war, France will be neutral, the French will be waiting. Thus, a quick war could radically change the situation in favor of Prussia. The Prussian army will quickly defeat Austria, suffer no serious losses, and reach the Rhine before the French can put the army on alert and take retaliatory steps.
Bismarck understood that in order for the Austrian campaign to turn out to be lightning fast, it was necessary to solve three problems. Firstly, it was necessary to mobilize the army before the opponents, which was done. Secondly, to force Austria to fight on two fronts, to disperse her forces. Thirdly, after the very first victories, to set the minimum, most unburdensome requirements for Vienna. Bismarck was ready to limit himself to the exclusion of Austria from the German Confederation, without making any territorial or other demands. He did not want to humiliate Austria, turning it into an implacable enemy who would fight to the last (in this case, the possibility of intervention by France and Russia increased dramatically). Austria should not have interfered with the transformation of the impotent German Confederation into a new union of German states under the leadership of Prussia. Bismarck saw Austria as an ally in the future. In addition, Bismarck feared that a heavy defeat could lead to collapse and revolution in Austria. Bismarck did not want this.
Bismarck was able to ensure that Austria fought on two fronts. The newly created Italian kingdom wanted to get Venice, the Venetian region, Trieste and Trento, which belonged to Austria. Bismarck made an alliance with Italy so that the Austrian army would have to fight on two fronts: in the north against the Prussians, in the south against the Italians storming Venice. True, the Italian monarch Victor Emmanuel II hesitated, realizing that the Italian troops were weak to resist the Austrian Empire. Indeed, during the war itself, the Austrians inflicted a heavy defeat on the Italians. However, the main theater of operations was in the north.
The Italian king and his entourage were interested in a war with Austria, but they wanted guarantees. Bismarck gave them. He promised Victor Emmanuel II that Venice would be given to Italy in the general world in any case, regardless of the situation in the southern theater of operations. Victor Emmanuel still hesitated. Then Bismarck took a non-standard step - blackmail. He promised that he would turn to the Italian people over the head of the monarch and call for help from popular Italian revolutionaries, folk heroes - Mazzini and Garibaldi. Then the Italian monarch made up his mind, and Italy became such an ally that Prussia needed in the war with Austria.
I must say that the French emperor unraveled the Italian map of Bismarck. His agents vigilantly watched all the diplomatic preparations and intrigues of the Prussian minister. Realizing that Bismarck and Victor Emmanuel conspired, Napoleon III immediately informed the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph about this. He warned him of the danger of a war on two fronts and offered to prevent a war with Italy by voluntarily ceding Venice to her. The plan was reasonable and could deal a serious blow to the plans of Otto von Bismarck. However, the Austrian emperor and the Austrian elite did not have enough insight and willpower to take this step. The Austrian Empire refused to voluntarily cede Venice.
Napoleon III again nearly thwarted Bismarck's plans when he decisively announced to Italy that he did not want a Prussian-Italian alliance directed against Austria. Victor Emmanuel could not disobey the French emperor. Then Bismarck again visited France. He argued that Vienna, refusing, at the suggestion of Paris, to cede Venice to Italy, proves its arrogance. Bismarck inspired Napoleon that the war would be hard and protracted, that Austria would leave only a small barrier against Italy, moving all the main forces against Prussia. Bismarck spoke of his "dream" of linking Prussia and France with "friendship". In fact, Bismarck inspired the French emperor with the idea that Italy's performance in the south against Austria would not help Prussia much, and the war would still be hard and stubborn, giving France the opportunity to be in the camp of winners. As a result, French Emperor Napoleon III lifted his ban on Italy. Otto von Bismarck won a major diplomatic victory. On April 8, 1866, Prussia and Italy entered into an alliance. At the same time, the Italians still negotiated 120 million francs from Bismarck.
Blitzkrieg
The start of the war on the southern front was unsuccessful for Bismarck. A large Italian army was defeated by the outnumbered Austrians at the Battle of Custotz (June 24, 1866). At sea, the Austrian fleet defeated the Italian fleet at the Battle of Lissa (July 20, 1866). It was the first naval battle of armored squadrons in history.
However, the outcome of the war was determined by the clash between Austria and Prussia. The defeat of the Italian army threatened the failure of all Bismarck's hopes. The talented strategist General Helmut von Moltke, who led the Prussian army, saved the situation. The Austrians were late in deploying the army. Maneuvering quickly and skillfully, Moltke was ahead of the enemy. On June 27-29, at Langensaltz, the Prussians defeated Austria's allies - the Hanoverian army. On July 3, a decisive battle took place in the Sadov-Königgrets area (Battle of Sadov). Significant forces took part in the battle - 220 thousand Prussians, 215 thousand Austrians and Saxons. The Austrian army under Benedek suffered a heavy defeat, losing about 44 thousand people (the Prussians lost about 9 thousand people).
Benedek withdrew his remaining troops to Olmutz, covering the path to Hungary. Vienna was left without proper protection. The Prussians were able, with some losses, to take the Austrian capital. The Austrian command was forced to begin the transfer of troops from the Italian direction. This allowed the Italian army to launch a counteroffensive in the Venetian region and Tyrol.
The Prussian king Wilhelm and the generals, intoxicated by a brilliant victory, demanded a further offensive and the capture of Vienna, which was supposed to bring Austria to its knees. They longed for a triumphal parade in Vienna. However, Bismarck opposed almost all. He had to endure a fierce verbal battle at the royal headquarters. Bismarck understood that Austria still had the ability to resist. Cornered and humiliated, Austria will fight to the end. And the prolongation of the war threatens with major troubles, in particular, from France. In addition, the crushing defeat of the Austrian Empire did not suit Bismarck. It could lead to the development of destructive tendencies in Austria and make her an enemy of Prussia for a long time. Bismarck needed neutrality in the future conflict between Prussia and France, which he already saw in the near future.
Bismarck saw in the Austrian proposal for a truce a chance to achieve the goals he had set. To break the resistance of the king, Bismarck threatened to resign and said that he would not be responsible for the disastrous path in which Wilhelm was being taken by the military. As a result, after several scandals, the king conceded.
Italy was also unhappy, wanting to continue the war and capture Trieste and Trento. Bismarck told the Italians that no one was stopping them from continuing to fight the Austrians one-on-one. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he would be defeated alone, agreed only to Venice. Franz Joseph, fearing the fall of Hungary, also did not persist. On July 22, an armistice began; on July 26, a preliminary peace was signed in Nikolsburg. August 23 in Prague signed a peace treaty.
From top to bottom: the status quo before the war, hostilities and the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Thus, Prussia achieved victory in the lightning campaign (Seven Weeks War). The Austrian Empire retained its integrity. Austria recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation and refused to interfere in German affairs. Austria recognized the new alliance of German states led by Prussia. Bismarck was able to create a North German Confederation led by Prussia. Vienna renounced in favor of Berlin all rights to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia also annexed Hanover, the electors of Hesse, Nassau and the ancient city of Frankfurt am Main. Austria paid Prussia an indemnity of 20 million Prussian thalers. Vienna recognized the transfer of the Venetian region to Italy.
One of the most important consequences of Prussia's victory over Austria was the formation of the North German Confederation, which included more than 20 states and cities. All of them, according to the constitution of 1867, created a single territory with common laws and institutions (the Reichstag, the Federal Council, the State Supreme Commercial Court). The foreign and military policy of the North German Confederation was, in fact, transferred to Berlin. The Prussian king became president of the union. The Federal Chancellor appointed by the King of Prussia was in charge of the external and internal affairs of the union. Military alliances and customs treaties were concluded with the South German states. This was a big step towards the unification of Germany. It remains only to defeat France, which prevented the unification of Germany.
O. Bismarck and the Prussian liberals in the caricature of Wilhelm von Scholz
To be continued…
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