The classification is based on the sounds of the Russian language (in the table they are highlighted in bold). Sounds characteristic of other languages are given as examples of possible types of sounds unknown in Russian. Labialized other front-row vowels of German and French are conveyed by signs й (German uber - over, over, Backer - books; French la rue - street, tu - you), o (German offnen - open, French rhei - little). The sign ь conveys a weakened vowel, indefinite in tone, found in unstressed syllables (cf .: unstressed vowels in Russian words city, choice; English along [e "1et,] - along, above (a "bAvJ - over, above, butter ["lge] - oil, etc.). The sign l is a back-row non-labialized vowel characteristic of the English language, as in the words sote [klt] - come, tun - barrel. A similar sound occurs in the first pre-stressed syllable in Russian (Er. pre-tap vowel in the words firewood (drlva] and grass (trlva) The sign ae conveys a sound that is middle between | e] and (a), as in English words: back [bzhk] - back, cap [keer] - cap; sign e - wide open (o), characteristic "for the English language (op. dog - dog, ox - bull, song] - song).
This division is very approximate, since it does not cover all sounds and does not take into account the complexity of vowels. Its main drawback is the establishment of too sharp boundaries between individual types of vowels, which in reality is not. Therefore, such a table can only be accepted for ". the initial stage of language learning.
At the initial stages of language learning, simplified schemes are used, built in relation to the sounds of one language. For example, in relation to the sounds of the Russian language, a scheme in the form of a triangle is often used, arranging signs for sounds so that they simultaneously indicate movement along the row (in the horizontal direction) and along the rise (in the vertical direction)
Such a scheme is very convenient in practice. In addition, it can be complicated by the inclusion of a significant number of different intermediate types of sounds. L. V. Shcherba, for example, establishes not three, but six steps of raising vowels. The vowels labialized and non-labialized are given side by side in this scheme. Vowels that are higher in rise are also more closed, on the contrary, vowels that are lower in rise are more open vowels.
The highest and at the same time the most forward sounds are unrounded [i] and rounded (labialized) (Y]. Both "sounds are known, for example, in German and French (cf .: German Tier - beast and Tyg - door; French tige - stem and tu (ty: ] - you. The vowels П] [V] are already more receded and less high. I - conveys an open short sound characteristic of many languages (cf. sound [Ц in German dick is fat, English city (- city), and its rounded variant [v] is known in German (for example, fiinf - five).
The signs e and -e convey closed (for example, in the German word Meer [te: r] - sea) and open (for example, in German denn - since) a variant of unrounded vowels, and 0 and se are respectively rounded options (cf. .: French Yei [Y0] - blue and soeur - sister) vowels of medium rise. The lower front vowels (for example, the English sound in the word cat - cat) and (a] (for example, the French masse - mass) do not have corresponding rounded paired sounds. The Russian stressed [a] is somewhat drawn back, so it is usually counted -melt with a middle vowel.
Among the back vowels, labials are more widely represented. The highest rise is the vowel [and], which is distinguished by a wide variety of shades in different languages. In Italian, this is a more closed sound than in Russian; in English and German the sound [and] is moved forward. The close vowel [v] is more open (cf. German: Bube (bu:be] - boy and gesund - healthy). Non-labial high back vowels are very rare.
The vowels [o] (“o” closed) and [e] (“o” open) are presented in different versions in many languages (for example, the German Sohn - syin and Stock - stick). The vowel [e] corresponds to the non-labialized vowel [l] (cf. English dog - dog and sir [kar] - cup).
Among back-row vowels with a low rise, there is a labial vowel v of the very open “o” type (cf. English all [o: 1] - all) and a non-labial very back sound [a], found in French and English (cf. English bark - bark, part - part, etc.).
Examples of mixed vowels are the Russian high-rise sound [s] and the mid-rise vowel, typical, for example, for English: girl - girl, color [kl1e] - color,
The above facts convincingly show the diversity of the vowel system in different languages, its complexity.
Recently, the International Phonetic Association (IPA) has proposed a new classification of vowels, presented in the form of a trapezoid with 6 degrees of elevation for front and 5 for back vowels.
From an acoustic point of view, vowels differ in the degree of sonority (sonority) and the height of the resonant (and not the main, which can be the same in height for a number of vowels) tone. For the Russian language, these differences can be presented in the form of the following table.
Table 3
Acoustic signs of vowels
| Pitch | |||
| Degree of sonority | average | short | |
| tall | |||
| and | s | At | |
| Average. ....... | uh | a | about |
As you can see, the division according to the pitch coincides with the vowel series, and according to the degree of sonority - with the rise. But even here the most general types are indicated, between which there are many transitions. In some languages, for example, in Adyghe, differences in sonority of “vowels form the basis of their vocalism, i.e., the vowel system (from Latin vocalis - voice).
Acoustically, vowels can also be clear (without nasal overtones) and nasalized (nasal), pronounced with the participation of the nasal cavity (see § 10).
Important from an acoustic point of view is the distinction of vowels by their duration (see § 9). In some languages, the longitude or brevity of a sound depends on a number of phonetic reasons: on the position in the syllable, the influence of neighboring sounds, stress, etc. In this case, longitude or brevity is not a constant feature inherent in these sounds, since one and the same sound can be either long or short. Such a situation, for example, in the Russian language (cf .: mama! and ma: ma!). A different position in languages, where long and short vowels are opposed to each other, can be used to distinguish between words (cf .: English rich - rich and reach - reach, sit - sit and seat - place, etc.). In some languages, there are not two, but three degrees of opposition of vowels in duration. Thus, in Estonian, short vowels are distinguished (for example, sada - one hundred, puri - sail), long (cf.: saada - came, puuri - cells) and extra-long (saada - receive, puuri - in a cage).
The amount of a vowel is usually associated with some other of its features. For example, in German, long vowels are usually closed, while short vowels are usually open (see examples above).
The distinction in longitude in some languages, for example, Estonian, may also be characteristic of consonants, which again shows the relativity of the opposition of vowels and consonants.
An essential additional sign of vowels is tension - non-tension. With tense muscles of the speech organs, the walls of the supraglottic cavities become hard, then the sounds acquire a clear, clear character. In the absence of such tension, vowels are more sluggish. The degree of tension of vowels in languages is different. In Russian, vowels are less tense than, for example, in French, whose vocalism is characterized by greater clarity. But even within the same language, the intensity of sounds is different. Stressed vowels in Russian are more tense than unstressed ones. There is also a difference in the pronunciation of high vowels, when the muscles of the speech organs are more tense, and in the middle and lower ones, when the tension is less, which leads to a weakening of clear acoustic signs in the vowel due to the damping of the resonator tones. High vowels are always more stable, while middle and low vowels are more easily weakened and reduced (see § 17).
Very important for the classification of vowels is their division into monophthongs and diphthongs.
Most of the sounds are monophthongs (from the Greek words monos - one, single and phtongos - sound), i.e. monotonous, integral in composition, but along with them there are sounds that are a combination of two sounds pronounced together and necessarily in one syllable. Such sounds are called two-vowels, or diphthongs (from the Greek 1 di - twice). Diphthongs are known in many languages. The sound system of the English language is very rich in diphthongs, where there are diphthongs (time - time), - table), (e1] (boy - boy), (go - 1 go), (down - down), [Щ (here [Ye] - here) J [ee] (chair ftj "es] - chair), (poor [rie] - poor) J In English, diphthongs can, when combined with a neutral vowel, give even more complex combinations of the three main ones pronounced in one syllable , for example: our [aie] - our, flower [Noie] - flower, fire - fire. There are three diphthongs in German: (ae] [ao], [o2)] (cf .: mein - my Mai - May, Haus - house, Auge - plaza, heute - today and deutsch - German) There are no diphthongs in Russian and French.
It is customary to call diphthongs true if both sounds are equivalent (for example, in Latvian: tauta - naroya rneita - daughter), and false if the sounds are not equivalent. These are the diphthongs in English and German (cf .: English boy - boys and down - down; German mein - mine, kaufen - buy AND Diphthongs, in which the second sound is syllabic, and p (H out is non-syllabic, are called ascending. Such diphthongs exists in Spanish (duelo - mourning, sadness; puerta - door, thieves cuarto - fourth), Romanian and other languages. In some languages, both types of diphthongs are possible. Thus, Lithuanian diphthongs can be pronounced with a descending intonation (kaimas - trees, kaina - price , sdule - sun, viidas - face, juodas - black) and ascending (vaikas - child, laukas - field, muilas - soap, ruduo - autumn, etc.).
Some researchers distinguish diphthongoids as a special category of vowels, that is, sounds similar to diphthongs. This is the name of sounds that are heterogeneous throughout their pronunciation. For example, Russian [o] begins with a small element [y], and then gradually moves to [o], the sound [e] sometimes begins with an element close to [\], etc.
Recently, the opposition of sounds on the basis of diffuseness - compactness has become relatively widely used. Sounds are called compact in whose spectra the distance between the first and second formants (see § 9) is insignificant, i.e., the amplification bands of frequencies characteristic of sounds are close together. Examples can be Russian vowels (a], [o]. With diffuse sounds, the distance between two bands of typical frequencies, i.e. two formants, is significant. Such are Russian vowels [i], (y). Acoustic differences between compact and diffuse sounds from - are clearly visible on the spectrograms (cf. § 25) of these sounds (Fig. 9). The distinction between compact and diffuse sounds is associated with the different shape of the oral and pharyngeal resonators.
Rice. 9. Spectrograms of vowels [a] - the first and [i] - the second.
The division into compact and diffuse can also be extended to consonants (compact sounds are [w], [h '], [g], [p], [p '], [j], etc. Diffuse: [n ], [p'], [b], [c'], [f], [f'], [c], etc. Which again emphasizes the conventionality of opposing vowels and consonants. M. V. Panov made an interesting attempt to build a unified classification for vowels and consonants based on acoustic features.
§ fourteen. Phonetic articulation of speech
Until now, individual sounds have been considered in their isolated pronunciation, but in the speech stream there is no such isolation and cannot be. As recent studies have shown, in the flow of speech there is a division not into individual sounds, but into syllables. A syllable can consist of one sound, but more often a syllable includes several sounds (cf. -su], (pa-stukh], [ka-n "u]). The fact that the syllable is the smallest pronunciation unit is recognized by everyone, but significant differences are observed when defining the syllable and establishing the principles for its selection. The old point of view into a syllable, as a sound combination pronounced with one expiratory push, has been refuted by the latest research 2; its inconsistency can be considered proven.< хода (к пониманию слога. Одни исследователи исходят из акустической природы слога, другие при определении слога] и его выделении опираются на особенности артикуляции J Первая точка зрения наиболее отчетливо была представлена в работах датского языковеда Есперсена, который считали что слог — это сочетание более звучного элемента с менее звучным. Более звучный элемент становится слоговым, он выступает как слогообразующий звук, менее звучный является неслоговым и примыкает к более звучному. Наиболее звучными оказываются гласные, поэтому они и выступаю! в роли слогообразующих звуков (ср.: кни-га, и-ди, ро-лш и т. п.), но если в слоге нет гласного, слогообразующим становится согласный, опять-таки самый звучный, например, в чешском языке <в односложных словах krb (очаг, каминЯ krk (шея), prst (палец) и т. п. слоговым будет согласный [? в русских сочетаниях тс, тш (призыв к тишине) слоговые являются звуки fie] и [ш], которые все же более звучны, чЩ глухой смычный [т]. Граница слога при таком понимании проходит в месте наибольшего ослабления звучности, т, е. после гласного перед согласным (ср.: при-шли, па-стух и т. п.).
The acoustic approach to the syllable is also shared by many Soviet researchers. So, N. I. Zhinkin believes that "acoustically, a syllable is nothing more than a continuous increase and decrease in the intensity of sound, perceived by the ear as an arc of loudness."
Another approach to the syllable is presented in the works of L. V. Shcherba. L. V. Shcherba believes that the basis of syllable division is the increase and weakening of muscle tension. The integrity of the syllable is determined by the fact that it is pronounced with one impulse of muscular tension. The boundaries of the syllable coincide with the greatest weakening of muscle tension, i.e., this is the border between two impulses of muscle tension. Almost both approaches coincide, since the peak of muscle tension is usually associated with the most sonorous (sonorous) sound.
Syllables can have different structures. So, according to the location of syllabic and non-syllabic sounds, it is customary to distinguish several types of syllables. A syllable is called uncovered if sh begins with a syllabic sound, and covered if it begins with a non-syllabic sound, for example, in the word o-sa, the first syllable o is uncovered, and the second sa is covered. A syllable ending with a syllabic sound is called open, and on a non-syllabic one it is called closed, for example, in the word do-mov (the first syllable is open, and the second is closed.
If the syllabic sound is denoted by the letter a, and the non-syllabic letter /, then the following possible types of syllables can be schematically represented:
a - uncovered, open;
ta - covered, open;
at - uncovered, closed;
tat - covered, closed.
It should be noted that there can be several non-syllable elements. In the examples above (book-ga, i-di, pa-stukh, he, ro-li, Czech krk) there is an open, open syllable (and in i-di); covered open syllables (books, di in i-di, pa in pa-stukh, ro-li); naked closed (he); covered, closed (-stukh in past-stukh, Czech krk).
Each language has its own predominant type of syllables, which is associated with the peculiarities of syllable division in different languages. The Russian language is characterized by the predominance of open syllables. This is due to the fact that in Russian the syllable division (syllable boundary) usually passes after the sound with the greatest sonority. This feature of the structure of the Russian syllable is called the law of increasing sonority. Therefore, for the Russian language, the division into syllables is typical for selection, viewing, to-chka, a-kter, and so on, and not selection, viewing-view, point-ka, actor-ter. In Russian, the syllable boundary rarely passes between consonants. In modern French, on the contrary, the syllable boundary often runs between consonant combinations (cf .: ac-teur, dis-irait - scattered, absent - absent, ad-ver-saire - adversary, etc.).
Observing the sounding speech, we single out larger phonetic units in it - measures.
A group of syllables united by one stress and separated from another group by a pause is called a measure. Sometimes a measure may include only one syllable. Independent words usually have their own stress, functional words are often unstressed and adjoin the stressed ones, but sometimes the stress is transferred to the functional word, and the significant word turns out to be unstressed. If an unstressed word is one hundred before the stressed one, then it is called a proclitic, and if after the stressed word, then it is called an enclitic. For example, in the sentence Day for day does not fall, the first measure consists of one syllable, the second - of two, and the third - of five. In the second bar, the emphasis shifted to the preposition and the word day in hundred enclitic. In the sentence В sheaves / they will tie up / they will bring them to the rig, the preposition na is a proclitic.
As you can see, the boundaries of the word and measure may not coincide. Many researchers do not consider it necessary to distinguish a speech beat and talk about a phonetic word, s “big word” (A. N. Gvozdev), and the term “speech beat” itself is used with the meaning: “a segment of speech between two pauses”.
Not all linguists have accepted the concept of syntagma as a unit of phonetic articulation of speech, most substantiated by L. V. Shcherba, who understood by syntagma an intonationally indivisible unit of speech flow (there cannot be pauses inside a syntagma), associated with the syntactic and semantic side of speech. For example, in the sentence In the middle of a dense forest / on a narrow lawn / a small earthen fortification stood out 3 syntagmas. Research on speech formation, conducted at the Institute of Physiology named after I.P. Pavlov, confirmed the legitimacy of isolating the syntagma as a special articulatory unit associated with the meaning, content of speech. The integrity of the syntagma is created by means of intonation (see § 15).
Some scientists put forward the concept of a phrase as the largest phonetic unit, representing a phonetically integral part of a sentence or covering several sentences. However, there is no generally accepted exact definition of the concept of a phonetic phrase in science.
Phonetics.Basic concepts.Sound system.Syllable.Syllabic division
Phonetics - (Greek background - sound) - the doctrine of the sound system of a language, a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of a language (sounds, stress, intonation). A special section of phonetics - orthoepy describes a set of norms of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy occupies a special place among linguistic disciplines. It studies those units of language that do not matter, but they determine the existence of meaningful units of language.
Thus, morphology, syntax, lexicology study linguistic units that have lexical meaning. Phonetics studies linguistic units that do not have a lexical meaning, but serve to distinguish between units of grammar and vocabulary. At the same time, some linguistic phenomena are on the border of phonetics and grammar, since it is impossible to correctly determine the basis of a word without knowing phonetic laws.
Depending on the objectives of the study, phonetics is distinguished:
Private and general;
descriptive and historical;
Comparative;
Experimental;
Sociophonetics.
Private phonetics deals with the study of the sound system of a particular language, general studies general patterns. Descriptive studies the phonetic system of a language in a certain period of its development. Historical studies the changes that have taken place in the sound system of the language throughout its history. Comparative studies the phonetic structure of several languages. Sociophonetics studies the peculiarities of the pronunciation of certain groups of the population. Experimental learns language through experimentation.
Speech is a stream of sounds and seems to be continuous. The stream can be divided into separate parts. Membership may be different. If this division is based on grammatical arrangement, then we are talking about division into sentences, words and morphemes. During phonetic division, units are distinguished: text, phrase, speech tact or syntagma, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
The text is only the initial value of the phonetic articulation of speech, because speech is not phonetic, but communicative in nature. The text also has phonetic characteristics: limitation by pauses. Pause at the beginning and end of the text. Phrases are distinguished from the text by intonation. A phrase is a piece of text that has a logical stress (|| - pause). A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a grammatical one. A complex sentence has one phonetic phrase.
Phrases are divided into speech measures or syntagmas. Syntagmas stand out intonationally, but at the border of the syntagma, an unfinished intonation is heard.
On the coast of desert waves || he stood || doom of the great hill
The division of the speech stream into syntagmas is always conditioned by the meaning, so options are possible.
We must learn to work and rest.
The phonetic word is characterized by stress. Phonetic stress is a complex of sounds or a segment of a sound chain. There may be no pauses between words. In this case, the phonetic word can correspond to the first lexical word or several words.
On the same night || wide boat || left the hotel.
3 speech measures, 2 phonetic words in each.
A syllable is a push of speech exhalation. Sound is the smallest element of speech flow.
Classification of vowels and consonants
From an acoustic point of view, sound is vibrations of air particles. The source is the vibration of sound cords. From the point of view of articulation, vowels and consonants are distinguished.
Articulation is a set of actions of the organs of pronunciation at the moment of sound. The main difference is the following. Consonants - when formed, air overcomes the barrier, so vowels are characterized by the flow of the voice, and consonants by the presence of voice and / or noise.
Vowels are tone sounds. Their formation involves a musical tone voice. Noise is not taken into account. The difference in vowels is determined by the different ways of the organs of speech.
In modern Russian, there are 6 vowels [a] [o] [e] [u] [s] [i].
by place of education
The difference between vowels that cause the tongue to move in a horizontal direction is taken into account:
Front vowels - when articulating, the tongue is strongly advanced forward [and] [e]
Middle vowels - the tongue is slightly pushed back [s] [a]
Back vowels [y] [o]
according to the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
High vowels [and] [s] [y]
Medium vowels [e] [o]
Low vowels [a]
High vowels will be closed or narrow compared to middle vowels, while low vowels will be open or wide. The middle vowels are closed compared to the lower ones, and open compared to the upper ones.
by participation or non-participation of lips
The presence or absence of lavalization - stretching or rounding of the lips.
Lavialized [y] [o]
Non-lavalized (all others)
The division into 3 rows and the rise does not reflect the full wealth of the SRY. In unstressed syllables ch. pronounced with varying degrees of reduction - change, reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Unstressed vowels are less pronounced. Some vowels are not distinguished.
Consonants are classified according to 4 features:
Sunny and noisy
Sanoric - consonants in the formation of which the voice and slight noise are involved [r] [n] [m] [l]
Noisy deaf - only noise [n] [f] [k] [t] [s] [w] [c] [x]
A characteristic feature of the Russian consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds that are correlated by sonority-deafness, hardness-softness. Correlation lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions they differ as two sounds, and in other conditions they are indistinguishable.
Rose - dew, once - grew.
According to the place of noise formation (labial and lingual)
labial [m] [n] [b]
labiodental [f] [c]
anterior lingual:
dental [c] [s] [l] [n] [t] [d] [c]
anterior palatine [w] [g] [p] [h]
middle language [th]
posterior lingual [k] [g]
By way of noise generation
Locking (explosive) - [p] [t] [k] [g] [d]
Precative (slotted) - [f] [c] [s] [z] [w] [g] [x]
Affricates - [c] [h] [u]
Linkage [n] [m] [l]
Trembling [r]
By the presence or absence of softening (hard and soft)
without paired soft w, c, sh
phonetic units. Sound.
1. Sound is the smallest unit of sounding speech. The word hand has 4 sounds.
3. Syllable - a segmental phonetic unit - a combination of several sounds, one of which is certainly a vowel.
open syllable- one that ends in a vowel sound: go-lo-va, ra-ma, yu-la.
Closed - at the end of a consonant sound: sleep, kar - kass, bol-tic.
Covered- begins with a consonant: SA-dy, mo-yu, i-rmar-ka.
naked- begins with a vowel: o-sen, ar-ka.
Transfer rules:
1. There are as many syllables as there are vowels.
2. The boundary between words in the middle of a word usually passes after a vowel sound: za-kon, ta-bu-re-tka.
3. If a combination of several consonants is located between the vowel sounds in a word, then the entire combination of consonants, as a rule, goes to the next syllable
There are 2 exceptions to the last rule:
1) the sonorous consonant “yot”, being in the middle of a word between a vowel and a consonant, always goes to the previous syllable: may-ka, sing-te, tai-na, catch-small;
2) the remaining 8 sonorous sounds (p, p /, l, l /, m, m /, n, n /) behave somewhat differently in this position. If they are in front of noisy consonants, they always go to the previous syllable, while the noisy sound joins the next syllable: maar-ka, gal-ka, ram-pa, and-yun-sky. If sonorous sounds are in front of some other sonorant, then the whole combination of consonants, as a general rule, goes to the next syllable: wave, ko-rma, Marya.
4. The establishment of boundaries between syllables can be affected by the allocation of significant parts of the word in the word, as a result of which variants of syllable separation appear. for example, at the junction of a prefix and a root (if the prefix ends with a consonant sound, and the root begins with it), the boundary between syllables can be drawn both according to the phonetic rules of layer separation, and taking into account the selection of the prefix and the root: break and break; say-say and tell-say.
In Russian, 42 speech sounds are distinguished, or, using another term, 42 phonemes (from the Greek word phonema, which means "sound of speech").
According to the mechanism of formation of phonemes, they are divided primarily into vowels and consonants (6 vowels and 36 consonants).
Consonants are characterized by the formation in the oral cavity of barriers to the path of exhaled air, either in the form of a closure of certain speech organs, or in the form of more or less narrow cracks and passages formed by them, or, finally, in the form of a series connection of a bow with a gap. In the formation of some consonant phonemes, these barriers are combined with phonation; in the formation of others, phonation is absent.
The articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account:
1) participation or non-participation of the lips. In the articulation of vowels about and y, in addition to the tongue, the lips take an active part, which, when pronouncing these phonemes, move forward and round. Therefore the vowels OU called labialized (from lat. labia- lips), and all other vowels - non-labialized;
2) the degree of elevation of the tongue to the palate (upper, middle and lower rise);
3) places of lifting the tongue (front, middle and back row).
There are six vowels in modern Russian: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s]. The different quality of vowels, perceived by us as different sounds, depends on the volume and shape of the oral cavity during the formation of vowels. The volume and shape of the oral cavity are determined by the movement of the tongue and lips - the active organs of pronunciation. Depending on the movement of the tongue in a horizontal direction (back and forth), vowels are divided into: 1) front vowels [i], [e] (when they are pronounced, the tongue moves forward, and its tip rests on the lower teeth); 2) vowels of the middle row [s], [a] (when they are pronounced, the tongue moves back somewhat); 3) back vowels [y], [o] (when they are pronounced, the tongue moves back to a greater extent).
Depending on the degree of elevation of the tongue to the palate, i.e., the movement of the tongue along the vertical, there are: 1) upper vowels [i], [s], [y] (when they are formed, the tongue is raised to the palate to the greatest extent); 2) vowels of the middle rise [e], [o] (when they are formed, the tongue rises less high to the palate); 3) lower vowels, to which only [a] applies (when it is formed, the tongue is not raised or raised to a minimum degree, the lower jaw is lowered and the mouth is wide open).
CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS
The articulatory classification of consonants is based on five main features:
2) method of articulation;
3) place of articulation;
4) the presence or absence of an additional rise in the back of the tongue to the hard palate;
5) the place of resonation.
According to the first sign (by the presence or absence of vibration of the vocal folds), consonants are divided into:
2) sonorous (from lat. sono- I sound), during the formation of which noise is almost not present and the tone of voice prevails: l, l", p, p", m, m", n, n", and (j),
3) deaf, in the formation of which only noise participates: p, p", t, t", k.k", f, f", s, s", x, c, h", w, w.
According to the second feature (according to the method of articulation), consonants are divided into:
1) occlusive - occlusive-explosive: b, b", n, p", d, d", t, t", d, d", k, k" and closure-through: m, m", n, n", l, l";
2) slotted (fricative): in, in", f, f", z, z", s, s", w, w, u, x, x", and (j),
3) affricates: c, h";
4) trembling: p, p".
According to the third sign (according to the place of articulation), consonants are divided into:
1) labial - labial-labial: m, m", p, p", b, b" and labio-dental: f, f", in, in".
2) lingual - lingual-dental: t, t", d, d", n, n", s, s", z, z", c; lingual-alveolar: l, l", r, r"; lingual-anteropalatal: sh, f, h, u; lingual-middle: k", g", x", "th(j); posterior lingual (posterior palate): g, k, x.
According to the fourth feature (by the presence or absence of a rise in the back of the tongue), consonants are divided into:
1) hard: hard pairs of all consonants except h, u;
2) soft: soft pairs of all consonants except w, w, c.
According to the fifth feature (according to the place of resonation), consonants are divided into:
1) nasal: m, m", n, n";
2) oral: all other consonants.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS
| Oral or nasal resonance | Place of education Way of education | |||||||||||||||||
| labial | labiodental | Lingual-dental | Lingual-alveolar | Lingual-anteropalatal | Lingual-mid palatal | Lingual-posterior palatine | ||||||||||||
| closure-slotted | ||||||||||||||||||
| Trembling | ||||||||||||||||||
| Connecting passages | ||||||||||||||||||
| Connecting passages | ||||||||||||||||||
Classifying vowels is much more difficult than consonants. This is due to the absence of a specific focus of formation in vowels (in § 11 we already spoke about the uniform tension of the organs of speech during the pronunciation of vowel sounds). From an acoustic point of view, the vowels are more clearly opposed to each other, but there are many lines of opposition, and it has not yet been possible to reduce them into a single coherent system. Therefore, in linguistics they more often use the classification of vowels based on articulatory features, but they also take into account the acoustic features of vowel sounds.
Of particular importance for the classification of vowels is the work of the tongue and lips. Changing the position of the tongue changes the shape of the resonator (see § 10), which is the source of the great variety of vowels. In the work of the language, it is important to take into account 1) the degree of its rise; 2) the place of his l oral cavity, 3) the general position of the tongue. When determining the degree of elevation of the tongue, there are upper (Fig. 8, a, b), middle ((Fig. 8, c) And lower
Fig. 8. Profiles of the position of the tongue during the pronunciation of Russian vowels: a _ [„); boo]; in - [o]; g - [a].
ny (Fig. 8, d) rise. Determining the place of the tongue in the oral cavity, they distinguish between its advancement “in front (Fig. 8, a), retraction back (Fig. 8, b, c), neutral position (Fig. 8, d). The general position of the tongue is understood as its compressed, collected position (Fig. 8, a, b) or an elongated, flat position (Fig. 8, d).
On this basis, it is customary to distinguish between front, middle, and back vowels and upper, middle, and lower vowels.
According to the work of the lips, vowels are divided into labialized, that is, those in the formation of which the lips participate, and non-labialized, pronounced without the participation of the lips, with stretched, relaxed lips. Labialized vowels are less common, but for many languages they are very characteristic (for example, for German, French). The degree of labialization is also different, in some languages it is weaker. An example would be English.
The ratio of different types of vowels is shown in Table. 2.
table 2
Classification of vowels
The classification is based on the sounds of the Russian language (in the table they are highlighted in bold). Sounds characteristic of other languages are given as examples of possible types of sounds unknown in Russian. Labialized other front-row vowels of German and French are conveyed by signs th (German uber - over, over, Backer - books; French la rue - street, tu - you), o (German offnen - open, French rei - little). The sign ь conveys a weakened vowel, indefinite in shade, found in unstressed syllables (cf .: unstressed vowels in Russian words city, choice; English along [e "1et,] - along, above (a "bAvJ - above, above, butter ["Lge] - oil, etc.). The sign l is a back-row non-labialized vowel characteristic of the English language, as in the words sote [klt] - come, tun - barrel. A similar sound occurs in the first pre-stressed syllable in Russian (Er. pre-stressed vowel in the words firewood (drlva] and grass (trlva) The ae sign conveys a sound that is intermediate between | e] and (a), as in English words: back [bzhk] - back, cap [keer] - cap; sign e - wide open (o], characteristic "for the English language (op. dog - dog, ox - bull, song] - song).
This division is very approximate, since it does not cover all sounds and does not take into account the complexity of vowels. Its main drawback is the establishment of too sharp boundaries between individual types of vowels, which in reality is not. Therefore, such a table can only be accepted for ". the initial stage of language learning.
At the initial stages of language learning, simplified schemes are used, built in relation to the sounds of one language. For example, in relation to the sounds of the Russian language, a scheme in the form of a triangle is often used, arranging signs for sounds so that they simultaneously indicate movement along the row (in the horizontal direction) and along the rise (in the vertical direction)
Such a scheme is very convenient in practice. In addition, it can be complicated by the inclusion of a significant number of different intermediate types of sounds. L. V. Shcherba, for example, establishes not three, but six steps of raising vowels. The vowels labialized and non-labialized are given side by side in this scheme. Vowels that are higher in pitch are at the same time more closed; on the contrary, vowels that are lower in pitch are more open vowels.
The highest and at the same time the most forward sounds are unrounded [i] and rounded (labialized) (Y]. Both "sounds are known, for example, in German and French (cf .: German Tier - beast and Tyg - door; French tige - stem and tu (ty: ] - you. The vowels P] [V] are already more receded and less high. I - conveys an open short sound characteristic of many languages (cf. sound [Ц in German dick - thick, English city (- city), and its rounded variant [v] is known in German (for example, fiinf -- five).
The signs e and -e convey closed (for example, in the German word Meer [te: g] - sea) and open (for example, in German denn - since) a variant of unrounded vowels, and 0 and ce-respectively rounded variants (cf .: French yei [Ы0]-blue and soeur-sister) of medium-rising vowels. The lower front vowels (for example, the English sound in the word cat - cat) and (a] (for example, the French masse - mass) do not have corresponding rounded paired sounds. Russian stressed [a] is somewhat drawn back, so it is usually considered a middle vowel.
Among the back vowels, labials are more widely represented. The highest rise is the vowel [and], which is distinguished by a wide variety of shades in different languages. In Italian, this is a more closed sound than in Russian; in English and German the sound [and] is moved forward. The vowel [v] close to it is more open (cf. German: Bube (bu:be] - boy and gesund - healthy). High non-labial back vowels are very rare.
The vowels [o] (“o” closed) and [e] (“o” open) are presented in different versions in many languages (for example, the German Sohn-syin and Stock-stick). The vowel [e] corresponds to the non-labialized vowel [l] (cf. English dog - dog and sir [car] - cup).
Among low-rising back vowels, there is a labial vowel v of the very open "o" type (cf. English all [o: 1] - all) and a non-labial very back sound [a], found in French and English (cf. English bark - bark, part - part, etc.).
Examples of mixed vowels are the Russian high-rise sound [s] and the mid-rise vowel, typical, for example, for English: girl - girl, color [kl1e] - color,
The above facts convincingly show the diversity of the vowel system in different languages, its complexity.
Recently, the International Phonetic Association (IPA) has proposed a new classification of vowels, presented in the form of a trapezoid with 6 degrees of elevation for front and 5 for back vowels.
From an acoustic point of view, vowels differ in the degree of sonority (sonority) and the height of the resonant (and not the main, which can be the same in height for a number of vowels) tone. For the Russian language, these differences can be presented in the form of the following table.
Table 3
Acoustic signs of vowels
| Pitch | |||
| Degree of sonority | average | short | |
| tall | |||
| and | s | At | |
| Average. ....... | uh | a | about |
As you can see, the division according to the pitch coincides with the vowel series, and according to the degree of sonority - with the rise. But even here the most common types are indicated, between which there are many transitions. In some languages, for example, in Adyghe, differences in sonority of “vowels form the basis of their vocalism, that is, the vowel system (from Latin vocalis - voice).
Acoustically, vowels can also be clear (without nasal overtones) and nasalized (nasal), pronounced with the participation of the nasal cavity (see § 10).
Important from an acoustic point of view is the distinction of vowels by their duration (see § 9). In some languages, the longitude or brevity of a sound depends on a number of phonetic reasons: on the position in the syllable, the influence of neighboring sounds, stress, etc. In this case, longitude or brevity is not a constant feature inherent in these sounds, since the same sound it can be either long or short. Such a situation, for example, in the Russian language (cf .: mama! and ma: ma!). A different position in languages, where long and short vowels are opposed to each other, can be used to distinguish between words (cf .: English rich - rich and reach - reach, sit - sit and seat - place, etc.). In some languages, there are not two, but three degrees of opposition of vowels in duration. So, in Estonian, short vowels are distinguished (for example, sada - one hundred, puri - sail), long (cf.: saada - came, puuri - cells) and extra long (saada - get, puuri - in a cage).
The amount of a vowel is usually associated with some other of its features. For example, in German, long vowels are usually closed, while short vowels are usually open (see examples above).
The distinction in longitude in some languages, for example Estonian, may also be characteristic of consonants, which again shows the relativity of the opposition of vowels and consonants.
An essential additional sign of vowels is tension - non-tension. With tense muscles of the speech organs, the walls of the supraglottic cavities become hard, then the sounds acquire a clear, clear character. In the absence of such tension, vowels are more sluggish. The degree of tension of vowels in languages is different. In Russian, vowels are less tense than, for example, in French, whose vocalism is characterized by greater clarity. But even within the same language, the intensity of sounds is different. Stressed vowels in Russian are more tense than unstressed ones. There is also a difference in the pronunciation of high vowels, when the muscles of the speech organs are more tense, and in the middle and lower ones, when the tension is less, which leads to a weakening of clear acoustic signs in the vowel due to the damping of the resonator tones. High vowels are always more stable, while middle and low vowels are more easily weakened and reduced (see § 17).
Very important for the classification of vowels is their division into monophthongs and diphthongs.
Most of the sounds are monophthongs (from the Greek words monos - one, single and phtongos - sound), i.e. monotonous, integral in composition, but along with them there are sounds that are a combination of two sounds pronounced together and always in one syllable. Such sounds are called two-vowels, or diphthongs (from the Greek 1 di - twice). Diphthongs are known in many languages. The sound system of the English language is very rich in diphthongs, where there are diphthongs (time - time), - table), (e1] (boy - boy), (go - 1 go), (down - down), [Щ (here [Ye] - here) J [ee] (chair ftj "es] - chair), (poor [rie] - poor) J In English, diphthongs can, when combined with a neutral vowel, give even more complex combinations of the three main ones pronounced in one syllable , for example: our [aie] - ours, flower [Noie] - flower, fire - fire. There are three diphthongs in German: (ae] [ao], [o2)] (cf.: mein - my Mai - May, Haus - house, Auge - plaza, heute - today and deutsch - German) There are no diphthongs in Russian and French.
It is customary to call diphthongs true if both sounds are equivalent (for example, in Latvian: tauta - naroya rneita - daughter), and false if the sounds are unequal. These are the diphthongs in English and German (cf .: English boy - boys and down - down; German mein - mine, kaufen - buy AND Diphthongs, in which the second sound is syllabic, and p (N you are non-syllabic, are called ascending. Such diphthongs exists in Spanish (duelo-mourning, sadness; puerta-door, thieves cuarto - fourth), Romanian and other languages. In some languages, both types of diphthongs are possible. Thus, Lithuanian diphthongs can be pronounced with a descending intonation (kaimas - trees, kaina - price , sdule - sun, viidas - face, juodas - black) and ascending (vaikas - child, laukas - field, muilas - soap, ruduo - autumn, etc.).
Some researchers distinguish diphthongoids as a special category of vowels, that is, sounds similar to diphthongs. This is the name of sounds that are heterogeneous throughout their pronunciation. For example, Russian [o] begins with a small element [y], and then gradually moves to [o], the sound [e] sometimes begins with an element close to [\], etc.
Recently, the opposition of sounds on the basis of diffuseness-compactness has become relatively widely used. Sounds are called compact in whose spectra the distance between the first and second formants (see § 9) is insignificant, i.e., the amplification bands of frequencies characteristic of sounds are close together. Examples can be Russian vowels (a], [o]. With diffuse sounds, the distance between two bands of typical frequencies, i.e. two formants, is significant. Such are Russian vowels [i], (y). Acoustic differences between compact and diffuse sounds from are clearly visible on the spectrograms (cf. § 25) of these sounds (Fig. 9). The distinction between compact and diffuse sounds is associated with the different shape of the oral and pharyngeal resonators.
Rice. 9. Spectrograms of vowels [a] - the first and [i] - the second.
The division into compact and diffuse can also be extended to consonants (compact sounds are [w], [h '], [g], [p], [p '], [j], etc. Diffuse: [p ], [p'], [b], [c'], [f], [f'], [c], etc. Which again emphasizes the conventionality of opposing vowels and consonants. construction of a unified classification for vowels and consonants based on acoustic features was made by M. V. Panov.
§ fourteen. Phonetic articulation of speech
So far, individual sounds have been considered in their isolated pronunciation, but there is no such isolation in the speech stream and cannot be. As recent studies have shown, in the flow of speech there is a division not into individual sounds, but into syllables. A syllable can consist of one sound, but more often a syllable includes several sounds (cf. -su], (pa-stukh], [ka-n "u]). The fact that the syllable is the smallest pronunciation unit is recognized by everyone, but significant differences are observed when defining the syllable and establishing the principles for its selection. The old point of view on the syllable , as a sound combination pronounced with one expiratory push, has been refuted by the latest research 2; its inconsistency can be considered proven. Currently, two sub-< хода (к пониманию слога. Одни исследователи исходят из акустической природы слога, другие при определении слога] и его выделении опираются на особенности артикуляции J Первая точка зрения наиболее отчетливо была представлена в работах датского языковеда Есперсена, который считали что слог - это сочетание более звучного элемента с менее звучным. Более звучный элемент становится слоговым, он выступает как слогообразующий звук, менее звучный является неслоговым и примыкает к более звучному. Наиболее звучными оказываются гласные, поэтому они и выступаю! в роли слогообразующих звуков (ср.: кни-га, и-ди, ро-лш и т. п.), но если в слоге нет гласного, слогообразующим становится согласный, опять-таки самый звучный, например, в чешском языке <в односложных словах krb (очаг, каминЯ krk (шея), prst (палец) и т. п. слоговым будет согласный [■ в русских сочетаниях тс, тш (призыв к тишине) слоговые являются звуки fie] и [ш], которые все же более звучны, чЩ глухой смычный [т]. Граница слога при таком понимании проходит в месте наибольшего ослабления звучности, т, е. после гласного перед согласным (ср.: при-шли, па-стух и т. п.).
The acoustic approach to the syllable is also shared by many Soviet researchers. So, N. I. Zhinkin believes that “acoustically, a syllable is nothing more than a continuous increase and decrease in the intensity of sound perceived by the ear as an arc of loudness.”
Another approach to the syllable is presented in the works of L. V. Shcherba. L. V. Shcherba believes that the basis of syllable division is the increase and weakening of muscle tension. The integrity of the syllable is determined by the fact that it is pronounced by one impulse of muscular tension. The boundaries of the syllable coincide with the greatest weakening of muscular tension, i.e., this is the boundary between two impulses of muscular tension. Almost both approaches coincide, since the peak of muscle tension is usually associated with the most sonorous (sonorous) sound.
Syllables can have different structures. So, according to the arrangement of syllabic and non-syllabic sounds, it is customary to distinguish several types of syllables. A syllable is called uncovered if sh begins with a syllabic sound, and covered if it begins with a non-syllabic sound, for example, in the word o-sa, the first syllable o is uncovered, and the second - sa - is covered. A syllable ending with a syllabic sound is called open, and on a non-syllabic sound it is called closed, for example, in the word do-mov (the first syllable is open, and the second is closed.
If the syllabic sound is denoted by the letter a, and the non-syllabic letter /, then the following possible types of syllables can be schematically represented:
a - uncovered, open;
ta - covered, open;
at - uncovered, closed;
tat - covered, closed.
It should be noted that there can be several non-syllable elements. In the examples above (book-ha, i-di, pa-stukh, he, ro-li, Czech krk) there is an open, open syllable (and in i-di); covered open syllables (books, di in i-di, pa in pa-stukh, ro-li); naked closed (he); covered, closed (-stukh in past-stukh, Czech krk).
Each language has its own predominant type of syllables, which is associated with the peculiarities of syllable division in different languages. The Russian language is characterized by the predominance of open syllables. This is due to the fact that in Russian the syllable division (syllable boundary) usually passes after the sound with the greatest sonority. This feature of the structure of the Russian syllable is called the law of increasing sonority. Therefore, it is typical for the Russian language to divide into syllables by selection, viewing, to-chka, a-kter, and so on, and not by selection, viewing-motr, dot, actor. In Russian, the syllable boundary rarely passes between consonants. In modern French, on the contrary, the syllable boundary often passes between consonant combinations (cf .: ac-teur, dis-irait - scattered, absent - absent, ad-ver-saire - opponent, etc.).
Observing the sounding speech, we single out larger phonetic units in it - measures.
A group of syllables united by one stress and separated from another group by a pause is called a measure. Sometimes a measure can include only one syllable. Independent words usually have their own stress, functional words are often unstressed and adjoin the stressed ones, but sometimes the stress is transferred to the functional word, and the significant word turns out to be unstressed. If an unstressed word is one hundred before the stressed one, then it is called a proclitic, and if after the stressed word, then it is called an enclitic. For example, in the sentence Day for day does not fall, the first measure consists of one syllable, the second - of two, and the third - of five. In the second bar, the emphasis shifted to the preposition and the word day in hundred enclitic. In the sentence В sheaves / they will tie up / they will bring them to the rig, the preposition na is a proclitic.
As you can see, the boundaries of the word and measure may not coincide. Many researchers do not consider it necessary to distinguish a speech beat and talk about a phonetic word, s “big word” (A. N. Gvozdev), and the term “speech beat” itself is used with the meaning: “a segment of speech between two pauses”.
Not all linguists have accepted the concept of syntagma as a unit of phonetic articulation of speech, the most substantiated by L.V. Shcherba, who understood by syntagma an intonationally indivisible unit of speech flow (there cannot be pauses inside a syntagma), associated with the syntactic and semantic side of speech. For example, in the sentence In the middle of a dense forest /on a narrow lawn/ there was a small earthen fortification, 3 syntagmas stand out. Research on speech formation, conducted at the Institute of Physiology named after I.P. Pavlov, confirmed the legitimacy of isolating the syntagma as a special articulatory unit associated with the meaning and content of speech. The integrity of the syntagma is created by means of intonation (see § 15).
Some scientists put forward the concept of a phrase as the largest phonetic unit, representing a phonetically integral part of a sentence or covering several sentences. However, there is no generally accepted exact definition of the concept of a phonetic phrase in science.